As practical-exam-notes

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GENERAL BREAKDOWN OF
MARKS
 Manipulation, Measurements and
Observation MMO (40% MARKS)
o Set up apparatus correctly
o Following instructions
o Collecting an appropriate
quantity of data (e.g no. of
titrations performed)
o Making the correct
measurements, precision etc
o Correct range of data (e.g. rate
of reaction, where mass or
quantity of substance is
changed)
o Suggesting further tests or
experiments
o Make the correct salt analysis
observations, and distinguish
subtle differences (e.g Mn+2
,
Mg+2
)
 Presentation of data and observations
(Tabulations etc) PDO (30% MARKS)
o Making appropriate tables
o Filling the table correctly
o Unambiguous column headings
that include units
o Consistency of precision and
readings
o When performing calculations,
show each step clearly and use
3 significant figures in
calculations.
o Figure out whether graphs
should be plotted using straight
lines or curved (free hand) lines.
o Quality of best fit lines on
graphs
 Analysis, Conclusions, Evaluations (ACE)
(30% MARKS)
o Describe patterns and trends
shown in graphs or tables
o Determining gradient of a
straight line on a graph
(IMPORTANT: SHOW A CLEAR
DESCRIPTION)
o Calculating uncertainty
o Understand differences
between systematic errors and
random errors. Identify these
sources of errors
o Explain and justify your salt
analysis conclusions.
o Suggest modifications to an
experiment.
Remember that almost 70% marks are for
writing the correct observations, taking the
correct readings and making the right tables.
Only, 30% marks are for calculations and
evaluations. 30% of the marks are free if you
make the right tables and graphs, 40% of the
marks can easily be obtained if you take the
correct readings and observations. Only, the
remaining 30% marks require some sort of
calculations.

TITRATION
 Precision of Burette: All burette
readings should be calculated to the
nearest 0.05 cm3
. Hence all burette
readings shown in the table should be 2
decimal places (1 mark).
 Rough titre can be included in the
titration table.
 Headings and Labels: Never use
ambiguous headings and labels.
 Readings in a single table: All readings
should be in a single organized table. 1
MARK would be deducted otherwise.
Titratio
n 1
Titratio
n 2
Titratio
n 3
Titratio
n 4
1st
/Initial
Burette
reading/
cm3
48.90 47.50 29.05
2nd/Fina
l Burette
reading/
cm3
24.80 23.90 25.05
Volume
of FA X
used/
cm3
24.10 23.60 24.00
TICK TICK
 Accuracy of Titration: Generally 6
marks are awarded if candidates titre is
within 0.1cm3
of examiners titre. 5/6
marks are awarded if it is between
0.1cm3
and 0.3cm3
, and so on.
 Selecting two best titres: Two best
titres should be within 0.1 cm3
of each
other (1 MARK). Candidates can cheat
her, but cheat intelligently, because
accuracy of your titration carries a lot of
marks. Don’t risk 6 marks of accuracy to
get this one mark.
 Number of Titration: Perform as many
titration as necessary to get two titres
within 0.1 cm3
. If the first two titrations
provide two readings within 0.1 cm3
then no more experiments should be
carried out, marks will be penalized if
more titrations are carried out after you
have obtained your two best titres.
 Placing TICKS: Always show which titres
have been used as the best titres by
placing a tick underneath them, this
carries 1 mark. You should always chose
two best titres that have a difference of
0.01 cm3
, this also carries 1 mark.
 Normal water and Distilled water: If
you are told to add distilled water, then
always use distilled water, never use
tap water otherwise your titration
results will be incorrect
TITRATION INVOLVING METHYL ORANGE
Weak Base and Strong Acid Titration
In Acid (PH<3.5)  Dark Orange/Red
In Base (PH>3.5)  Yellow/light orange
Metal Carbonates, although a salt, is weakly
basic and can be titrated against a strong
acid.

TITRATING TO DETERMINE PURITY OF
SUBSTANCE OR WATER OF
CRYSTALLIZATION.
DOUBLE TITRATIONS
MEASURING MASS
Using the Electronic Balance
 Tare button on electronic balance:
Press the “tare” button to make sure
that the initial reading is “0”.
 Keep the electronic balance clean:
Make sure that the electronic balance is
clean with no residues on it. Blow lightly
on top of the balance to remove any
residues. When you are adding
substance to empty weighing bottle,
then, never do it on top of the balance,
as some of it might fall onto the balance
and will affect your readings.
 Remember to take a calculator with you
when you want to add substance to
empty weighing bottle, this requires
rough calculations
 The precision of the electronic balance
is up to 2 decimal places e.g 12.01 g,
12.34 g etc.
 UNITS: Electronic balance measures in
grams, always write units ( “g”, “/g”, or
“grams”).
 All recordings should preferably be in a
single table. (1 MARK).
 Headings and Labels: Never use
ambiguous headings and labels. They
should be very clear.
Table for Recording Mass
Exp 1 Exp 2 Exp 3
Mass of
Empty
Weighing
Bottle /g
12.56g
Mass of
Empty
Weighing
Bottle + FA
X /g
18.40g
Mass of
Bottle +
Residual FA
X /g
13.00g
Mass of FA
X used /g
18.40g
–
13.00g
Measuring Temperature
 When measuring temperature, make
sure that the thermometer is not taken
out from the solution.
 Most thermometers have a graduation
of 1 c, and be careful because
thermometer graduations are
confusing, 10 C reading can be confused
with 1.0 C.
PRECISION OF INSTRUMENTS
 Calculating precision: Precision is half
the smallest graduation.
o Burette: 2 decimal places, and
error is ± 0.5
o Cylinders: Should be calculated
based on the smallest
graduation
o Thermometers: Most
thermometers have a smallest

graduation of 1 C, hence the
smallest reading possible is 0.5
C with an error of ± 0.5.
o Precision of instruments with
no graduation: Example pipette
or cylindrical flask have no
graduation and they are used to
measure precise volumes like
25.0 cm3
etc, hence their
precision is upto 1 decimal
place. There is no method for
calculating the error in these
instruments.
Calculations
 3 significant figures: Calculations
should be done 3 significant figures.
Remember that there’s a difference
between 3 significant figures and 4
significant figures. 22.1 is 3 significant
figures and 22.100 is 3 decimal places.
22.459 is 22.5 when read to 3
significant figures. (1 MARK)
 Calculations involving enthalpy:
Remember to put a (-) / (exothermic)
sign or (+) / (endothermic) sign when
calculating energy for reactions.
Errors
 Enthalpy Errors
o Heat loss to surrounding
o Thermometer does not have
good precision
 Enthalpy Error (improvements)
o Use a lid to stop heat loss
o Increased insulation, use a
calorimeter or vacuum flask
PLOTTING GRAPHS
 Labelling Axis: X-axis and Y-axis should
be labeled correctly, with appropriate
units. Example, Y-axis: temperature (C)
vs X-axis time (s). (1 mark)
 Scale for Graph: Appropriate scale
should be used. Each large square has
10 divisions. These 10 divisions can
represent 10 units, or 5 units, or 4 units
or 2 units, depending on how spread
out your graph is. Units should be
assigned properly, 10 divisions should
not be used to represent 3 units or 6
units or 7 units. (1 mark)
 Graph should cover more than half the
graph paper.
 Gradient: When Calculating gradient for
a line. Always remember to draw a
large triangle on the graph paper (1
mark). The following triangle should be
drawn next to the point where the
gradient has to be calculated.

Salt Analysis
 Writing Observations: Always write
observations by looking at observations
mentioned in the salt analysis data
sheet. Copy the observation which
matches closely with your observation.
There would be rare exceptions to this
scenario. Don’t be creative and never
try writing your own observations. (1
mark)
 Writing Reagents: When reagents are
asked, never write H+1
ions, instead a
proper bench reagent is required like
HCl (aq) or HNO3 (aq). If the reagent is
Cr2O7
-2
, then a proper bench reagent
like K2Cr2O7 or Na2Cr2O7 should be
mentioned. (1 mark)
 Tables: Tables for Salt Analysis should
be constructed keeping in mind that
separate columns are required for “1
cm3
of reagent X” and “reagent X is in
excess”.
 Distinguishing between Pb+2
/Al+3
o NaOH/NH3 reagents have
similar tests for Pb+2
/Al+3
o PbCl2, PbI2, PbSO4, PbCr2O7 or
PbCrO4 is insoluble. Use the
following reagents; HCl, KI,
K2CrO4, K2CrO7 or any reagent
that contains the ions
mentioned above. Always
mention actual bench reagents,
rather than ions when asked.
Also, take care about other
possible precipitates that might
confuse your results. For
example, BaCl2 (aq) contains Cl-1

and can be used to test for Pb+2
ions but the presence of Ba+2
ions makes precipitates of its
own, so always use reagents
which have Na+1
, K+1
, or H+1
ions
which always make soluble
compounds, reducing the
possibility of any other
precipitates, except for the
precipitates formed by Pb+2
.
 Distinguishing between Ba+2
/NH4
+1
o Both give no precipitate with
NaOH or NH3 except that NH3 is
produced on warming NH4
+1
with NaOH. Ba+2
can be
identified by H2SO4, it will give
white precipitate.
 Test for Manganese Mn+2
o Mn+2
tests with NH3/NaOH has
a white/pale/light brown ppt
which turns brown when in
contact with air and are
insoluble in excess. There
would be brown residues
floating on the top surface, and
on the sides of the test tube,
and white ppt/light brown ppt
at the bottom. Copy the
observation from the salt
analysis sheet.
 Tests for Cu+2
o With NaOH: pale blue ppt
insoluble in excess
o With NH3: Blue ppt which
dissolves and forms a dark blue
solution in excess. It will be
hard to dissolve the precipitate
if too much Cu+2
are present in
the test tube, so use very small
quantity of Cu+2
(less than 1
cm3
) or use a lot of NH3 (fill the
entire test tube) and shake
vigorously to dissolve this
precipitate.
 Problems with Al+3
ions test with
NaOH.
o The precipitate formed by Al+3
is very soluble and disappears
very quickly. Students can easily
make the mistake of not
noticing any precipitate. Use a
very tiny quantity of NaOH at
first, just a few drops, and a
small white ppt will form
floating on top, which would
dissolve very quickly if a very
small amount of NaOH is
added.
When to look for gases
 Presence of Gas: One way to check if a
gas is being liberated is by putting your
thumb on top of the test tube and
check if pressure builds up in the tube.
 If an ACID is used.
o CO2 might be given off if a
carbonate is present
o NO gas liberated by dilute acids,
if NO2
-1
is present, which turns
pale brown NO2 in air.
o SO2 gas is liberated by dilute
acids if sulfite SO3
-2
is present.
See problems with identifying
SO2 gas.
 NaOH is added followed by Aluminum
foil and heat.
o NH3 is liberated if NO3
-1
/ NO2
-1
is present.
 Problems when testing for NH3
o Always use damp red litmus
paper, by making the litmus
paper wet. And make sure that

the litmus paper never touches
the test tube, because the test
tube might contain an alkali
which will turn the litmus paper
blue. A lot of students make the
mistake of allowing the litmus
paper to touch the top of the
test tube, and in many cases an
alkali is present in the test tube
which makes the litmus paper
blue. So, keep the litmus paper
a fair distance (1 cm) away from
the test tube.
o Students should be able to
distinguish between a red
litmus paper from a blue litmus
paper. Red litmus paper is pale
pink, and blue litmus paper is
pale blue. Some students also
make the mistake of using the
cover paper of the litmus paper
stack which is also pink (Avoid
silly mistakes)
 Detection of Pale brown NO2: Pale
brown NO2 is very hard to distinguish
and is only produced if dilute acids are
added to NO2
-1
ions. Put your thumb on
top of the tube, and allow pressure to
build up. The tube will turn pale brown
and when you release your thumb and
allow gas to escape, then a pale brown
plume will release. This pale brown gas
is also very visible if seen in front of a
white back ground. The gas is especially
very visible when the reactants are
thrown in the white sink and you will
notice brown vapors in the sink easily.
 Problems when testing for SO2 gas; SO2
gas is colorless and acidic and is
produced when dilute acid is added to
sulfite SO3
-2
ions. If a damp blue litmus
paper is placed at the mouth of the
tube then it will turn red. Damp litmus
paper must not touch the test tube
itself as it might contain an acid. Note,
that damp blue litmus paper will turn
red when NO2 gas is produced but NO2
is pale brown and can be distinguished
from SO2.
o Another test for SO2 gas is that
it smells of rotten eggs or burnt
matches
o It can also be distinguished by
dipping a paper in K2Cr2O7 and
then placing it at the mouth of
the test tube. This paper will
turn from orange to green.
 Identification for H2 gas
o Metal + Acid  Salt + H2
o If you are adding metal, and a
gas is produced, then you don’t
necessarily need to test for
Hydrogen gas, if you see
effervescence, then it is
obviously hydrogen.
o Hydrogen gas produces pop
sound when burnt with a
lighted splint. The only way it
produces a pop sound when
enough pressure is built up in
the test tube. Put your thumb
on top of the test tube and
allow pressure to build up and
only then light it.
 Testing for CO2 gas.
o Effervescence is produced,
similar to gas bubbles in coke
o Generally produced when metal
carbonates react with acids

Chromate VI (CrO4-2) and
DiChromate VI (Cr2O7-2)
 K2CrO4 is yellow in color, K2Cr2O7 is
orange in color. Both of them turn
green when Cr+6
is reduced to Cr+3
.
 The speed with which they get reduced
or oxidized depends on the reducing
agent used. In most cases, Chromate
and DiChromate will change color
rapidly.
 But, if Aldehydes or Alcohols are mixed
with these then the color change will be
very gradual and in many cases won’t
even be visible. The color change occurs
rapidly if the mixture is slightly heated,
but remember, too much heat will
evaporate alcohol/aldehyde and its
concentration will decrease. As a
precaution when testing for both these
substances, use a small amount of
Chromate/Dichromate, because if it is
used in excess then some
Chromate/Dichromate will be left which
would still be orange and the color
change will not be that visible.
Organic Chemistry
 Testing for Carbonyl compounds,
ketones and aldehydes
o Tollens Reagent: Tollens
reagent is made by mixing
AgNO3 and NH3. It gives a black
precipitate with Aldehyde
which has a silvery mirror
floating on top. The observation
should be that silver mirror is
obtained with Tollens Reagent.
Most of the time this silver
mirror will not be visible, so
black precipitate is enough to
test for the presence of
aldehyde.
o Fehling Solution: Fehling
solution also tests for the
presence of Aldehyde.
Aldehyde is added to Fehling
Solution and heated lightly. A
red/brown precipitate is
obtained
o 2,4 DNPH: This is an orange
colored solution, which has a
strong acid in it. Be careful
when using this. 2,4 DNPH has
forms a yellow or orange
precipitate with carbonyl
compounds (both ketones and
aldehydes). Remember that
anything when it is added to 2,4
DNPH will turn yellow because
it has a yellow color. So you
should be looking for yellow
precipitates and ignore the
color of the solution.
 Potassium Di Chromate will turn from
orange to green with alcohols and
aldehydes but the mixture has to be
gently heated otherwise the color
change wouldn’t be visible. If it is
strongly heated then aldehyde and
alcohols will evaporate. You should also
not add Potassium di chromate in
excess, as a lot of it will not get reduced
and you will get a mixture of green and
orange which would be very hard to
distinguish.
Heat/Enthalpy Experiments
 In Enthalpy experiments, you will
sometimes be asked to add a solid (e.g.
Na2CO3) into a solution (e.g. HCl). If the
reaction is highly exothermic, and
effervescence is given off then there are

chances of spilling the solution. To
prevent that, always add the solid a
little at a time and not all of it together.
 Never take the thermometer out of the
Styrofoam cup during the experiment
and stir vigorously to record the highest
possible temperature reading.
 Errors
o Due to thermometer
graduation,
precision/graduation should be
increased
o Due to heat loss, can be
prevented by using insulation
around the cup or by putting a
lid and reducing heat loss to the
surrounding.
Water of Crystallization
When calculating water of crystallization, you
would be asked to heat a hydrous salt and until
all the water evaporates and then calculate the
mass of water that has evaporated.
 Preventing Decomposition of Salt:
When heating salt in a boiling tube,
heat it gently, otherwise salt would
decompose and vapors of other gasses
will escape. Repeated heating and
cooling would ensure that all the water
has escaped.
 When to stop: After repeated heating,
cooling and then reweighing, once the
mass of salt becomes constant (heating
to constant mass), then stop as no more
water is left in the salt.
Rate of Change
ON EXAM DAY
 Divide your time carefully. If there are
two questions then don’t think that 1
hour should be given to two questions.
Try and see the divisions of marks. If the
first question is of 25 marks and the
second question is of 15 marks then the
first question should be given 1 hour 15
minutes and the second question
should be given 45 minutes.
 Don’t waste time, try and do multiple
things at the same time. If you are
heating something or doing something
which is taking a long time then you can
try and do salt analysis observations.
(Be careful with multi-tasking, not
everyone is good at it).
 Manage your time well. You don’t need
to do 3 titrations if you are running out
of time. One titration would be enough
and you can make up two readings.
 Heating should be done carefully at low
flame. If you think that the hot
apparatus is manageable then try and
hold it with your bare hands, as tongs
can be cumbersome.


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