Art and science of communication

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May 10, 2010

The Art and Science
of Communication
Tools for Effective Communication
in the Workplace
P.S. Perkins

©2008 by P.S. Perkins
Adapted by permission of John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
ISBN: 978-0-470-25759-4

Introduction
In the workplace, communication is both an art and a lessons can help build healthy relationships not only
science. Even after centuries of extensive study, many between coworkers, but also between entire cultures.
aspects of human communication remain mysterious.
The Communication Staircase
However, researchers have proven that relationships
between workers are the biggest determinant in a According to Perkins, effective communication can
company’s success or failure. Today’s business leaders take place on seven different levels. The seven types
have recognized the need for effective interpersonal of communication are like steps on a staircase; each
communication despite the growing use of technol- step is crucial to the next, and they must be taken one
ogy as a means of sending and receiving messages. at a time. The seven steps on the communication stair-
case, from lowest to highest, are:
P.S. Perkins’ The Art and Science of Communication
informs the reader of the seven types of communica- 1. Intrapersonal Communication
tion, beginning with the individual and ending on a 2. Nonverbal Communication
global scale. Perkins argues that effective communica-
3. Interpersonal Communication
tion relies on positive thoughts, motivating language,
and a willingness to listen for the needs and desires of 4. Small Group/Organizational Communication
others. In today’s high-conflict world, Perkins’ simple
5. Public Communication

Business Book Review® May 10, 2010 • Copyright © 2010 EBSCO Publishing Inc. • All Rights Reserved

The Art and Science of Communication P.S. Perkins

6. Mass Communication
7. Intercultural Communication
Key Concepts
Each type of communication occurs, often several
times, throughout the course of the day. In order to Those looking to improve their relationships in
communicate effectively, one must master the steps in the workplace should consider the following
order, beginning with intrapersonal communication. advice:

Intrapersonal Communication • Intrapersonal communication often suffers
due to poor self-image.
Intrapersonal communication is the communica-
tion one has with oneself, about oneself and others. • Nonverbal communication makes up 93
Intrapersonal communication occurs more frequently percent of all messages; this type of com-
than any other type of communication, making it munication includes one’s appearance,
one of the most important aspects of daily life. Most gestures, vocal qualities, and other nonver-
critical to intrapersonal communication is how one bal codes.
communicates with oneself, verbally and nonver-
• The key to effective communication is
bally. Self-sabotage is a common phenomenon both at
active listening; all parties must consider
home and in the workplace; people who fail to replace
the others’ needs and make room for their
negative thoughts with positive ones often have dif-
unique realities.
ficulty concentrating and communicating with others
throughout the day. • Leaders of small groups or organizations
should use language that is esteem-building
Self-image is a complex issue that can create a vari-
and intent-driven.
ety of problems at work. Western culture, especially
the media, has often created feelings of inadequacy • Anxiety is an unavoidable part of public
or alienation among Americans, which can hinder communication. With sufficient mental
productivity and professional success. Popular cul- preparation, excellent speakers can use ner-
ture also creates a needlessly competitive atmosphere vous energy to their advantage.
where workers are driven to compare themselves with • Mass communication can persuade people
everyone around them. Self-image and work image through facts and logic (logos), speaker
are directly related; workers are a reflection of their credibility (ethos), or emotional appeals
own thoughts about themselves, whether positive or (pathos).
negative. Workers must learn to define themselves, or
else risk someone else doing it for them. • Intercultural communication allows com-
panies to examine their place in the global
Good intrapersonal communication employs a process business environment.
called metacognition. Metacognition is an individual’s
ability to identify and evaluate his own thoughts. g g g g
It can be extremely helpful to count the number of
negative thoughts that occur over the course of a day; Information about this book and other business titles:
people who perform this exercise are often surprised www.wiley.com/business
by the frequency with which negative thoughts occur, Related summary in the BBR Library:
as well as the intensity of those thoughts. As a similar
Just Listen
exercise, Perkins suggests that workers write down
Discover the Secret to Getting Through to
all the words they use to describe themselves. From
Absolutely Anyone
there, workers should identify the words that are
By Mark Goulston
empowering or limiting, as well as those which the
worker has accepted or rejected. This can provide an
insight into one’s self-image, which can be improved
Business Book Review® May 10, 2010 • Copyright © 2010 EBSCO Publishing Inc. • All Rights Reserved Page 2


through self-monitoring and metacognition. 2. To control others’ impressions
Perkins offers several other strategies to improve one’s 3. To complement words
self-image and intrapersonal communication:
4. To contradict words
• Understand the role of thoughts in effective com-
5. To confirm the messages of others
munication.
6. To distinguish relationships between oneself and
• Realize that communication begins on the inside
others
and determines the outside.
7. To maintain a congruent understanding of the
• Use affirmations, meditation, or prayer as desired.
messages in a shared environment (such as the
Finally, Perkins suggests that workers replace non- workplace)
affirming thoughts with affirming thoughts and
statements. Instead of saying,
“I cannot stand my boss,” one We learn the nonverbal codes of society much in the same way
should try saying, “I would we learn language, as an integral part of our symbol system.
prefer a more understanding Just as with language, we do not always acquire the most effec-
boss, but I appreciate his vision.”
tive nonverbal habits.
Instead of focusing on negative
thoughts about appearance, one
Nonverbal communication is learned along with lan-
should work towards an improved appearance and
guage at an early age, and is made up of symbols that
feel confident and proud about the extra effort.
are often specific to a single culture or geographic
Nonverbal Communication region. Nonverbal communication can be divided
Nonverbal communication includes all of the mes- into four categories: visual, vocal, physical, and spa-
sages a person sends and receives without words, tial messages.
both on a conscious and unconscious level. Studies Appearance is one of the first nonverbal messages inter-
show that nonverbal communication accounts for preted by others. While physical beauty is a factor
nearly 93 percent of the messages others receive from in first impressions, other aspects of appearance are
us, and nonverbal communication plays a significant much more important. Workers should consider the
role in how an individual judges another’s trustwor- messages they are sending through their clothes and
thiness or believability. accessories, even including the types of colors they
Nonverbal communication is used to fulfill seven wear. Workers may choose to simply conform to stan-
functions: dards, or they may decide to stand out in one way or
another. No style of appearance is inherently good or
1. To substitute for words
bad, only appropriate or inappropriate.
Paralanguage is an important nonverbal message in
the workplace. Paralanguage is not what one says, but
About the Author rather how one says it. It includes vocal features such
as tone, pitch, emphasis, stress, inflection, volume,
P.S. Perkins is founder and CEO of the Human
pacing, accent, dialect, pauses, and many other vari-
Communication Institute, LLC, and a graduate
ables unique to a person. Notably, paralanguage can
of the communication schools of the University
be adjusted if desired. Workers who are self-conscious
of North Carolina at Chapel Hill and New York
about accents or bad speaking habits may choose to
University. She has been training, lecturing, and
take instruction in diction or accent reduction.
developing communications curricula for more
than 20 years. Kinesics includes subtle body movements which com-
plement or contradict a verbal message. This includes



posture, stance, eye contact, and facial movements 1. Sender or Encoder – The person that creates the
and reactions. Workers who display poor or defensive message for the intended receiver.
body language often deny themselves career oppor-
2. Message The information being sent from sender
–
tunities without even knowing it.
to receiver.
Chronemics is the study of time as a nonverbal system.
3. Channel – How the message travels from sender
Different cultures have different perceptions of time;
to receiver.
in the U.S., time is segmented according to activity.
Time can be used to indicate an individual’s level of 4. Environment – The context in which the com-
importance (e.g. those who arrive “fashionably late”). munication occurs, including time, place, and
Excessive time constraints and pressures can create circumstance.
stressful work environments that result in chronic 5. External/Internal Noise – Interference that is either
absenteeism. These types of problems can negatively part of the environment or inside the mind.
impact bottom-line costs for many companies.
6. Listener or Decoder – The person receiving the
Haptics is the nonverbal code of touching. In today’s message.
workplace, touching is generally discouraged, with
the exception of handshakes and pats on the back. 7. Feedback – Messages sent from listener back to
Sexual harassment and diversity issues have made sender that evaluate the original message.
workplace touching a complex subject. As a result, Feedback is the most overlooked factor in the inter-
companies should consider the gender and cultural personal communication process. Senders often fail to
makeup of their workers before asserting what actions look for the variety of messages being delivered ver-
are appropriate and inappropriate in the workplace. bally and nonverbally; this is a missed opportunity
to improve one’s communication
Create a better understanding between yourself and the people with the listener, and in general.
you interact with nonverbally every day. Use your nonverbal
An important technique is using
communication as a means of supplementing your verbal mes- supportive communication rather
sages so that they are congruent. than defensive communication.
Whereas defensive communica-
Finally, olfaction, or one’s sense of smell, can play an tion is blame-centered, competitive, and uses the
important role in the workplace. Americans have accusative “you,” supportive communication is prob-
become accustomed to very neutral-smelling work lem-centered, cooperative, and uses the descriptive
environments, which may come as a surprise to work- “I.” Supportive communication is open to differing
ers from other cultures. Cultural hygiene issues can perspectives, while defensive communication is self-
be difficult to approach for some managers, but one centered and closed-minded in nature.
should not ignore the role of smells in nonverbal com-
munication. Active listening is the most important part of any
interpersonal communication. Listening is an
Interpersonal Communication acquired skill that takes years of practice to master.
Interpersonal Communication can be defined as the Over the course of a day, people spend more time
exchange of messages between two people. In the listening than they do speaking, reading, or writing.
workplace people are often more concerned with the Americans live in a high-context society where people
number of connections they make, rather than the feel a consistent need to express their viewpoints. It
quality of those connections. Effective interpersonal is no wonder, then, that good listeners are rare and
communication is a two way-exchange that must valued members of society.
involve good intrapersonal and nonverbal communi-
Listening requires four human elements: mind, ears,
cation, as well as active listening.
eyes, and memory. However, not all listening requires
There are seven parts of every interpersonal exchange: each element to be used with the same intensity. Dif-


ferent types of communication require different types ing. More points of view create a greater need for
of listening, and it is up to the individual to decide problem-solving and conflict-management skills. The
what is appropriate in each situation. key to small group discussion is to acknowledge that
there is always more than one way to approach any
Perkins suggests several ways to become a better lis-
discussion.
tener:
In any company, successful small group communi-
• Refrain from interrupting
cation requires effective leadership. Leaders often
• Keep an open mind do not examine their own communication skills to
• Read ensure they are not damaging the workers they are
trying to lead. Different organizations require differ-
• Improve Vocabulary ent organizational styles; some workers need a more
• Listen for main ideas casual “guide,” while others require more formal,
even authoritarian-style leadership. The best way to
• Quiet internal and external noise find out which leadership style fits best is to solicit
• Be ready to listen feedback from employees.

• Withhold judgment and evaluation Leaders should use intent-driven and esteem-build-
ing language to drive success in a small group setting.
• Develop an interest in the topic
This type of language treats all members as equals,
• Ask questions offers consistent praise and direct, clear feedback, and
takes a proactive stance on conflict resolution.
As a final note about interper-
sonal communication, Perkins The need to make room for the other person’s reality is magni-
asks the reader to consider what
she calls the “Platinum Rule.”
fied within the small-group dynamic because most individuals
Whereas the well-known Golden have perceived and already solved the problem based on their
Rule says, “Do unto others as you personal reality and personal needs.
would have them do unto you,”
the Platinum Rule elevates the concept by suggest- Conflict is inevitable in any small group setting. With
ing, “Do unto others as they would have you do unto the right communication skills, however, conflict can
them.” The goal of listening is to determine the needs be turned into a useful tool that can enhance results.
and wants of others. This is the only way to maintain Perkins suggests a general process for group problem
any type of relationship, and is the key to the next solving, which requires only that members maintain a
type of communication: small-group and organiza- “team” attitude throughout the following steps:
tional communication.
1. Define the problem so that everyone is on the
Small Group/Organizational same page.
Communication 2. Understand the issues that make up the problem.
Small group communication is simply an extension
of interpersonal communication; by definition it 3. Review group and organizational resources
includes three or more people exchanging informa- needed to solve the problem.
tion and messages. In the workplace there is a certain 4. Set an agenda to gather information and resources.
balance between competition and cooperation. While
5. Apply a solution to remedy the problem.
some companies value one over the other, both must
be present in order to succeed. Small group com- As a general rule, workers should strive to be the
munication includes the same personal issues as team member they would want to work with. A great
interpersonal communication, such as insecurities, team member is dedicated to the goals of the group,
intrapersonal noise, prejudices, and difficulty listen- the ethical leadership of the group, the team’s daily



productivity, and the overall harmony of the group. a private or open forum; its purpose can be to inform,
Additionally, Perkins states that successful group persuade, or entertain. Today, technology makes it
interaction is a mix of seven elements: possible to speak publicly in a variety of mediums, not
just in front of a live audience. Fear of public speaking
1. Healthy personal outlooks
is a common phenomenon in many cultures. In the
2. Effective communication skills U.S., public speaking is the single most-feared activ-
3. Shared commitment to goals ity, even ranking above death. Many workers sit in the
back of boardrooms, meeting halls, or classrooms in
4. Teamwork ethics order to avoid being called upon to speak. In order to
5. Group-communication ability be an excellent presenter, one must:

6. Maintenance tasks • Be message-conscious rather than self-conscious.

7. Conflict management skills • Acquire active listening skills.

Every organization has both formal and informal • Understand the principles of scholarly research
communication networks that deliver messages to and the organization of ideas.
employees. Formal structures include company poli- • Acquire a knowledgeable vocabulary, supple-
cies, rules, tracking systems, evaluation processes, mented by a dictionary and thesaurus.
complaint processes, and all other formally man-
dated aspects of communication. Informal structures • Be aware of paralanguage and other nonverbal
include break room discussions, water cooler gossip, codes.
or simple small talk between employees. Most often, • Focus on the clarity of words.
informal communication networks are the primary
• Be comfortable with multicultural audiences.
source of information for employees.
• Enjoy the process of human
It takes time and commitment to effectively add to a team, but communication.
everyone can make a positive contribution. Make sure you It is important to recognize that
know what you bring to the group dynamic. You have the nervousness is a part of the public
power to advance the group’s mission. communication process. Profes-
sional presenters use this energy
Additionally, there are several “patterns” of com- to their advantage, similar to the way in which pro-
munication flow that can be used in an organization. fessional athletes rely on adrenaline to give them
The top-down pattern is the typical hierarchical pat- a competitive edge. The only way to control appre-
tern where messages flow from the board of directors hension or stage fright is effective preparation. This
down to managers down to low-level employees. The should include psychological preparation; an effective
forward pattern moves communication horizontally, technique is to envision oneself having a successful
along a designed, formal line of information sharing. but realistic speaking experience.
The circle pattern is more informal and allows more
Speakers should choose words that are appropri-
employees to participate in the communication, but
ate for the organizational setting. Perkins provides a
it is somewhat closed. The social pattern is completely
checklist to help speakers decide what type of words
open and informal and includes all employees and
to use in a presentation:
their superiors. Companies may decide to adopt one
or more of these communication styles according to • Use denotative (dictionary) meanings of words
the type of environment and discussions they wish to rather than connotative (slang) meanings.
foster. • Use words that are concrete rather than abstract.
Public Communication • Use words that translate easily to all listeners.
Public communication is the act of communicating in


• Keep words and phrasing simple. of media. This type of communication offers the
opportunity to enlist the minds of others to join one’s
• Use jargon sparingly, unless the audience is well-
cause.
informed on the topic.
Mass communication is usually persuasive in nature.
• Use multicultural references.
There are three possible goals of persuasion: 1) to
• Be gender-aware. encourage some kind of action, 2) to change a strong
There are four types of public speech: impromptu, attitude or belief, or 3) to reinforce a certain belief.
extemporaneous, manuscript, and memorized. Additionally, there are three ways to persuade the
Impromptu speech is essentially everyday discourse; public: 1) facts and reasoning, 2) speaker credibility,
it is unplanned and spur-of-the-moment. Extempora- or 3) appealing to emotions. Communicators may use
neous speaking is a popular presentation style; it is a a combination of these techniques to best get their
prepared speech which involves research and often message across.
uses note cards for organiza-
tion and main points. Manuscript Through the airwaves, billboards, newspapers, magazines, tab-
speech is when a presentation is loids, the Internet, and other forms of mass communication,
read word-for-word. Surpris-
we all consistently receive the world-view or perspective of the
ingly, this is the most difficult
type of speech and is usually
dominant culture.
reserved for professionals under
time constraints, or speakers who need to relay com- Facts and reasoning, also called logos, is most often
plex or technical information. Memorized speeches used in settings where evidence is required to prove
are short and reserved for special occasions such as and validate results, such as academic institutions.
award ceremonies, announcements, dinner speeches, Speaker credibility, or ethos, is most used on individu-
and other commemorative events. als who are easily influenced by what others think
One’s appearance is of utmost importance when and say. This style of persuasion includes celebrity
delivering a speech or presentation. Most presenters endorsements or other recognized spokespeople.
find it appropriate to dress up for speaking engage- Emotional appeal, or pathos, is used in industries
ments. Many speakers find that being well-dressed where consumers make impulsive decisions based on
increases confidence, making presentations easier. how they feel. Each person is more likely to be per-
Additionally, presenters should ensure that their ges- suaded by one tactic than another.
tures reflect a high level of comfort with the topic and Intercultural Communication
with the audience. Intercultural communication is communication
Understanding one’s audience is paramount to between individuals or groups from different cultural
success in public communication. Speakers must backgrounds. Also called cross-cultural communi-
consider an audience’s demographics, level of topic cation, it is the highest step of the communication
understanding, purpose for attending and listening, staircase. The word “culture” may encompass people
and receptivity to the speaker and topic. Speakers who share values, attitudes, beliefs, customs, or
will benefit from researching the audience in order to symbol systems that differentiate them from other
tailor the material to their wants and needs. groups. Cultures can include groups defined by reli-
gion, sex, gender, age, disability, ethnicity, and others.
Mass Communication Intercultural communication helps companies exam-
Mass communication is the message system that con- ine how they fit into the global community and the
nects members of a society or group to one another global business environment.
by means of public communication. Mass communi-
cation takes place through the airwaves, billboards, According to one researcher, American culture is
newspapers, magazines, the Internet, and other forms defined by seven values:



1. Individualism low-context category, possibly explaining the nation’s
emphasis on verbal communication.
2. Equality
In order to succeed, workers must become aware
3. Materialism
of their prejudices. While prejudices are personal
4. Science and Technology and private choices that every individual deserves
5. Progress and Change to make, they can be detrimental to one’s success if
taken to extremes. Stereotypes are generalizations
6. Work and Leisure based on prejudices, often formed without accurate
7. Competition evidence. “Isms,” such as racism or sexism, specifi-
cally refer to the actions that result from prejudices
Examining these values can help a person see the and stereotypes. Perkins asserts that people who dis-
differences between world cultures. The differences play extreme prejudice often show signs of extreme
between individualist cultures and collectivist cul- insecurity, low self-worth, or simple ignorance.
tures are especially noteworthy. The U.S. has often
been described as a hyper-individualistic culture, g g g g

where individual rights are highly valued and
fiercely defended. However, this extreme emphasis Features of the Book
on individualism often results in conflict avoidance
Reading Time: 3-4 hours, 198 pages
and passive-aggressive types of defense mechanisms.
P.S. Perkins’ The Art and Science of Communication
Another value dimension present in every culture is
is a comprehensive look at the various ways humans
power distance. Power distance is the degree to which
send and receive messages. The book is neatly divided
a culture accepts the stratification of individual power
into seven sections, one for each type of communica-
and placement. High power-distance cultures often
tion. While most of the book focuses on issues in the
use caste-type social structures, while low power-
workplace, much of the advice is suitable for devel-
distance cultures value equality among all people.
oping personal relationships and a positive outlook
While it is a point of contention, the United States
on life.
is regarded as a low power-distance culture, where
every citizen has an opportunity to ascend the social The book places heavy emphasis on diversity in the
ladder, at least in theory. workplace, and the importance of understanding the
differences between cultures. Each chapter concludes
Uncertainty avoidance is a value dimension which
with a “Q&A” section, which uses hypothetical situ-
identifies a culture’s tendency towards filtering out
ations to demonstrate the communication strategies
the unfamiliar. More homogenous societies are more
presented by the author. A quick and enjoyable read,
likely to have high uncertainty avoidance, making
The Art and Science of Communication is a simple,
them less accepting of diversity. By contrast, cultures
inspiring guide to building the healthy relationships
with low uncertainty avoidance always make room
required to achieve success.
for differences. The United States is considered to dis-
play low uncertainty avoidance; diversity is generally
accepted, especially in large communities.
Contents
One researcher asserts that cultures can be either high- Foreword
context or low-context. High-context cultures have long
Acknowledgements
histories and are mostly homogenous. These cultures
have huge amounts of information embedded in the Introduction
environment, often resulting in a decreased need for
1. Step One: Intrapersonal Communication
verbal communication. Low-context cultures, on the
other hand, are fairly new and have not established a 2. Step Two: Nonverbal Communication
large set of traditions. The United States falls into the


3. Step Three: Interpersonal Communication
4. Step Four: Small-Group/Organizational Communi-
cation
5. Step Five: Public Communication
6. Step Six: Mass Communication
7. Step Seven: Intercultural Communication
Epilogue: New Beginnings
Index



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