Applied Electronics (Analog) chapter-1.pdf

Chapter 1:
Semiconductor Diodes

Diodes
Diodes
The diode is a 2-terminal device.
A diode ideally conducts in
only one direction.
Copyright ©2009 by Pearson Education, Inc.
Upper Saddle River, New Jersey 07458 • All rights reserved.
Electronic Devices and Circuit Theory, 10/e
Robert L. Boylestad and Louis Nashelsky
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2

Diode Characteristics
Diode Characteristics
Conduction Region
Conduction Region Non
Non-
-Conduction Region
Conduction Region
• The voltage across the diode is 0 V
• The current is infinite
• The forward resistance is defined as
RF = VF / IF
• The diode acts like a short
• All of the voltage is across the diode
• The current is 0 A
• The reverse resistance is defined as
RR = VR / IR
• The diode acts like open
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3

Semiconductor Materials
Semiconductor Materials
Materials commonly used in the development of
semiconductor devices:
•
• Silicon (Si)
Silicon (Si)
•
• Germanium (Ge)
Germanium (Ge)
•
• Gallium Arsenide (GaAs)
Gallium Arsenide (GaAs)
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4

Doping
Doping
The electrical characteristics of silicon and germanium are improved
by adding materials in a process called doping.
There are just two types of doped semiconductor materials:
n
n-
-type
type
p
p-
-type
type
p
p-
-type
type
• n-type materials contain an excess of conduction band electrons.
• p-type materials contain an excess of valence band holes.
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5

p
p-
-n
n Junctions
Junctions
One end of a silicon or germanium crystal can be doped as a p-
type material and the other end as an n-type material.
The result is a p
p-
-n
n junction
junction.
The result is a p
p-
-n
n junction
junction.
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6

p
p-
-n
n Junctions
Junctions
At the p-n junction, the excess
conduction-band electrons on the
n-type side are attracted to the
valence-band holes on the p-type
side.
The electrons in the n-type
material migrate across the
junction to the p-type material
junction to the p-type material
(electron flow).
The electron migration results in
a negative
negative charge on the p-type
side of the junction and a positive
positive
charge on the n-type side of the
junction.
The result is the formation of a
depletion region
depletion region around the
junction.
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Diode Operating Conditions
A diode has three operating conditions:
• No bias
• Forward bias
• Reverse bias
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• No external voltage is applied: VD = 0 V
• No current is flowing: ID = 0 A
• Only a modest depletion region exists
No Bias
No Bias
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External voltage is applied across the p-n junction in
the opposite polarity of the p- and n-type materials.
Reverse Bias
Reverse Bias
• The reverse voltage causes the
depletion region to widen.
• The electrons in the n-type material
are attracted toward the positive
terminal of the voltage source.
• The holes in the p-type material are
attracted toward the negative
terminal of the voltage source.
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Forward Bias
Forward Bias
External voltage is applied across the p-n junction in
the same polarity as the p- and n-type materials.
• The forward voltage causes the
• The forward voltage causes the
depletion region to narrow.
• The electrons and holes are pushed
toward the p-n junction.
• The electrons and holes have
sufficient energy to cross the p-n
junction.
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Actual Diode Characteristics
Actual Diode Characteristics
Note the regions for no
bias, reverse bias, and
forward bias conditions.
Carefully note the scale
Carefully note the scale
for each of these
conditions.
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Two currents through a diode:
Majority and Minority Carriers
Majority and Minority Carriers
Majority Carriers
Majority Carriers
• The majority carriers in n-type materials are electrons.
• The majority carriers in p-type materials are holes.
Minority Carriers
Minority Carriers
• The minority carriers in n-type materials are holes.
• The minority carriers in p-type materials are electrons.
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The Zener region is in the diode’s
reverse-bias region.
At some point the reverse bias voltage
is so large the diode breaks down and
the reverse current increases
dramatically.
Zener Region
Zener Region
• The maximum reverse voltage that won’t
• The maximum reverse voltage that won’t
take a diode into the zener region is
called the peak inverse voltage
peak inverse voltage or peak
peak
reverse voltage
reverse voltage.
• The voltage that causes a diode to enter
the zener region of operation is called the
zener voltage (V
zener voltage (VZ
Z)
).
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The point at which the diode changes from no-bias condition
to forward-bias condition occurs when the electrons and
holes are given sufficient energy to cross the p-n junction.
This energy comes from the external voltage applied across
the diode.
Forward Bias Voltage
Forward Bias Voltage
The forward bias voltage required for a:
The forward bias voltage required for a:
• gallium arsenide diode ≅
≅
≅
≅ 1.2 V
• silicon diode ≅
≅
≅
≅ 0.7 V
• germanium diode ≅
≅
≅
≅ 0.3 V
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As temperature increases it adds energy to the diode.
• It reduces the required forward bias voltage for forward-
bias conduction.
• It increases the amount of reverse current in the reverse-
bias condition.
Temperature Effects
Temperature Effects
• It increases maximum reverse bias avalanche voltage.
Germanium diodes are more sensitive to temperature
variations than silicon or gallium arsenide diodes.
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Semiconductors react differently to DC and AC currents.
There are three types of resistance:
• DC (static) resistance
• AC (dynamic) resistance
Resistance Levels
Resistance Levels
• AC (dynamic) resistance
• Average AC resistance
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DC (Static) Resistance
DC (Static) Resistance
For a specific applied DC voltage
VD, the diode has a specific
current ID, and a specific
resistance RD.
D
D
V
R =
D
D
I
R =
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• The resistance depends on the amount of current (ID) in the diode.
• The voltage across the diode is fairly constant (26 mV for 25°
°
°
°C).
• r ranges from a typical 0.1 Ω
Ω
Ω
Ω for high power devices to 2 Ω
Ω
Ω
Ω for low
AC (Dynamic) Resistance
AC (Dynamic) Resistance
B
D
d r
I
r +
=
′
mV
26
In the forward bias region:
• rB ranges from a typical 0.1 Ω
Ω
Ω
Ω for high power devices to 2 Ω
Ω
Ω
Ω for low
power, general purpose diodes. In some cases rB can be ignored.
∞
∞
∞
∞
=
=
=
=
′
′
′
′
rd
In the reverse bias region:
The resistance is effectively infinite. The diode acts like an open.
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AC resistance can be
calculated using the current
Average AC Resistance
Average AC Resistance
pt.
to
pt.
d
d
av
∆I
∆V
r =
calculated using the current
and voltage values for two
points on the diode
characteristic curve.
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Diode Equivalent Circuit
Diode Equivalent Circuit
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Diode Capacitance
Diode Capacitance
In reverse bias, the depletion layer is very large. The diode’s strong positive and
negative polarities create capacitance, CT. The amount of capacitance depends
on the reverse voltage applied.
In forward bias storage capacitance or diffusion capacitance (CD) exists as the
diode voltage increases.
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Reverse recovery time
Reverse recovery time is the time required for a diode to stop
conducting once it is switched from forward bias to reverse bias.
Reverse Recovery Time (t
Reverse Recovery Time (trr
rr)
)
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1. Forward Voltage (VF) at a specified current and temperature
2. Maximum forward current (IF) at a specified temperature
3. Reverse saturation current (IR) at a specified voltage and
temperature
Diode Specification Sheets
Diode Specification Sheets
Data about a diode is presented uniformly for many different diodes.
This makes cross-matching of diodes for replacement or design
easier.
temperature
4. Reverse voltage rating, PIV or PRV or V(BR), at a specified
temperature
5. Maximum power dissipation at a specified temperature
6. Capacitance levels
7. Reverse recovery time, trr
8. Operating temperature range
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Diode Symbol and Packaging
Diode Symbol and Packaging
The anode is abbreviated A
The cathode is abbreviated K
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Diode Testing
Diode Testing
Diode checker
Ohmmeter
Curve tracer
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Diode Checker
Diode Checker
• Gallium arsenide ≅
≅
≅
≅ 1.2 V
Many digital multimeters have a diode checking function.
The diode should be tested out of circuit.
A normal diode exhibits its forward voltage:
• Gallium arsenide ≅
≅
≅
≅ 1.2 V
• Silicon diode ≅
≅
≅
≅ 0.7 V
• Germanium diode ≅
≅
≅
≅ 0.3 V
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An ohmmeter set on a low Ohms scale can be used to test a
diode. The diode should be tested out of circuit.
Ohmmeter
Ohmmeter
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Curve Tracer
Curve Tracer
A curve tracer displays the characteristic curve of a diode in the
test circuit. This curve can be compared to the specifications of
the diode from a data sheet.
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Other Types of Diodes
Other Types of Diodes
Zener diode
Light-emitting diode
Diode arrays
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A Zener is a diode operated in reverse bias
at the Zener voltage (VZ).
Common Zener voltages are between 1.8 V
and 200 V
Zener Diode
Zener Diode
and 200 V
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Light
Light-
-Emitting Diode (LED)
Emitting Diode (LED)
An LED emits photons when it is forward biased.
These can be in the infrared or visible spectrum.
The forward bias voltage is usually in the range of 2 V to 3 V.
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Multiple diodes can be
packaged together in an
integrated circuit (IC).
Common Anode
Common Anode
Diode Arrays
Diode Arrays
Common Cathode
Common Cathode
A variety of combinations
exist.
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