AT THEINTERSECTIONof Active Transportationa.docx

AT THE
INTERSECTION
of Active Transportation
and Equity
Joining Forces
to Make
Communities
Healthier
and Fairer
Acknowledgements
A u t h o r s :
Sara Zimmerman,
Michelle Lieberman,
Karen Kramer,
and Bill Sadler.
C o n t r i b u t o r :
Keith Benjamin

We would like to thank the many people
who assisted in the development of this
resource. In particular, we would like to
acknowledge the invaluable contributions
of the members of the Safe Routes to
School National Partnership’s National
Active Transportation Diversity Task Force.
We appreciate the new ideas, contrasting
perspectives, examples, and technical
information provided through discussion
and feedback.
This publication was made possible
through a contract between the American
Public Health Association and the Safe
Routes to School National Partnership,
funded through cooperative agreement
1U38OT000131 between the Centers for
Disease Control and Prevention and the
American Public Health Association. The
contents of this publication are solely the
responsibility of the authors and do not
necessarily represent the official views
of the Centers for Disease Control and
Prevention or the American Public Health
Association.
The Safe Routes to School National
Partnership is a national nonprofit with
a mission to advance safe walking and
bicycling to and from schools, and in
daily life, to improve the health and
well-being of America’s children, and to
foster the creation of livable, sustainable
communities. Begun in 2005, the National
Partnership works not only on Safe

Routes to School, but also more broadly
to support local efforts to create healthy,
equitable communities. A core area of
work for the National Partnership is
support for health equity for low-income
communities and communities of color,
identifying and overcoming the barriers to
active transportation and physical activity
that reduce health for many communities.
1
introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . page 2
Forging Commitment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . page 3
What is in this report? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . page 4
section i
Why Does Walking and bicycling Matter for Equity Advocates?
. . . . . . . . . . page 6
Who Walks and Bicycles? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . page 7
Damaging Effects of Limitations on Mobility . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . page 8
Importance of Active Transportation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . page 10
section ii
transportation inequities in America . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . . . . page 13
Higher Rates of Injuries and Fatalities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . page 14
Disparities in the Physical Environment for
Walking and Bicycling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . page 15
Disparate Experiences Discourage Walking and Bicycling . . . .
. . . . . . . . . page 17
section iii
state of the Movements: Active transportation and Equity . . . . .
. . . . . . . . page 21
section iV
transportation Planning, Policies, and investments:
how We Got here and how to Get Where We Want to Go . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . page 24
Federal and State Transportation Investments . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . page 25
Regional Transportation Planning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . page 27
City and County Policy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . page 28
section V
state of the Country:
Working toward transportation Equity and Justice. . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . page 35
Gentrification and Active Transportation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . page 35
Equity on the Route to School . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . . page 37
Community Organizing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . page 40
Bike Ownership and Repair Programs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . page 42
Changing the Culture of Recreational Bicycling. . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . page 44
Addressing Crime, Fear of Crime, and Racial Profiling . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . page 45
Bike Share Programs. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . page 47
Key Role for Public Transit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . page 48
Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . page 50
TABLE OF CONTENTS
2
But our society suffers from considerable inequity,
and transportation is no exception. Low-income
people and people of color in the United States
face transportation hurdles that can mean that just
accessing basic needs is time consuming, dangerous,
and sometimes almost impossible. Instead of travel
time allowing people to safely and conveniently get

the physical activity they need while accomplishing
daily objectives, travel is instead a source of stress
that undermines health. Without safe and convenient
transportation, low-income families can remain
trapped in poverty, unable to access the employment
and educational opportunities necessary to succeed.
Healthy food, safe playgrounds, high-quality schools,
health care, and other services – our transportation
system allows some to access these with ease, but
creates significant impediments for others.
INTRODUCTION
Transportation is the linchpin that allows us to function in our
daily lives. Whether we move by foot,
bicycle, car, bus, skateboard, or wheelchair, we all need to
travel to meet everyday needs. We use
transportation to buy food, find housing, get to school and
work, access recreational opportunities,
visit friends and family, and obtain health care and government
services – as well as get to literally
everything else we do outside our homes.
3
equitable. That means a transportation
system that works to get all of us to where
we need to go, while also supporting

healthy local communities. Initiatives like
the U.S. Department of Transportation’s
Ladders of Opportunity pilot are looking
to restore connectivity, develop workforce
capacity, and support neighborhood
revitalization. Local community groups
and nonprofits are working to overcome
the policy and infrastructure disparities
that can make active transportation –
another name for getting around on foot,
bicycle, skateboard, or wheelchair – safer
and more convenient for some than for
others. Our transportation system can be
one that supports our local economies,
prioritizes our local streets as a community
resource, lets children breathe clean air,
and allows neighbors to meet and chat
without the menace of nearby high speed
traffic – but we will need to work together
to achieve that vision.
Forging Commitment
For too long, many active transportation
organizations have been largely white,
and have primarily focused on improving
walking and bicycling in middle-
and upper-income neighborhoods.
Meanwhile, organizations that focus on
equity and social justice have worked
on many pressing issues facing low-
income communities, but their work on
walking and bicycling safety has been
sporadic and without a national strategy
or coordination. But that is all changing.
The relevance of transportation equity
to the lives of low-income people has

become increasingly clear, as low levels
of physical activity have contributed to
rising obesity and diabetes rates, combined
with the mounting toll of injuries and
fatalities to people walking and bicycling
without other options than traveling
unsafe streets. At the same time, as our
country becomes more diverse, active
transportation organizations are increasing
in staff diversity and in their commitment
to working across lines – whether
community or neighborhood boundaries,
or lines of racial, ethnic, class, ability, and
sexual orientation. The challenges are real.
It can be difficult to work in new areas,
with new partners, and outside of comfort
zones. But the payoffs are real too – new
partners, greater effectiveness, and safer
and healthier communities. More than
anything, the greatest payoff is work that
is more true to the larger vision of the
active transportation and social equity
movements: the vision of communities
that are filled with the diverse people who
make up America – immigrants, families,
older people, kids, people of different
abilities, people of different races, classes,
and nationalities – who are healthy, active,
engaged, vigorous, and working together.
What do we mean
by equity?
Equity addresses the effects of
power imbalances and the social,

economic, and political differences
that generate disparate outcomes
for people in arenas like health,
education, and employment. Equity
recognizes that different people
have different barriers to living
healthy, fulfilled lives. In order to
allow people to get to the same
outcome, we need to understand the
different barriers and opportunities
that affect different groups, and
craft our approaches, policies,
and programs with those various
challenges and needs in mind.
The key area of focus for this report
will be equity as it relates to race,
culture, ethnicity, and income. There
are many other aspects of equity,

such as gender, gender identity,
sexual identity, disability, class,
immigration status, religion, age,
homelessness, and more – we will
touch on many of these, but will
not focus in on them. There are
other aspects of equity as well –
regional equity, rural, suburban, and
urban equity, and more. These also
deserve scrutiny and exploration,
but in this report they will be
discussed only in passing.
This situation is nothing new.
Transportation has long been a civil
rights issue in America. Segregation was
commonplace on buses and other public
transportation until the 1960s. During
that time period, heavy federal investment
in the interstate highway system led to
the demolition of many low-income
neighborhoods and neighborhoods of
color, while facilitating white flight to
the suburbs, with the effect of increasing

residential segregation and disparate access
to transportation by race and class. The
persistent scars of urban renewal have
left highways slicing through many urban
neighborhoods, making it impossible
to walk or bicycle to many nearby
destinations. Differential investments have
left some communities with rundown
roads without sidewalks, while others
have the latest multimodal infrastructure.
The operation and construction of
our transportation network reflects
longstanding racial and class tensions, and
the effect has been to privilege access for
some over access for others. While civil
rights laws now require transportation
departments, transit agencies, and other
service providers to consider civil rights
and social equity when making decisions,
these laws only go so far in addressing
underlying issues. Segregation by
transportation remains commonplace in
many communities, especially in low-
income communities and communities of
color where people are more dependent
upon transit, bicycles, and their own feet
to get around.
What to do? As our country’s
demographics change and we experience
new challenges to creating strong and
healthy communities, we urgently need
to create a transportation system that is
“Transportation justice is the
concept that transportation

infrastructure should aim
to equally and equitably
address the needs of all
people, regardless of
economic class, race, sex,
age, ability or any other
kind of social distinguisher.”
From Beyond the Backlash:
Equity and Participation in Bicycle Planning1
4
The report begins in s E C t i o n i with a discussion
of why walking and bicycling matter for equity.
While noting that some people think of walking
and bicycling as a middle-class concern, this section
makes the case that safe and convenient walking and
bicycling are of profound importance for low-income
communities and communities of color. Low-income
Americans currently walk and bicycle more than
upper-income Americans, and the fastest growth in
bicycling is occurring among people of color. Limited
transportation options for low-income individuals and
families lead to restricted employment possibilities,
missed doctors’ appointments, low school attendance,
and many other deleterious effects, and safe and
convenient walking and bicycling are a significant
piece of overcoming these challenges. In addition,
there are many benefits of active transportation,
particularly for health and air quality in low-income
communities and communities of color.
What Is

IN THIS REPORT?
This report explores the complexities of equitable
active transportation and the issues that arise
at the junction of efforts to advance walking and
bicycling and work to increase health, fairness,
and opportunity for low-income communities
and communities of color. The report sets out
why equity and active transportation matter,
addresses tensions that may arise when the active
transportation and equity movements intersect,
describes opportunities for increasing equity in the
field of active transportation, and explores some
of the programs and initiatives that are doing this
crucial work.
pedbikeimages.org/Mike Cynecki
5
s E C t i o n i i delves into the statistics and realities
regarding transportation inequities, setting out the

real-life consequences of our unsafe streets and
dysfunctional systems. The section describes the higher
rates of traffic-related injuries and fatalities experienced
by low-income communities and communities of color.
This section goes on to look at the disparities in the
physical environment for walking and bicycling in
such communities, and explores the range of factors
that can create negative experiences for people of color
and low-income people while walking and bicycling –
higher crime rates in many low-income neighborhoods,
racial profiling by police, slurs and harassment, and
discriminatory treatment by drivers.
In s E C t i o n i i i , we explore how the active
transportation movement is working to increase its
understanding of equity. We also look at the role of
the equity movement, as well as the transit-focused
transportation equity movement, and the increasing
recognition of the relevance of active transportation to
their efforts. This section notes the positive momentum
of increasing collaboration, as well as the considerable
need for additional partnership and learning.
We then turn to a wide range of policies and initiatives
where equity and active transportation intersect.
In s E C t i o n i V , we explore the governmental
structures that currently determine our transportation
infrastructure and note the structural challenges
that can make it difficult to advocate for equity or
active transportation, not to mention equitable active
transportation. In s E C t i o n V , we survey the many
issues where equity and active transportation intersect
in our local communities. We begin by wrestling with
the real and recurring challenges of gentrification and
displacement. We then explore diverse and varied
initiatives on the ground that are focused on addressing

different aspects of transportation inequity, looking at
youth bicycle programs, equitable bike share programs,
Safe Routes to School work, community organizing
initiatives, police profiling, and more.
The report closes by summarizing some of the lessons
that emerge from this survey of work across the United
States. Around the country people are working in many
different ways to create communities where health,
equity, and active transportation options come together.
We salute the work that has improved the health and
safety of low-income neighborhoods and communities
of color across the country, and look forward to seeing
these efforts blossom further in years to come.
pedbikeimages.org/Mike Cynecki
6
Why Does
WALkINg AND BICyCLINg
Matter for Equity Advocates?
Active transportation is sometimes described as a
“white thing.” People may characterize advocacy
around walking and bicycling infrastructure as a
manifestation of privilege, describe bicycle lanes as
“white stripes of gentrification,” or portray walking
and bicycling issues as a distraction from – or,
worse, competition for resources for – the real issues
affecting people’s lives.2,3
Such concerns arise from complex cultural, historical,

and political currents. The goals, experiences, beliefs,
and competing preferences and priorities that they
express are worthy of discussion and engagement.
But, notwithstanding the importance of those points,
the reality is that walking and bicycling – and the
policies that make these forms of transportation
easier or harder – have a huge impact on the lives of
low-income people and people of color.
Low-income people and people of color currently
walk and bicycle at rates that are similar to or higher
than the rest of the population, and those rates are
growing more rapidly.4,5 The obstacles encountered
in our car-centric society for those who do not have
consistent access to a car affect these populations
more profoundly, limiting access to daily needs and
to upward mobility. And the health and community
benefits of active transportation have the potential
to significantly address some of the disparities
that are deeply detrimental for many low-income
sECtion i
Mike MacKool
“Walking and
bicycling have a huge
impact on the lives
of low-income people
and people of color.”
7

African Americans, are more likely to bike
or walk to school than whites or higher-
income students.9
Overall bicycling rates are low in the
United States, but they are on the rise, with
a doubling in the number of commuters
bicycling between 2000 and 2009.10
Looking at commute trips, Latinos and
Native Americans have a slightly higher
rate of bicycling than whites, while rates
are a little lower for African Americans.11
However, growth in bicycle ridership is
occurring most rapidly among African
Americans and Asian Americans, with
Latinos and whites following.12 Between
2001 and 2009, bicycle trips by Latinos,
African Americans, and Asian Americans
grew from 16 to 23 percent of all bike trips
in the United States.13 Perhaps it should
come as no surprise, then, that polls show
Low income Americans have
the highest rates of walking and
bicycling to work, and bicycling is
growing most rapidly among people
of color. Most transit riders are
low to moderate income, and more
than 60 percent walk to or from

transit. The safety and convenience
of walking and bicycling is vitally
important for low-income people
and people of color.
that people of color have a more positive
view of bicyclists than whites.14
The data that we have on bicycling trips
is limited, but seem to show that the
type of bicycling trip that occurs for
different racial and income groups may
vary, with the consequence that the data
commonly collected on employment-
related commute trips may miss many
people of color.15 Since commutes only
account for 20 percent of trips, commute
data offers a limited understanding of the
travel choices of any demographic group.16
Additionally, state and local data may vary
– for example, in California, data suggest
that recent immigrants, Latinos, and whites
have the highest bicycling rates.17 A survey
in San Francisco found that although only
12 percent of low-income women owned
cars, 34 percent owned bicycles.18
Another very significant aspect of
understanding the role of walking and
bicycling for transportation is the fact that
these modes, particularly walking, are
very common as one leg of a trip that also

includes other forms of transportation.
Whether people are parking cars and
then walking down the street, or taking a
bicycle to the train station, many trips
include walking or bicycling that is not
counted for data reporting purposes.
When it comes to active transportation
and equity, we particularly need to
understand how walking and bicycling
Who Walks and bicycles?
In understanding why walking and
bicycling matter for achieving health
equity and equity of opportunity, the first
thing to know is that low-income people
and people of color currently engage in
significant levels of walking and bicycling.
Low-income people have the highest rates
of walking and bicycling to work.6 The
very highest rates of walking and bicycling
to work are seen among those who make
under $10,000 per year, though rates
remain high for those making under
$25,000 per year. For walking to work,
people of mixed race and Asian Americans
show the highest rates, Latinos show
moderately high rates, and whites and
African Americans show the lowest rates.7,8
Children from low-income households and
children of color, particularly Latinos and
Less than $10,000
$10,000 - $14,999
$15,000 - $24,999
$25,000 - $34,999
$35,000 - $49,999

$50,000 - $74,999
$75,000 - $99,999
$100,000 - $149,999
$150,000 - $199,999
$200,000+
walk
bicycle
Walking & Bicycling to Work
by Household Income
Source: U.S. Census Bureau, American Community Survey
2008-2012
H
O
U
S
E
H
O
L
D
I
N
C

O
M
E
0% 2% 4% 6% 8% 10%
P E R C E N T A G E O F P O P U L A T I O N
Section I: Why Does Walking and Bicycling Matter for Equity
Advocates?
Walking & bicycling to Work
by household income 2008-2012
U.S. Census Bureau, American Community Survey
National Household Travel Survey
African American
Asian American
Latino
White
100%
80%
50%
22%

Growth in
Number of
Bicycling Trips
by Race
2001-2009
Growth in
number of
bicycling trips
by race
2001-2009
8
Damaging Effects of
Limitations on Mobility
Walking and bicycling matter for equity
because they are modes that low-income
people and people of color actually use.
But they also matter because these same
groups of people are often more dependent
on these modes. Low-income individuals
generally have more limited ability to own,
fuel, maintain, or access a personal vehicle
– and the consequences are striking.
Despite increases in rates of active
transportation, the car is still the primary
form of transportation in our society. From
the sprawling, low-density design of many

communities to decisions about resource
allocation and public infrastructure,
policymakers often seem to assume that
everyone has a car. But in reality, there are
more than 10 million households – just
under 10 percent – without access to an
automobile.25 The percentage is higher
among Latinos, African Americans, and
Asian Americans, with 20 percent of
African Americans, 13 percent of Latinos,
and 12 percent of Asian Americans
lacking access to a car.26 Although lack
of car ownership is far more frequent
for low-income Americans, there are
racial disparities among this population
too; more than a quarter of low-income
intersect with public transportation use.
As a whole, a high percentage of public
transportation users are low to moderate
income, with two-thirds of riders having
household incomes of less than $50,000
per year, and 20 percent of riders having
a household income of less than $15,000
per year.19,20 While the largest group of
public transportation users are white, at
41 percent, African Americans make up
33 percent of public transit riders.21 Asian
Americans and Latinos appear to use
transit in numbers that are closer to their
proportion of the national population.22
Walking is the primary way that people
get to and from their transit stops, with 60
percent of riders walking from their origin
to their transit vehicle, and 64 percent

walking to their destination once they get
off transit.23 Just under half of transit users
have a car available when making a transit
trip (45%); but more than two-thirds
of transit riders’ households own a car,
leaving around 30 percent that do not.24
The upshot? Walking and bicycling are
important transportation modes for low-
income children and adults, as well as
children and adults of color. These groups
already use these modes for a meaningful
number of trips, and the rates of use
appear to be growing more rapidly than for
white or upper-income Americans.
Latinos and a third of low-income African
Americans lack access to a car, compared
with 12 percent of low-income whites.27
Age is also a factor, with children unable
to drive and 20 percent of older adults not
owning cars.28 Without cars, many people
rely on walking, bicycling, and transit to
get to jobs, schools, the doctor, the grocery
store, and other essential destinations – or
forgo these basic necessities.
How does this affect people’s lives?
Lack of transportation options lead to
3.2 million American children per year
Access to Automobiles:
All Americans by Race
0%

50%
100%
4.6% 13.7% 19
%
African AmericanLatinoWhite
P
O
P
U
L
A
T
IO
N
95.4% 96.3% 81%
Source: PolicyLink, Convergence Partnership and Prevention
Institute, 2009.
accessno access
Low-Income Americans by Race
88.9% 75% 67%
12.1%

25% 33
%
0%
50%
100%
African AmericanLatinoWhite
P
O
P
U
L
A
T
IO
N
Source: PolicyLink, Convergence Partnership and Prevention
Institute, 2009.
accessno access
Advocates?
All Americans by race

Low-income Americans by race
PolicyLink, Convergence Parntership and Prevention Institute,
2009
“Nationally, the United States
remains a country where many
forms of transportation are
effectively still segregated—
whites and minorities
ride different kinds of
transportation, resulting in an
unequal ability to reach jobs,
education, and a better life.”
Corinne Ramey
“America’s Unfair Rules of the Road”35
9
What is transit and why are
we talking about it?
This report uses “transit” to
describe forms of shared
transportation available for use by
the general public, including buses,
subways, light rail and commuter

trains. Transit is often referred to as
“public transit,” “mass transit,” or
“public transportation.” While most
of this report is focused on the state
of equity and active transportation,
transit is integral to supporting
walking and bicycling, and plays
a key role in creating healthy and
equitable communities. For trips too
far to walk or bicycle alone, the bus
or train is the most viable option to
getting from place to place without
a car. And trips using transit have
an inherent active transportation
component—people walk or bicycle
to and from the transit stop.
missing a scheduled health care visit or
not making an appointment at all.29 In
Massachusetts, nearly half of Latinos across
the state routinely prioritize paying for

transportation over basic necessities.30
In Boston, African Americans spend
an average of 66 more hours a year
commuting by bus – waiting, riding, and
transferring – compared to white bus
riders.31 Nearly 30 million people in the
United States live in low-income areas
where the nearest supermarket is more
than a mile away – a long distance to carry
groceries without a car.32 Nationally, low-
income neighborhoods and neighborhoods
of color are fifty percent less likely to
have even one recreational facility in their
community than white and high-income
neighborhoods.33 Children of color living in
poverty with no access to a car suffer from
the worst access to parks and to schools
playing fields in Los Angeles County.34
But the effects may be most marked in
the realm of employment. Employment
is crucial to economic stability and class
mobility, as well as health and well-being.36
The ability to get to work affects decisions
about where you work and live, what kind
of job you can take, how much money you
make, how much of your day is spent on
your commute, and how much money you
spend on transportation versus other needs
like housing, educational opportunities,
health care, food, and so on. New analyses
show that commute time is the single
strongest factor in the odds of escaping
poverty.37

Approximately 15 percent of people
without access to an automobile walk
to work, compared to four percent for
those with access to a car.38 Around three
percent of people without access to a car
bicycle to work, compared with less than
half a percent of people with access to a
car. People with lower incomes also report
walking and bicycling to work more.
Among those making less than $10,000
per year, almost eight percent walk to work
and two percent bike to work, while less
than two percent walk and less than a half
percent bike to work among those making
more than $50,000 per year.39
Advocates?
0%
4%
16%
8%
12%
walk
2008-2012
no
vehicle

1
vehicle
2
vehicles
3+
vehicles
bicycle
Vehicles Available
Walking and Bicycling to Work,
by Available Vehicles
Walking & bicycling to Work
by Available Vehicles 2008-2012
Vehicles Available
U.S. Census Bureau, American Community Survey
10
Nationally, approximately 42 percent of
people earning less than $25,000 per
year rely on transit to get to work – and
as discussed in more detail subsequently,
most transit trips also include walking trips
on one end or the other. yet many transit
systems are not robust enough to connect

people to the places they need to go. As
a result, a lack of viable transit options
can severely limit social and economic
mobility.41 More than 60 percent of jobs
today are in suburban areas where transit
service is less frequent or nonexistent,
which makes it especially hard for people
to reach jobs without access to a car.42
The frequency of service is also an issue,
especially for trips outside of traditional
work hours, as most transit routes cater to
morning and evening commuters, creating
particular hardship for low-wage workers
who work different shifts throughout the
day or night.43
Many people must undertake extreme
measures to access employment.44 In early
2015, a Detroit man made headlines for
walking 21 miles to his job every day,
because he was unable to afford to repair
or replace his old car, and bus routes
covered only part of his journey.45 The
story highlights the disconnect between
where many low-income workers live and
where there are job opportunities. Many
Americans must spend hours each day on
transportation – hours that could be spent
working, going to school, enjoying time
with their families, or taking care of their
health – and many others miss out on job
opportunities that could better their lives.46
The heavy reliance by low-income people
and people of color on walking, bicycling,
and transit underscores the importance of

making these transportation systems both
robust and equitable.
Advocates?
“In a large, continuing study of upward mobility based at
Harvard,
commuting time has emerged as the single strongest factor in
the
odds of escaping poverty. The longer an average commute in a
given county, the worse the chances of low-income families
there
moving up the ladder.
The relationship between transportation and social mobility is
stronger than that between mobility and several other factors,
like crime, elementary-school test scores or the percentage of
two-parent families in a community, said Nathaniel Hendren,
a Harvard economist and one of the researchers on the study.”
New York Times,
“Transportation Emerges as Crucial to Escaping Poverty”40
Annual income
spent on
transportation
Low-income
Households
Middle-income
Households
Annual Income Spent
on Transportation

42%
22%
Low-income
Households
Middle-income
Households
Annual Income Spent
on Transportation
42%
22%
42%
14%
19%
25%
under $25,000
$50,000 - $74,999
$25,000 - $49,999
$75,000+
Transit Ridership
by Income Level
2005-2009
Source: American Community Survey, 2005-2009

transit ridership
by income Level
2006-2010
American Community Survey
The Leadership Conference
Education Fund, April 2011
Advocates?
transit ridership
by income Level
2006-2010
importance of Active
transportation
Equitable access to active transportation
matters for another set of reasons too.
It matters because when people walk
and bicycle to get around, there are
enormous benefits to their personal
health, community well-being, and the
environment that we all rely upon.
h E A Lt h : o b E s i t y, C h r o n i C
D i s E A s E , A n D M E n tA L h E A Lt h
Walking and bicycling have both physical
and mental health benefits. Active
transportation is an affordable way for

people to be physically active, resulting in
reduced risk for obesity and overweight
and numerous chronic diseases. Currently,
more than one-third of American adults are
obese,47 and physical inactivity is one of
the primary contributors to obesity.48 Some
of the leading causes of preventable death,
including heart disease, stroke, type 2
diabetes, and certain types of cancer, have
been linked to obesity.49 To make matters
worse, these conditions affect low-income
communities and communities of color
disproportionately, and have the potential
to shorten lives and impair the ability to
thrive and achieve. More than 38 percent
of Latino youth and almost 36 percent
of African American youth are obese
or overweight.50 People in low-income
communities have lower activity levels and
higher body mass indexes.51
Currently, fewer than 10 percent of
Americans get the recommended amount
of weekly activity needed to receive the
substantial health benefits of physical
activity.52
But walking and bicycling are ways in
which people can get sufficient physical
activity as part of their daily lives. For
example, almost one-third of transit users
get their entire recommended amount of
physical activity just by walking to and
from transit stops.53 Conversely, people
who travel by car are more sedentary,
which is associated with chronic disease

and premature death.54 People who live in
more multimodal communities exercise
more and are less likely to be overweight
than those who live in automobile-
oriented communities.55 Adults who get
The topic of active transportation and equity for people with
disabilities is worthy
of an entire report of its own. A full 30% of people with
disabilities report that
transportation is a problem for them; for more than half of these
individuals,
transportation poses a major problem.63 Moreover, people with
disabilities exist
within every other group of people, and so, for example,
individuals of color who
have a disability may experience the intersection of different
challenges or other
barriers unique to people of color who have disabilities. Studies
of people with
disabilities show that the use of public transportation is fairly
low, and disability
is not usually identified as the reason for low use. Instead,
barriers in the
pedestrian environment emerge as the most significant
transportation problems

encountered by people with disabilities.64 In light of the
problems with absent
and inadequate pedestrian infrastructure highlighted throughout
this report, it
comes as no surprise to learn that people with disabilities
experience substantial
challenges in safely navigating these environments. As a result,
the National
Council on Disability has identified passage of a federal
Complete Streets policy
as one of its key goals in transportation policy.65
One lawsuit set forth the challenges:
[M]ore than 400,000 New Yorkers
with ambulatory disabilities and
more than 200,000 people with
vision disabilities continue to be
excluded from the pedestrian culture
that is so critical to community life in
New York City, because nearly all of
the City’s sidewalks and pedestrian
routes are dangerous and difficult

for people with disabilities. Dangers
include corners at pedestrian
crossings without curb ramps
for wheelchair users or corners
with hazardous curb ramps that are
broken or too steep, which often end
up forcing persons using wheelchairs
to modify travel plans, avoid whole
areas with inaccessible streetscapes,
or roll over curb ramps with barriers that
threaten to topple a wheelchair. The
majority of curb ramps in the City also
have no required detectable warnings
or contrasting features that signal to
blind and low-vision pedestrians that they
are about to leave the sidewalk and enter
the path of vehicle traffic.66
Active transportation and Disability

Recommendations for addressing these challenges include
ensuring that local
governments are building and maintaining pedestrian facilities
that provide safe
access between destinations and to transit; addressing
enforcement issues
such as parked cars blocking sidewalks; and enforcing mandates
related to
the Americans with Disabilities Act. Other policy options
include using all of the
tools of transportation planning to encourage new and
retrofitted sidewalks
and crossings – zoning and subdivision codes, comprehensive
plans, and
transportation prioritization plans.67
11
Active transportation and Disability
C o M M u n i t y & E C o n o M y
Active transportation not only benefits
personal health and well-being, but
the social and economic health of
communities. When streets are places

where people can interact with one
another, rather than just places for cars,
they become valuable public spaces that
contribute to community cohesion.
Physical improvements for walking and
bicycling enhance the public realm, leading
to more interaction between neighbors.68
People are more likely to linger in outdoor
environments that support walking and
bicycling and to interact with other
members of the community, encouraging
residents to become engaged in community
issues.69 Per capita crime rates tend to
decline in more compact, mixed, walkable
communities, partially due to residents
looking out for each other.70
At the same time, walking and bicycling
can boost local economies.71,72 Such
local economic development is badly
needed to help low-income people get
and keep jobs and lift families out of
“In the past, the city’s philosophy has been that the
communities
that already bike the most deserve the most resources. That just
perpetuates a vicious cycle where cycling grows fast in some
neighborhood and not others. Biking leads to better physical
and
mental health, safer streets, more connected communities, and
support for local businesses. Black communities are the ones
that
need those benefits the most.”
Olatunji Oboi Reed, Slow Roll Chicago58

Michael Baker International
Advocates?
12
around by walking or bicycling have lower
weight and blood pressure, and are less
likely to become diabetic.56 The same
benefits appear in state-by-state statistics
as well, as states with the highest levels
of bicycling and walking have the lowest
rates of obesity, high blood pressure, and
diabetes.57
Active transportation has also been shown
to provide benefits to mental health and
psychological well-being. Studies in
the San Francisco Bay Area found that
increasing the amount of people walking
and bicycling to 15 percent would reduce
dementia and depression citywide by six
to seven percent.59 Another study showed
that overall psychological well-being was
significantly higher for commuters who
walked or bicycled compared to those who
commuted by car or transit; time spent
driving had a negative association with
psychological well-being.60
As discussed further below, creating
walkable, bikeable communities instead
of automobile-dependent communities
has been shown to reduce overall injuries
and fatalities related to transportation.

One study showed that a pedestrian’s risk
of being in a collision declines 34 percent
if walking and bicycling double in their
community.61 American cities with higher
per capita bicycling rates tend to have
much lower traffic fatality rates for all
road users than other cities, and per capita
collisions between people driving, walking,
and bicycling decline as walking and
bicycling increases.62
poverty, though ensuring that the benefits
of multimodal infrastructure accrue to
low-income residents is an important
and complex effort, as discussed further
below. Commercial districts often rely
on walkability to attract customers.
When people are able to spend less on
transportation, they are able to spend more
on other needs like housing and health
care. And when as a society as a whole we
spend less on transportation, we are able
to invest in other public assets – often
disparately available in rich versus poor
areas – like parks. Nationally, the average
annual operating cost of a bicycle is $308,
compared to $8,220 for a car.73 Roadways
cost an average of about $550 annually
per capita, about half of which is funded
through general taxes, meaning the cost
of building and maintaining roads is on
everyone, not just drivers.74 Walking and
bicycling require less space and impose less
wear and tear on roadways, and so cost less
per mile. A typical urban parking space
costs about $500 to $3,000 per year.75

Walking doesn’t require any parking and
10 to 20 bicycles can typically be stored in
the space required for one automobile.76
13
Advocates?
“Equity is the superior
growth model.”
Angela Glover Blackwell, PolicyLink77
Mike MacKool
E n V i r o n M E n t A n D o t h E r
P u b L i C h E A Lt h E F F E C t s
Shifting from cars to walking and bicycling
can go a long way in conserving energy,
curbing air pollution and long term health
impacts due to pollution, and reducing
climate change. Half of all trips taken by
Americans are three miles or less (with
40% two miles or less and 28% one mile
or less), but 72 percent of trips three
miles or less are taken by car, illustrating
the significant potential for reducing
emissions.78 When just one percent of trips
shift from being by car to being by active
transportation, fuel consumption can be
reduced by two to four percent.79 Motor
vehicle emissions represent 31 percent of
total carbon dioxide, 81 percent of carbon

monoxide, and 49 percent of nitrogen
oxides released in the United States.80
Nitrogen oxides from traffic-related air
pollution have been associated with the
onset of childhood asthma, as well as
exacerbating asthma symptoms.81 Active
transportation is most likely to be used
for short trips and can replace some of
the most polluting car trips.82 Walking
and bicycling produce virtually no air
pollution.
More recently, there has been attention to
climate change and the impacts climate
change will have on national and global
health. Such effects will tend to have the
largest effects on low-income people and
people of color, who suffer the greatest
exposure to the extreme weather events
and high and low temperatures that are
a feature of climate change.83 Climate
change is caused in part by human
activities releasing large amounts of carbon
dioxide and other greenhouse gases
into the atmosphere.84 Transportation
emissions, largely from cars and light
duty trucks, account for 27 percent of our
overall greenhouse gas emissions.85 So
by replacing car trips with walking and
bicycling, greenhouse gas emissions can be
reduced. Someone who rides a bicycle four
miles to work, five days a week, avoids
2,000 pounds of carbon dioxide emissions
each year.86 One study found that travel
by residents in the Atlanta region’s least

walkable neighborhoods generated
about 20 percent higher carbon dioxide
emissions than travel by those who live in
the most walkable neighborhoods.87
The multitude of benefits that active
transportation affords to individuals,
communities, and society as a whole
underscores the need for equitable access
to transportation options beyond the
automobile.
14
In the previous section, we described why active transportation
matters for low-income people and
people of color – the high use of and dependence upon these
modes of travel and the public health and
community benefits to be gained from further use. But those
facts tell only half the story. When it comes
to meeting fundamental needs like health care and education,
people of color and low-income people in
the United States typically fare far worse than white people and
well-to-do populations. Transportation is
no exception to this rule.
TRANSPORTATION

INEqUITIES in America
sECtion ii
A variety of overlapping challenges mean that
getting around by foot or bicycle is likely to be
harder, more disagreeable, more dangerous, and
less healthy if you are poor or a person of color. In
this section, we discuss the higher rates of traffic
related injuries and fatalities experienced by low-
income communities and communities of color;
the disparities in the physical environment for
walking and bicycling in such communities; and
the different factors that can more negatively affect
the experiences of people of color and low-income
people while walking and bicycling.
pedbikeimages.org/Dan Burden
15
higher rates of
injuries and Fatalities
People walking and bicycling in low-
income communities and communities of
color suffer much higher injury and fatality
rates than the general population. Latino
and African American pedestrian fatality
rates are about twice that of whites.88
Fatality rates for people bicycling are 23
percent higher for Latinos than whites, and
30 percent higher for African Americans

than whites.89 State and local data can
show even greater disparities. In North
Carolina as a whole, for example, African
Americans make up 21 percent of the
population, but 40 percent of all crashes.
But in Wilmington, NC, African Americans
represent fewer than 20 percent of the
population, yet black children make up 72
percent of pedestrian crash victims.90
An analysis of 22,000 collisions in
America found that pedestrian fatality
rates in low-income metro areas are
approximately twice that of more
affluent neighborhoods.91 A study in one
metropolitan region showed that the
number of people on foot injured in the
poorest census tracts was 6.3 times higher
than in the richest census tracts.92 The
story was similar for people on bicycles,
with the number of injuries 3.9 times
higher in poor areas than in rich ones.93
Interestingly, people riding in cars were
also more vulnerable in the poorest areas
– the number of injured motor vehicle
occupants was 4.3 times greater in poor
areas than in rich ones.94 Many cities have
made pedestrian safety a priority, but their
efforts rarely focus on poorer areas.95
Low-income children are at great risk
from these trends. In Manhattan, a study
found that of the ten intersections where
the most collisions that killed or injured
children walking or bicycling occurred,
nine were near public housing.96 The study

also found that although children make
up the same percent of the population
in East Harlem and the Upper East Side,
they comprise 43 percent of victims of car
crashes with bicycles and pedestrians in
East Harlem and less than 15 percent in
the Upper East Side.97
“Many areas have been neglected from a transportation
standpoint. We need to devote much more energy on
providing safe transportation options for everyone.
Walking is a basic human right.”
Scott Bricker, Director of America Walks102
African American
Latino
White
2x as likely
40% more likely
Children Killed While Walking
African American
White
Latino
People Killed While Walking
2x as likely

2x as likely
Low-Income
High-Income
2x as likely
by Income
African American
White
30% more likely
Latino 23% more likely
Bicyclists Killed on the Road
Children Killed While Walking
by income
People Killed While bicycling
Governing, August 2014
Dangerous by Design, 2011
Governing, August 2014

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, 2001
Section II: Transportation Inquities in America
16
Addressing Additional Challenges for People Who Are
Homeless
Millions of Americans are homeless every day, many of them
children.135 By definition they are low income;
they are also disproportionately people of color.136 And they
still need transportation. In fact, transportation
is especially critical because getting to job interviews – and a
job is key to escaping homelessness. And
like everyone else, people who are homeless also need
transportation to get to medical appointments,
access government services, get children to school, and take
care of everyday needs. For a homeless
person, access to a bicycle can be transformative, allowing them
to take control of their lives, while at the
same providing all the health benefits of active transportation.
A key issue is the transportation needs
of homeless students. According to the

National Center on Family Homelessness,
nearly 2.5 million children were homeless
at some point in 2013.137 In California
alone, it is estimated that there are
nearly 270,000 homeless public school
students.138 These children, already
stressed by the trauma of homelessness,
often suffer even more, and do worse
academically, if they also have to start
at a new school.139 While a federal law
requires schools to provide transportation
for homeless students to their “school of
origin,”140 implementation is spotty and
hampered by limited resources, and many
parents and youth are uninformed about
the law.141 Active transportation equity
activists and homeless activists can join
together on these issues.
Lack of transportation is
the number one barrier that
homeless children and youth
face in attempting to enroll in
and attend school regularly.142
One particular transportation challenge
facing people who are homeless is the
lack of a safe place to store a bicycle.
Leaving bikes outside at night, even
if locked, is risky. At the same time,
homeless shelters can be unsafe for bikes
too because they do not usually have a
secure storage place for bikes. To date,
this issue has received little attention.
There are a few programs around the

country that provide bicycles to people
who are homeless, either as straight
out donations or through “earn a bike”
programs, like Freewheel Bike Program
in Pinellas County, Florida (operating
under the Homeless Emergency Project
in Clearwater),144 the Delta Bike Project
in Mobile, Alabama,145 and Full Cycle, a
nonprofit bike shop in south Minneapolis
that not only provides bicycles to youth
who are homeless, but also has six-month
paid internships for homeless youth
that include training in bike repair and
business skills (such as resume writing,
interviewing, sales, customer service,
and professionalism).146
“A recent survey of homeless
people shows that thirty
percent of the responders
identified transportation
and access to transportation
as a significant barrier to
employment.”
Bob Erlenbusch, Executive Director of the
Sacramento Housing Alliance in Sacramento, CA147
Without those two wheels …
“I would not be able to keep
this job … or the apartment.”
Keith Harmon
homeless for over a year, Chicago148
“[One homeless] participant
used his refurbished bike to

spend the day filling out job
applications and found work
within a week.”
Cycling Forward program for
homeless youth ages 11-24, Seattle, WA149
Lincoln, Nebraska has a homeless bicyclist who . . . camp[s] out
at a local park . . .
It’s winter now, but one reason he cites for NOT going to a
shelter is that he is afraid his bike will
be stripped. . . it is his lifeline. He isn’t going inside until he’s
satisfied his bike will be safe.”143
Disparities in the Physical
Environment for Walking
and bicycling
Significant disparities in transportation
infrastructure for walking and bicycling
discourage people from using these
modes and make it far less safe when
they do. Transportation infrastructure
is the physical built environment —the
sidewalks, roads, bike lanes, train tracks,
and the like – that allow people to get
around. While many factors contribute to
collisions involving people walking and
bicycling, inadequate infrastructure plays a
large role.
There is tremendous variation across the
United States in terms of the type and
quality of transportation infrastructure
and other physical environment features
are present in different communities. But

when compared across income, racial, and
ethnic lines, it becomes apparent that there
are significant disparities in the presence
of infrastructure that supports healthy
active transportation. Beyond sidewalks,
bike lanes, and other basic infrastructure
needed for walking and bicycling, other
aspects of the physical environment
contribute to – or detract from – the
comfort and safety of people walking and
bicycling. In this subsection, we discuss
disparities in infrastructure for walking
and bicycling, as well as disparities in
neighborhood aesthetics and air quality.
i n F r A s t r u C t u r E F o r
W A L K i n G
While almost 90 percent of high-income
areas have sidewalks on one or both sides
of the street, in low-income communities
that percentage drops to 49 percent.98
Streets with street lighting are also
significantly more common in high-
income areas (75%) than in low-income
communities (51%).99
A similar pattern is seen for other types
of features that make streets safer and
more inviting for people walking, such as
traffic islands, curb bulb outs that shorten
crossing distances, traffic circles, and other
features that slow traffic; while much less
common in all communities, these are
still found almost three times as often in
high-income areas compared with low-

income communities.100 Similarly, streets
with marked crosswalks are significantly
more common in high-income areas (13%)
than in low-income communities (7%).101
Another factor that affects pedestrian
comfort and safety is the maintenance
of sidewalks and other features. In
some communities, local government
is responsible for maintenance of these
features, and in other areas sidewalk
repair is the responsibility of the adjacent
“You don’t see highways
running through the Upper
East Side of Manhattan.”
Joshua Shank
Eno Center for Transportation109
90%
Communities with Sidewalks
high income
49%
low income
Communities with sidewalks
Bridging the Gap, Income Disparities in Street Features
that Encourage Walking, 2012
property owner. Either model may have
the potential to lead to sidewalks in worse

repair in low-income parts of town.
Major arterial roadways and highways are
also far more concentrated in low-income
areas.103 Such high-speed roads pose far
greater dangers to people walking, and are
harder and less pleasant to traverse by foot
or bike than smaller streets. One study
showed low-income neighborhoods had
twice as many intersections with major
thoroughfares, requiring residents on foot
to navigate high-speed, high-traffic zones.
In addition, poorer neighborhoods had
more four-way intersections, which lead to
more injuries of people walking and driv-
ing due to the greater number of points of
conflict.104 The speed and traffic volume of
a street is key to its safety. Children are six
times more likely to be involved in crashes
on streets with high traffic volumes com-
pared to streets with low traffic volumes,
and four times more likely to be involved
in crashes when crossing high-speed roads
than low-speed roads.105
17
18
toxins into the air are often sited near
poor residential areas – but rarely, if ever,

near wealthy ones. Study after study has
found clear correlations between income,
ethnicity, and the degree of pollution
in the environment.120 The greater the
concentration of Latinos, Asian Americans,
African Americans, or poor residents in
an area, the more likely that potentially
dangerous compounds such as vanadium,
nitrates and zinc are in the mix of fine
particles they breathe.121
streets. Abandoned buildings and cars,
litter, graffiti, and broken streetlights and
windows create an environment that is
unwelcoming to walking and bicycling.115
Not only is this level of blight physically
unpleasant, but it signals that “no one
really cares about or regulates” the public
space, contributing to safety concerns
and discouraging active transportation.116
One study of a project to clean, maintain,
and create urban green space in vacant
lots showed that these changes decreased
stress in residents and increased physical
activity, while also leading to lower levels
of violent crime.117 In fact, stress responses
were lower simply in response to walking
in view of a greened vacant lot.118
Other low income neighborhoods may not
be blighted, but may simply lack many
of the amenities that make a walking or
bicycling experience actively pleasant –
things like regular shade trees, landscaping
strips that provide a buffer between
someone walking and cars passing by,

attractive yards to admire, seating to stop
and rest, concealed locations for garbage
cans and recycling, tended pedestrian
access to nearby trails, and so on. Instead,
a walk in these neighborhoods may be
characterized by an abundance of concrete,
gaudy signs advertising unhealthy
products, parking lots and shopping
strips interspersed among houses, and
other features that may be unpleasant for
walking.
A i r P o L L u t i o n
When low-income people and people
of color do walk and bicycle for
transportation, they are far more likely to
be subjected to unhealthy air along the
way.119 Due to land costs and historical
discrimination, refineries, coal plants,
and other industrial facilities that spew
“[T]he number of injured
pedestrians, cyclists, and motor
vehicle occupants would be
greatly reduced in the poorest
neighborhoods if intersections
in these areas were similar
to those in the wealthiest
neighborhoods.”
Study of traffic injuries in Montreal, Canada114
i n F r A s t r u C t u r E F o r
b i C y C L i n G
Bicycle friendly infrastructure is also

harder to find in low-income areas. In
Chicago, for example, the affluent north
side of the city features significant bicycle-
friendly infrastructure, including protected
bike lanes and bike sharing stations, while
neighborhoods in the south and southwest
have hardly any protected bike lanes and
no bike sharing stations.110 Similarly, in
Los Angeles, data gathered by the Los
Angeles County Bicycle Coalition revealed
that neighborhoods with the highest
percentage of people of color had a lower
distribution of cycling facilities.111 New
york City’s bicycle network “is currently
most built out in the city’s wealthiest
neighborhoods.”112 Although similar
disparities are found in other cities across
the country,113 this pattern is not universal.
C o M F o r t A n D
At t r A C t i V E n E s s o F
n E i G h b o r h o o D E n V i r o n M E n t
Whether a walking or bicycling experience
is pleasant, safe, and comfortable is affected
by the neighborhood environment. When
someone drives through a neighborhood,
they pass through quickly, in a contained
vehicle, without experiencing the small
details. In contrast, a person walking or
bicycling experiences the neighborhood
differently, and is much more affected by
small factors that influence their comfort
and enjoyment.
Some low-income residential

neighborhoods have been blighted by
years of neglect, poverty, and lack of
investment, compared to well-kept
wealthier neighborhoods with tree-lined
14%
5%
high income
low income
Communities
with Requirements
for Bike Lanes
“Poor communities, frequently
communities of color but
not exclusively, suffer
disproportionately [from
industrial air pollution].
If you look at where our
industrialized facilities end
to be located, they’re not
in the upper middle class
neighborhoods.”
Carol Browner
Former Secretary of the
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency125
“Childhood asthma is rampant
in Clairton [a town in
Pennsylvania that is home
to U.S. Steel Clairton Coke
Works], but a lot of families

in the hardscrabble town don’t
have medical coverage. In some
homes, the whole family shares
a single inhaler.”
Tom Hoffman
Western Pennsylvania Director,
Clean Water Action130
Communities
with requirements
for bike Lanes
Bridging the Gap, Using Local Land Use Laws
to Facilitate Physical Activity, 2012
“People do not want to walk
because they fear for their safety.
They see drugs, gangs, dogs.”
Community Leader138
Disparate Experiences
Discourage Walking and
bicycling
In addition to the inequities described
above, residents of low-income
often have negative experiences which
discourage walking and bicycling. In this
section, we describe some of the factors
that can inequitably affect the experience
of walking and bicycling: crime, racial
profiling, harassment, slurs, micro
aggressions, and discriminatory treatment

by drivers, all of which are most likely to
affect low-income people and people of
color, potentially discouraging them from
walking and bicycling or making those
activities stressful, unpleasant, or dangerous.
h i G h E r C r i M E r At E s
High rates of crime are a challenge in
some low-income neighborhoods and
communities of color. High levels of
crime and violence not only make it more
dangerous for residents to walk places and
be physically active outside, but fear of
crime is also a significant obstacle to using
active transportation.132
One analysis found that “people restricted
their physical activity and outdoor time
due to violence and fear of violence,
causing people to walk and bike less
frequently.”133 Not surprisingly, people who
described their neighborhood as “not at
all safe” were three times more likely to be
physically inactive during leisure time than
those who described their neighborhood
as “extremely safe.”134 In another study, 31
of 32 mothers in a high crime area would
not let their 9-13 year old daughters go
outside after school for play or physical
activity because of fear of unpredictable
drug and gang-related violence.135 In some
cases, children’s fear of crime even causes
them to skip going to school as well as to
miss other opportunities to participate in
other events and activities,136 which can

affect students’ educational achievement,
participation, social engagement, and stress
levels. The psychological impact of living
in a community with high levels of crime
and violence can also lead to depression
and stress that is also linked to lower levels
of physical activity.137
In fact, African Americans are 79
percent more likely than whites to live
in neighborhoods where industrial air
pollution poses high health dangers,122
and are three times more likely to die from
asthma than whites.123 Living in a majority
white neighborhood is associated with
lower air pollution exposures, whereas
Latino communities had the highest air
pollution exposure levels.124
Areas along major roads and highways are
also exposed to higher levels of pollution.
Traffic-related pollution most affects
those within about 300 to 500 meters of
a major road or highway.126 Studies have
shown that people of color are also more
likely to live within close proximity (150
meters) to major highways, putting them
at higher risk of exposure to traffic-related
pollution and resulting in higher rates of
respiratory and cardiovascular diseases.127
A study in Portland showed that small
detours of one block to lower-volume
roadways significantly reduce pollution
concentrations.128
Further, the polluted air that low-income

people and people of color are more likely
to breathe, when they do walk and bicycle
for transportation, takes a heavy toll on
their health. Exposure to unhealthy air is
linked to asthma, bronchitis, and cancer,
and worsens existing lung and heart
disease, all of which disproportionately
affects poor people and people of color.129
“Evidence suggests that not
only do people get hospitalized
but they die at higher rates
in areas with significant air
pollution.”
Dr. John Brofman
Director of Respiratory Intensive Care
at MacNeal Hospital, Berwyn, Illinois.131
19
“Modesto Sanchez told
lawmakers of the Massachusetts
Legislature about the day he
and his friend rode their bikes
down the street on which
Sanchez lived, only to be
stopped and frisked within
minutes by Boston police
officers. One officer asserted,
‘People in your hood ride bikes
to shoot people.’ Modesto,
who was 16 years old at the
time, and his friend were
found to be doing nothing

wrong. Embarrassed, shocked,
and hurt, Modesto asked for
an explanation. The officer
responded, ‘We had to stop you.
You look suspicious.’”
Nusrat Choudhury
“People in Your Hood Ride Bikes to Shoot People”149
20
h A r A s s M E n t, s L u r s , A n D
M i C r o A G G r E s s i o n s
Racial micro aggressions are brief verbal or
nonverbal communications that convey racial
slights or hostility (intentionally or not) to
a person of color.151 Many people of color
experience such indignities while walking and
bicycling. Examples include white pedestrians
crossing the street to avoid walking by a
person of color,152 white pedestrians markedly
ignoring a person when passing on the
sidewalk, and similar encounters.153 Lawrence
Otis graham, an African American lawyer
and father, recently wrote about the effects
on his 15-year-old son of having two adult
white men in a car stop him and call him a
racial slur while he was walking by himself in
a leafy suburb near his boarding school.154
His son was frightened and hurt, but white
school administrators minimized the incident,
characterizing it as an unfortunate one-

time event that should simply be forgotten.
yet the longer-term effects on the teen
meant he no longer made eye contact with
others when out walking, did not want to
walk anywhere unaccompanied, and felt
“vulnerable and resentful” whenever he had
to walk somewhere by himself. Whether an
isolated incident or a regular occurrence,
this type of experience can create a hostile
environment for walking and bicycling.
r A C i A L P r o F i L i n G
People of color are also at higher risk
of getting harassed by law enforcement
while bicycling or walking than their
white counterparts. Like the experience of
“driving while black,” people of color are
similarly targeted by police for “bicycling
while black” or “walking while black.”139
Stop and frisk policies are centered around
police officers’ stops of people walking.
Many or most incidents of racial profiling
and police brutality begin while someone
is walking or bicycling, although the
interference with transportation is rarely
highlighted if and when the incident
becomes public.
Stories of being stopped and harassed
abound.140 New york City’s extensive and
controversial stop and frisk program, the
subject of court orders, involved more
stops of black youth and men (168,000)

in 2011 than the total city population of
black men in that age range (158,000).141
In Chicago, in the summer of 2014,
police made more than 250,000 stops
that did not lead to arrest – making stops
at a rates four times as often per capita
as New york at the height of its stop and
frisk policies.142 A full 72 percent of stops
were of African Americans, though they
constitute only 32 percent of the city’s
population. The stops are most likely in
communities of color, but are particularly
likely to target African Americans in white
neighborhoods.
Although not addressed in many analyses
of racial profiling, youth and adults of
color on bicycles are frequently singled out
for particular attention by stop and frisk
practices. Bicycle laws, such as registration
requirements, sidewalk riding prohibitions,
and helmet laws, are often discriminatorily
enforced. For example, in Tampa, Florida,
80 percent of bicycle tickets given by
police are to African Americans, who
make up 25 percent of the population.143
Officers are encouraged to use these minor
violations as an excuse to stop and search
anyone they can in low-income black
neighborhoods, even though 80 percent
of the stops identify no criminal activity.
In white neighborhoods, few tickets are
given for bicycling infractions, and when
tickets are given, it is often to individuals
who are black. A similar situation exists

in Fort Lauderdale, Florida, where an
investigation found that 86 percent of
tickets given for riding an unregistered
bike were given to African Americans (who
make up 31 percent of the population),
while hardly any such tickets were issued
in predominantly white or touristy sections
of the city.144 Not only were people of color
targeted for ticketing but in some incidents
their bikes were confiscated, leaving them
stranded.145
Such patterns are found throughout the
United States. In New york City, a study
showed that 12 of the 15 neighborhoods
with the most citations for riding on
sidewalks were predominantly Latino
or African American, while 14 of the 15
with the fewest were primarily white.146
In Dallas, Texas, an analysis showed
that, excluding downtown, 96 percent
of citations under a bicycle helmet law
took place in census tracts with majority
population of color.147 In 2006, a federal
appeals court found enough evidence to
go to trial in a case alleging that police
were discriminatorily seizing the bicycles
of black teens and targeting them for
harassment when they rode through the
white Detroit suburb of Eastpointe.148
“[Stop and frisk] reduces your self-confidence. It’s no different
than
getting robbed. Getting put up against a wall, it’s no different
than
someone stealing your stuff. It can be traumatizing. For the

police,
they let you go, it’s no harm, no foul. But it can make children
feel the
community has given up on their chance to be successful.”
Gemar Mills
Principal of Malcolm X Shabazz High School, Newark, New
Jersey150
pedbikeimages.org/Nina Walfroot
A heartbreaking news story in 2011 involved Raquel Nelson,
a mother of three in Atlanta, Georgia, who was prosecuted
for jaywalking and vehicular homicide after her 4-year-old
son A.J. was struck by a car and killed when they were
crossing the street. A.J.’s death occurred when the family
was hit by an intoxicated hit and run driver while they were
crossing a large arterial.106 The family had just gotten off the
bus after a grocery shopping trip. Although their apartment
building was directly across the street from the bus stop, the
nearest crosswalk was three-tenths of a mile away, requiring
an additional walk of more than half a mile with groceries and
small children. Instead, like everyone else who had gotten off

the bus, they crossed to the median to wait for a break in the
traffic. Her son pulled out of her hand to cross when others
ran ahead and was hit by an oncoming car.
Poor urban planning and a failure to provide for the needs
of public transit riders caused A.J.’s death. But prosecutors
charged and convicted Nelson of vehicular homicide for
jaywalking. Nelson, an African American college student
and working mother, was convicted by an entirely white jury
without a single member who had ever relied on public transit
for transportation.107 After a national outcry and appeals,
most of the charges were eventually dropped.108
Effects of transportation inequities
The overall effects of the transportation inequities set out here
are
to discourage poor people and people of color from using active
transportation. People are less inclined to walk and bicycle if
there is
little or no pedestrian- and bicycle-friendly infrastructure, the
traffic is
intimidating, they are worried about crime and micro
aggressions or
about harassment from officers, the air is polluted, and many
destinations
are located far away.132

At the same time, the United States has experienced an
enormous
increase in obesity, with low-income people and Latinos and
African
Americans suffering the highest rates.158 Obesity is linked to
many serious
diseases, including hypertension, multiple cancers, and type 2
diabetes.
And children of color suffer the highest obesity rates of all,
constituting
“ground zero” of the obesity epidemic.159 The need to act in
support of
active transportation and equity is clear.
“I’ve walked down the block from where I live and
had a white woman cross the street and go to the
other side and continue up.”
22-year-old African American female participant in micro
aggressions study155
D i s C r i M i n At o ry t r E At M E n t
b y D r i V E r s
The effects of conscious and unconscious
prejudice affect the safety and convenience
of pedestrians of color in other ways
as well. One small study sought to
understand whether discriminatory
treatment by drivers might bear some
responsibility for higher pedestrian
injury and fatality rates for people of
color.156 Researchers found that there were
significant differences in driver behavior

to white and black pedestrians, with twice
as many cars passing African Americans
in crosswalks without stopping, and a 32
percent longer wait time. Further research
is warranted, not only to better understand
whether the same results are seen in
different environments and regions, but
also to explore whether similar behavior
affects pedestrians who appear to be poor
or homeless. Street infrastructure that
signals more aggressively to drivers that
stopping for pedestrians is not optional
may assist in overcoming discriminatory
treatment, but will likely only diminish it
rather than remove it.
the Consequences of inadequate infrastructure
21
22
State of the Movements:
ACTIvE TRANSPORTATION
AND EqUITy
In light of the clear need for a strong focus on the intersection
of equity and active transportation, one
might imagine that there would be a robust movement working
to address these issues. But in fact, equity
in active transportation has been low on the radar of both the
national active transportation movement and

the equity world. This is not to say that there has not been
related advocacy – indeed, local community
groups have wrestled and advocated around these issues for
decades – but the work has been only
sporadically recognized by the larger movements.
In recent times, national active transportation
organizations have shown increased attention
to equity, with a new focus on health equity, the
need for improved transportation in low-income
communities, and the need for increased internal
diversity and reform. But this emerging trend comes
after decades of bicycling and walking advocacy
from a middle class lens – advocacy stemming from
the real challenges related to limited safe options
for enjoying bicycling and walking for recreation
or as a transportation preference, but not from the
experience of low-income communities walking and
bicycling in unsafe conditions through pure necessity.
One positive trend is the increased number and
influence of bicycling and walking advocates of color.
But struggles over direction, power, and priorities
within the active transportation movement remain.
sECtion iii
“Transportation is back as
a major civil rights issue.
Today’s focus is not on
getting a seat at the front
of the bus but on making
sure the bus takes us

where we need to go.”
Angela Glover Blackwell, PolicyLink178
23
At the same time, there is a growing
interest in the topic of transportation
equity within the social justice and
equity movements – but the focus of this
interest to date has been less on active
transportation than on transit justice.
Such transportation equity efforts have
seen many victories over the years.
One key initiative is the Transportation
Equity Network, a national network
of more than 400 organizations in 41
states advocating for public transit that
links low-income communities to jobs
and opportunities; equitable systems of
distributing transportation funding; and
economic growth through transportation
employment opportunities.175 The similarly
named Transportation Equity Caucus
unites a long list of partner organizations
that stand together on core equity demands
at the federal level, in both the functioning
of the U.S. Department of Transportation
and in the federal transportation bill.176
Currently, there is increased interest
by transit justice advocates and equity
advocates more broadly in active
transportation and equity. In 2014, both

the NAACP and the National Organization
of Black Elected and Legislative Women
(NOBEL-Women) passed national
resolutions committing to the importance
of active transportation and equity, and
spelling out specific action steps.
Joint initiatives are helping to build trust and
ensure that equity and active transportation
are prioritized within both movements.
Excellent initial steps have been taken, but
much work remains to be done.
integrating Equity into
bicycle Advocacy
The League of American Bicyclists
(the League) has developed a
report called Integrating Equity
into Bicycle Advocacy, which
reports on an organizational equity
assessment and their internal
efforts to increase
their commitment to equity, diversity,
and inclusion. The report provides a
look into one organization’s internal
processes around changing its

culture. One important aspect of
this work has been the creation of
an Equity Advisory Council, with
members with deep experience
working with women, youth, and
communities of color to promote
bicycling, which has advised the
League on how to improve the
equity orientation of its programs
and structure.
In a parallel effort, the League also
produced a report on The New
Movement: Bike Equity Today,
which discusses the growing
diversity in the local bicycling
movement and showcases bicycle
advocacy community leaders and
professionals from a variety of racial
and economic backgrounds as they

discuss challenging experiences,
areas of inspiration, and their
rightful place in the movement.
Section III: State of the Movements: Active Transportation and
Equity
“We didn’t come into this because we were interested in
transit… [We were] interested in serving the most vulnerable
people of L.A. County. We want to make sure the transit build
out increases opportunity — more housing, more jobs, and a
healthier environment — for low-income residents.”
Ann Sewill, California Community Foundation177
Platform of the transportation Equity network
1. Economic growth for all through increased access to
transportation-related jobs
2. Access to opportunity through increased funding for mass
transit
3. Accountability in government through increased community
input into local and
state planning and funding processes
4. Sustainable development through smart and equitable growth
- The Transportation Equity Network Platform179
transportation Equity Caucus Principles
1. Create affordable transportation options for all people

2. Ensure fair access to quality jobs, workforce development,
and contracting
opportunities in the transportation industry
3. Promote healthy, safe, and inclusive communities
4. Invest equitably and focus on results
- Transportation Equity Caucus, Statement of Principles180
http://bikeleague.org/sites/default/files/League_internal_equity_
web.pdf
http://bikeleague.org/sites/default/files/League_internal_equity_
web.pdf
http://bikeleague.org/sites/default/files/the_new_movement_rep
ort_web.pdf
http://bikeleague.org/sites/default/files/the_new_movement_rep
ort_web.pdf
24
America needs a transportation system that supports health and
encourages physical activity, supports
access to employment and educational opportunities, and
ensures that everyone can get where they
need to go safely and conveniently – not only by car, but also
by walking, bicycling, and taking public
transportation. But to get there from here will require large-
scale changes in transportation investment at
the federal and state level, as well as smaller steps focused on
equitable development and land use and

infrastructure improvements to increase safety and equity in
communities across the United States.
sECtion iV
The good news is that there are people working
across the country to make this vision a reality. In
the next two sections, we explore the governmental
structures that currently determine our transportation
infrastructure, and the many initiatives focused on
addressing different aspects of transportation inequity.
In this section, we review the laws and policy
structures at the federal, state, regional, and local
level that steer and shape our transportation and land
use systems. Agencies and lawmakers make critical
decisions regarding how transportation funding is
spent, what types of transportation investments take
place, and which communities benefit. government
policies – laws and regulations, transportation plans,
and bicycle/pedestrian/multimodal plans – play an
important role in guiding such decisions. One key
aspect of achieving transportation equity is getting
transportation projects and funding channeled to
communities that need it the most. We explore
how current policies have created the uneven and
inequitable landscape we see today, how communities
are incorporating equity considerations into their
transportation policies, and where such policies provide
avenues to advance active transportation equity.
TRANSPORTATION PLANNINg,
POLICIES, AND INvESTMENTS:
How We Got Here and How to Get

Where We Want to Go
25
Federal and state
transportation investments
The federal transportation bill, which
is generally reauthorized every two
to six years, provides the majority of
transportation funding in the United
States. For most of the twentieth century,
transportation investments were largely
determined at the state and federal
level, with the federal and state highway
systems as prime goals.156 Together with
other federal and state policies, these
investments had a series of intended and
unintended effects: to prioritize travel
by cars over public transit, walking,
or bicycling; to encourage white and
middle class flight from central cities; to
divide urban communities, particularly
African American communities, by
building freeways through them; and
to support and prioritize the growth of
auto-dependent suburbs. Although these
federal investments supported America’s
economy and connected communities from
coast to coast, they played a large role in
discouraging walking and bicycling and
contributing to residential segregation by
race and class.

“Those in power make decisions about transportation planning,
resulting in ill-planned bus routes, transportation more likely
to benefit those with cars than those without, and bleak
environmental costs. In some cities, roads continue to pull apart
neighborhoods, prioritizing commuters over communities.”
Corinne Ramey
“America’s Unfair Rules of the Road”157
Today, some of the emphasis of federal
transportation investments has changed.
Over the past ten 10-20 years, federal
transportation bills have provided a
larger role for regional decision making,
resulting in more local control, and have
dedicated small but crucial investments
toward walking and bicycling. Now, some
decisions about which communities receive
transportation investments from the federal
transportation bill are split between state
departments of transportation and regional
metropolitan planning organizations
(MPOs). Approximately 1.5 percent of
federal transportation funding goes to
support sidewalks, bicycle lanes, trails, and
other aspects of active transportation – a
small percentage in light of the percent of
trips made by walking and bicycling, but
very valuable.
Past isn’t Past in baltimore
In Baltimore, the repercussions
of eminent domain, freeway

expansion, gentrification,
foreclosures, and the dismantling
of public housing have eliminated
safe and healthy mobility for many
underserved communities and cut
them off from the ability to meet
their basic needs. This was no
accident or oversight. In 1944,
Robert Moses, a dominant national
voice on the planning and build out
of urban expressways, was talking
about slums and the poor people
of color who inhabited them when
he said, “The more of them that are
wiped out the healthier Baltimore
will be in the long run.”158 From
1951 to 1971, 80 to 90 percent
of the 25,000 families displaced in

Baltimore to build new highways,
schools and housing projects were
black.159 Today, many of those
same communities no longer have
direct access to job corridors or
activity centers, and one in four
school aged children and one in
four African Americans in the city
live in a food desert.
Section IV: Transportation Planning, Policies, and Investments:
How We Got Here and How to Get Where We Want to Go
26
Every few years there is a policy debate
on the next federal transportation bill,
and along with it a philosophical debate
about what modes should be prioritized.
In recent years, walking, bicycling, and
transit have received greater prominence
in these conversations, but voices for
these can be drowned out by the focus on
America’s “crumbling infrastructure” and

lack of funding to fix many of our roads,
bridges, airports, and other transportation
networks.161 The American Society of
Civil Engineers gave the United States
infrastructure network a D+ grade in its
2013 report card.162 Many state and federal
discussions of transportation funding
center around fixing highways and bridges
first – projects with big dollar signs. In
some cases, proposals eliminate money for
pedestrian and bicycle projects entirely. By
one estimate, in 2010, Americans spent
4.8 billion hours stuck in traffic, wasting
1.9 billion gallons of fuel, for a total cost
of $101 billion.163 But active transportation
facilities are less costly than many larger
construction projects, and can help reduce
congestion on roads and bridges by
shifting many drivers to other modes.
Many advocates have called for overall
infrastructure investments to address
longstanding social equity issues in our
communities, and acknowledge changes
in demographics and transportation
the transportation
Alternatives Program
In 2012, Congress passed the
federal transportation bill known as
the Moving Ahead for Progress in the
21st Century Act (MAP-21). This bill

combined funding for existing major
active transportation programs (Safe
Routes to School, Transportation
Enhancements, and Recreational
Trails) into the new Transportation
Alternatives Program (TAP), and cut
funding by 30 percent to the total
combined program.160 MAP-21 also
gave states the option to transfer
up to half of the funds to highway
purposes. In addition, under MAP-
21, states or communities must
provide a 20 percent match for
Transportation Alternative Program
funds, creating a new barrier for
low-income communities.
Partnership has a variety of resources

on how to use TAP funds and how to
overcome the equity barriers:
•Using the Transportation Alternatives
Program of MAP-21 to Impact Your
Local Community: An overview of
how local communities can access TAP
funds.
• Integrating Safe Routes to School
into the Transportation Alternatives
Program: Reducing Barriers for
Disadvantaged Communities: An
analysis and case studies detailing how
states have assisted local communities
in overcoming the barriers generated
by the match requirement.
•Overcoming Obstacles in
Underserved Communities: A short
overview of approaches that state DOTs
have taken to overcome equity hurdles
to low-income communities accessing
federal transportation dollars for Safe
Routes to School.
“As the country witnesses the
emergence of a new racial
and ethnic majority, equity—
long a matter of social justice
and morality—is now also
an economic imperative.
The nation can only achieve
and sustain growth and

prosperity by integrating all
into the economy, including
those who have too often been
left behind.”
PolicyLink, “America’s Tomorrow: Equity Is the
Superior Growth Model”165
preferences. A PolicyLink report describing
equity as the “superior growth model”
encouraged a focus on infrastructure
investments that provide job opportunities
for low-income workers and benefit to
disadvantaged communities, to ensure that
we are lifting people out of poverty while
also creating greater access to economic
opportunity.164 Because many low-
income and economically disadvantaged
populations rely on active or public
transportation to get around, greater
investment in these modes supports an
equity growth model.
Approaches to increasing the equitable
investment of transportation funds can
target federal funds, state funds, or both.
One approach is to set aside a percentage
of a larger pot to be dedicated to low-
income or high-needs communities. In
2013, California enacted a law creating
an Active Transportation Program
from state and federal funding. The
law expressly requires that 25 percent
of funds must benefit disadvantaged
communities.166 For a project to count
toward the disadvantaged communities
funding requirement, the “project must

clearly demonstrate a direct, meaningful,
and assured benefit to a [disadvantaged]
community.”167 Proposed projects are also
scored and evaluated using criteria that
expressly address equity concerns.168
http://saferoutespartnership.org/sites/default/files/pdf/Street-
Scale-Transportation-Alternatives-Program.pdf
http://saferoutespartnership.org/sites/default/files/pdf/srts_brief
_TAP_MatchingBrief.pdf
http://www.saferoutespartnership.org/sites/default/files/pdf/Ove
rcomingObstaclesinUnderservedCommunities.pdf
27
regional transportation
Planning
Metropolitan planning organizations

(MPOs) develop and adopt policy for
federal transportation spending within
their region, including spending on
active transportation. MPOs are regional
government entities that are charged by
the federal government with transportation
planning for urbanized areas with
populations of more than 50,000 residents.
MPOs often also undertake regional-level
planning for housing, job centers, and
transportation linkages between the two.
Because MPOs directly control funding
for many transportation projects, and can
play a large role in how our communities
are shaped, it behooves us to ensure equity
considerations are at the core of their
decision-making process.
i n s t i t u t i o n A L b i A s E s i n
M E t r o P o L i tA n P L A n n i n G
o r G A n i z At i o n s t r u C t u r E
To a large extent, transportation policy
is determined and implemented by
government agencies. But whether because
of institutional priorities, representational
structures, or other causes, these entities
can have a built-in bias against prioritizing
the real needs of low-income communities.
MPOs, which exercise control over
significant federal funds and transportation
projects, are a case in point.
An analysis by the Brookings Institution
explains how MPO board composition
has tended to create an “inherent bias” in

the regional MPO planning and funding
processes; the way that boards are often
structured means they are commonly
dominated by suburban communities with
a strong preference for road and freeway
expansion.169
How does this occur? MPOs can
take different forms, based on state
determinations. Decision making generally
occurs through boards of directors, usually
consisting of elected and appointed
officials from the city and county
governments in the region, as well as state
officials and transit providers. Many MPO
boards consist of representatives from each
local government within the MPO borders.
Without adequate measures to ensure that
voting is proportional to population, the
effect of this is to provide a greater voice
for suburban residents.
The 2006 Brookings analysis of the 50
largest metropolitan areas showed that,
relative to the populations of the MPO
jurisdictions, suburban communities and
white residents experienced considerable
over-representation in MPO votes. 170
On average, only 29 percent of board
votes represented urban jurisdictions,
despite the fact that 56 percent of
residents within the MPO regions lived
in the urban jurisdictions – while the
majority of votes (55 percent) represented
suburban jurisdictions.171 In addition,

more than 88 percent of MPO voting
members were white.172 Because urban
areas, where low-income residents and
people of color are typically concentrated,
are underrepresented on these boards,
their interests have seen lesser play in
the transportation planning decisions
that MPOs are responsible for making.
Suburban MPO board constituents tend
to be more affluent and white, and thus
have different transportation concerns
and priorities than low-income urban
constituents.173 Particularly in light of the
resource-constrained environment and
high demand for transportation dollars all
around, this distribution of voting power
has led to suburban freeway expansions
and vehicle investments winning out.
Low-income populations and people of
color are not usually fully represented
in other government entities setting
transportation policy – from local
transportation commissions to state
transportation departments and
legislatures. These inherent biases
inevitably affect transportation policies and
exacerbate transportation inequities.
16%
29%
55% Suburban
Urban

Other non-local
entities
Metropolitan
Planning Organization
Board Votes
44%
56%
Suburban
Urban
Residential Breakdown
of the Metropolitan
Planning Organization
share of Votes of
MPo boards
Who has a say in
transportation Policy?
share of Population
within MPo Jurisdiction
Brookings Institution, 2006
28
E q u i t y A n D M E t r o P o L i tA n

P L A n n i n G o r G A n i z At i o n s
Under Title vI of the 1964 Civil Rights Act,
MPOs cannot discriminate on the basis of
race, color and national origin in programs
that receive federal funds.174 MPO policies
and plans, including long-range 20-30 year
transportation plans, which are typically
updated every four to five years, provide
an important opportunity to address equity
issues at the federal level, particularly
since a non-discrimination analysis is
already required by law. Unfortunately,
lax enforcement and vague guidance
mean that Title vI requirements are
limited in effect,175 and funding of active
transportation typically represents a tiny
fraction of overall spending.176
Some MPOs, most notably in the
Boston, Chicago, San Diego, and San
Francisco metropolitan areas, are taking
equity concerns more seriously.177 The
Metropolitan Transportation Commission
(MTC), for example, which serves the
nine-county San Francisco Bay area, works
with a diverse Regional Equity Working
group to integrate equity concerns into
many aspects of its transportation plan.
This has involved considerations such as
setting performance targets with equity
in mind, outreach initiatives, and a
community-based transportation planning
process.178 While imperfect, this type of
effort creates opportunity for discussion,
prioritization, and change.

F u n D i n G A n D r E G i o n A L
P L A n n i n G W i t h A n
E q u i t y L E n s
With the MAP-21 transportation bill
came greater responsibility for MPOs in
regards to planning and funding active
transportation improvements. Under
MAP-21, each state was required to
allocate 50 percent of its Transportation
Alternative Program (TAP) funds to MPOs.
MPOs serving a population of at least
200,000 must coordinate a competitive
grant process for the TAP funds. This
requirement offers an opportunity to better
integrate active transportation needs into
the regional transportation planning and
funding processes and pushes decisions
around smaller projects like improvements
for walking and bicycling to a more local
level, where community members have
more opportunities for direct input.
Each MPO determines its own priorities
and process for selecting which active
transportation projects receive funds,
so scoring criteria can include equity
considerations. For example, the knoxville
MPO awards additional points to projects
and programs that serve communities of
concern – places with a high concentration
of people meeting certain characteristics,
including older adults, those living in
households with no motor vehicles, people
with disabilities, racial minorities, and
people living in poverty.179

As described earlier in this report, many
transportation challenges arise from the
distances between housing and jobs and
the lack of transportation between them.
These challenges don’t stop at city or
county boundaries; regional coordination
and planning is needed to grapple
with issues such as transit networks,
jobs-housing balance, and regional
improvements for active transportation,
such as commuter bikeways that cross
city and county lines. In some states,
like California, MPOs not only plan for
transportation, but also engage in planning
regarding the location of housing and job
centers, as they are all intertwined. Ways in
which MPOs can support local cities and
counties in increasing active transportation
include developing regional Safe Routes to
School strategic plans, coordinating larger
projects such as bikeways that connect
housing in one area with employment
centers in another, sharing best practices,
and providing technical assistance to local
transportation departments. It is important
that MPOs are held accountable for seeking
out community input and considering the
diverse needs of all community members
in these regional planning efforts.
13%

7%
Communities with
Marked Crosswalks
high
income
low
income
Communities with
Marked Crosswalks
29
City and County Policy
How our towns, cities, and rural areas
look on the ground is influenced by many
factors – development decisions, federal
and state transportation investments,
economic and demographic factors, even
topography – but the law, policies, plans,
and practices of towns, cities, and counties
play a dominant role in what our streets
look like and who can travel safely on
them. Communities can adopt general

policies that prioritize equity throughout
their municipal activities. One example
is seen in a 2014 executive order in king
County, Washington, which required
development of an Equity and Social
Justice Strategic Innovation Priority Plan.180
king County’s first Equity and Social
Justice Annual Report, issued in November
2014, included an analysis of “Access
to Safe and Efficient Transportation.”181
In addition to standalone policies,
incorporating equity into specific
transportation-related policies is also
crucial.
C o M P r E h E n s i V E P L A n n i n G
A n D b i C y C L E A n D
P E D E s t r i A n P L A n n i n G
A good starting place for encouraging
investments in equitable active
transportation is through a community’s
comprehensive planning process.182
Although such processes can be slow,
imperfect, and may feel divorced from
implementation, they are often the
underpinning of transportation and land
use decisions that can have wide-ranging,
long-term effects. Comprehensive planning
processes frequently include pedestrian,
bicycle, or multimodal master plans, which
can be key to ensuring that pedestrian
and bicycling needs are part of policy
discussions about future infrastructure

investments. Making sure that equity is
built into each component of these plans is
crucial.
How does comprehensive planning
advance equity and active transportation?
First, these plans often include a public
outreach component, where community
members are invited to public meetings
to address their concerns about walking,
bicycling, and transportation needs, and
asked for input on where they would place
new facilities. Second, these plans require
dedicated staff and hired consultants to
perform data analysis and other technical
work to understand current mobility
and forecast how greater investments
in walking and bicycling may improve
or hinder overall community mobility.
Particularly with direction and advocacy,
such analyses can provide key insights in
local and regional transportation equity
issues. Third, these plans often end with
recommendations and an evaluation
section, which can be used to measure
progress and identify funding sources.
Such plans can also be used to hold
government accountable if there is a lack
of implementation.
Integrating Safe Walking
and Bicycling from the National
Partnership and National Center
for Safe Routes to School contains

more information on how to integrate
walking and bicycling to school into
comprehensive planning.
The City of Seattle put equity front
and center in its 2014 Master
Bicycle Plan. Equity is one of five
goals set out in the plan, and
is defined as providing “equal
bicycling access for all through
public engagement, program
delivery, and capital investment.”183
The Bicycle Plan explains: “This
goal emphasizes the importance
of making investments throughout
the city and connecting every
neighborhood. It also promotes
the idea that people in every
neighborhood should have a

voice in helping to design their
communities’ best bicycle
facilities.”184
To help achieve this goal, the
Bicycle Plan includes an equity
analysis that highlights the existing
uneven distribution of bicycle
facilities throughout the city185
and develops a connected bicycle
network that serves all areas of
Seattle, emphasizing areas that
have a high density of historically
underserved populations and
relatively low levels of bicycle
facilities.186
Most importantly, project selection
criteria are weighted in favor of
projects that (1) serve “populations

that are historically underserved,
including areas with a higher
percentage of minority populations,
households below poverty, people
under 18, people over 65, and
households without access to an
automobile,” and (2) provide “a
health benefit for people in areas
with the greatest reported health
needs, represented by obesity
rates, physical activity rates (self-
reported), and diabetes rates.187
Specifically, projects that address
equity get 20 extra points (the
other four goals earn between five
and 40 points each).188 Finally, the
Bicycle Plan expressly includes
equity in its performance measure

targets, setting a benchmark of
“[z}ero areas of city lacking bicycle
facilities by 2030.”189
Equity in the seattle bicycle Plan
http://saferoutespartnership.org/sites/default/files/pdf/SRTS_bri
ef_IntegratingCompPlan-FINAL.pdf
30
Active transportation Equity:
A scan of Existing
Master Plans
Advocacy Advance’s Active
Transportation Equity: A Scan of
Existing Master Plans looked at
bicycle and pedestrian master plans
from 38 communities to understand
how they defined and measured
equity.190 The project surveyed
the plans for explicit mentions of

equity, including the word “equity”
along with several associated
terms describing race, family
characteristics, and income.
Equity was mentioned in
approximately half of the plans. Even
where the term was found, it was
often undefined or left vague in the
plans. When equity was defined,
there was little information about the
process that created the definition.
The report also looked at equity-
related performance measures
within these plans, since
performance measures define
how success for a stated goal
will be judged and tracked. The
report found that equity-related

performance measures were mostly
related to infrastructure in areas
identified as high-priority within the
plans. The report concluded with
a discussion of tools that can be
used for community outreach and
data collection related to equity
objectives for bicycle and pedestrian
master plans.
Finally, a plan provides documentation
of a commitment to improve equity and
walking and bicycling in a community.
It fits together with other plans for the
community and signals that equitable
active transportation is an essential
ingredient to community well-being.
Although working to improve
comprehensive plans and multimodal
plans is a worthwhile effort, there are
certainly shortcomings to existing
processes. Many plans are aspirational,
with recommendations and performance
measures that are largely abstract and
not required to actually materialize.
Some multimodal plans sit as standalone

plans, separate from formal planning
documents like the comprehensive plan
or capital improvement plan, where
actual funding sources are identified and
policies can ensure investments include
active transportation. Moreover, although
a planning department may create the
plan, public works departments or parks
and recreation departments may be
responsible for aspects of implementation,
and they may not be as receptive to the
ideas in the plan. In terms of community
engagement, while almost all planning
processes include public meetings and
planning board hearings, the format,
location, and scheduling for these meetings
often limits participation to a select few
who have the time and passion to provide
input. Most meetings provide a general
overview of the planning process and
an opportunity to provide feedback on
specific documents, but very little chance
for community members to interact with
agency staff or provide direct input on
community priorities early in the process.
Many plans include a public comment
period, but there is often no responsibility
to incorporate community concerns,
which can result in investment decisions
that perform well in a technical analysis
but have real-world adverse effects on the
community.
Creating enforceable active transportation
plans that are responsive to the community

is essential, and many communities are
working toward these goals. Historically,
these policies have not expressly
considered whether transportation
investments and projects are being
equitably distributed. When policies fail
to recognize and address equity issues,
even jurisdictions that embrace active
transportation can inadvertently reinforce
existing transportation inequities. The
case study of Portland, Oregon (in this
section) illustrates how easily this can
happen. While Portland invested heavily
in bicycle infrastructure, the policies
guiding its decisions did not require the
city to consider whether its investments
were equitably benefitting all residents.
Instead, the city relied on criteria that,
while objectively neutral and reasonable,
had the effect of strongly favoring affluent,
predominantly white neighborhoods and
leaving other areas of Portland behind.
Recognizing this, Portland, and some
other local, county, and state jurisdictions,
have started to expressly address
equity considerations in their active
transportation policies, through goals,
specific equity criteria for project selection,
and requiring that high needs areas receive
a guaranteed percentage of investments.
Ideally, these policies are developed with
the full input and involvement of the
community. The best plans are those that
involve the community from day one, and
that address equity throughout the data

analysis and recommendations in both an
integrated fashion and also as a standalone
consideration.
Road Type Affects Kids on Foot Hit by Cars
6xHigh Traffic Volume
Low
Traffic
Volume
road type Affects Kids on Foot hit by Cars
National Highway Traffic Safety Administration, 2012
more collisions
with kids walking on
high traffic roads
http://www.advocacyadvance.org/docs/ActiveTransportationEqu
ityScan.pdf
ityScan.pdf
ityScan.pdf
31
Case study:
Rectifying Inequities in Bicycle Transportation in Portland,
Oregon

Portland, Oregon, is well known for embracing bicycling and
walking and has invested tremendously
in active transportation. Its experience over the last 20 years,
however, shows that without conscious
attention to addressing transportation inequities, new programs
and initiatives can reinforce or worsen
existing inequities.
When Portland adopted its first Bicycle
Master Plan in 1996, it prioritized
projects that would improve connectivity,
serve a high volume of people bicycling,
and serve intensive land uses (e.g.
commercial areas). It also prioritized
projects that could be completed
economically because they could be
incorporated into roadway investments.
While reasonable priorities, these criteria
had the effect of concentrating new
bike infrastructure projects downtown
and in the densely populated, compact
neighborhoods to the north, where
it was easier to achieve connectivity,
serve a high volume of bicycles, and
complete projects economically. But these
neighborhoods were whiter and more
affluent. In contrast, the neighborhood of
East Portland, which was predominantly
low income with more residents of
color, did not fit the bike plan priorities.
East Portland’s more suburban layout
and many gravel streets meant that
connectivity and economical projects

were more challenging. Existing bike
lanes were disconnected and mostly
located on heavy arterial highways, which
was discouraging to people who might
have considered bicycling. Without a
focus on equity, disparities grew larger
instead of smaller, and East Portland was
left behind.
To rectify this problem, Portland is now
actively working to make equity a priority
going forward. It engaged the community
in developing an East Portland Action
Plan and an active transportation strategy
called East Portland in Motion, which
brought visibility and attention to
transportation equity issues. Portland
also updated its Bicycle Plan to call for
a network of family friendly bikeways
within a quarter mile of every city
resident that would allow 25 percent of
all trips to be made by bicycle.191 Portland
is also updating its Transportation System
Plan (TSP) as part of an update of its
Comprehensive Plan, which governs
Portland’s overall vision for growth
through 2035. Expected to be adopted
in 2015, the TSP sets out priorities for
funding transportation projects for the
next 20 years. Although the current TSP
includes references to equity, equity
is not currently built into decision-
making processes. With the updates, a

stakeholder workgroup recommended
that health equity criteria be included
in the TSP, along with a framework to
score projects based on their impacts on
vulnerable populations.192 The result:
Portland’s updated draft TSP calls for
establishing transportation project
selection criteria that will advance equity
along with other goals.193 Portland’s draft
Comprehensive Plan also identifies equity
as one of four guiding principles and
integrates equity into other elements of
Portland’s Comprehensive Plan, many of
which affect transportation.194 Portland is
expected to finalize the updated TSP and
Comprehensive Plan in 2015.
32
z o n i n G , L A n D u s E , A n D
C o M P L E t E s t r E E t s P o L i C i E s
Many other local laws and policies also
affect the equity and safety of walking and
bicycling. key aspects include Complete
Streets policies, zoning and subdivision
codes, design guidelines manuals, parks
plans, and other internal policies.

What is a Complete Streets policy? The
core of a Complete Streets policy is that
it requires that when a street is built or
renovated, it is made complete – safe and
convenient for travel on foot, bicycle,
car, by children, older adults, people
with disabilities, and so on. To date,
more than 700 towns, cities, counties,
MPOs, and states have adopted Complete
Streets policies.195 These policies are
an important step in transforming our
current system of designing streets mostly
for cars into a system where streets are
designed and built for everyone. In
order for Complete Streets policies to
play a role in addressing and remedying
inequities in active transportation, it is
“Zoning is a policy tool with
tremendous potential to
address a broad swath of
public health problems at the
community level.”
Lauren M. Rossen and Keshia M. Pollack
“Making the Connection Between
Zoning and Health Disparities”198
important that such policies be adopted
by both low-income and higher-income
communities. This may pose a problem,
since low-income communities are often
slower to update codes and laws because
they are understaffed and under-resourced.
Thus, state and regional policies that
support and encourage the adoption
of Complete Streets policies can play a

role in addressing inequity. In addition,
in jurisdictions that contain both well-
to-do and low-income neighborhoods,
inequities in infrastructure maintenance
and investments may result in a Complete
Streets policy exacerbating active
transportation disparities. This could occur
if the inadequate facilities in the rich part
of town gradually get fixed, while those
in the poor part of town do not, or get
fixed at a much slower rate. To ensure
improvements to active transportation
equity in this regard, we need to encourage
adoption of Complete Streets policies in
low-income communities; assess whether
such policies have any negative effects on
equity in practice; and work to encourage
equitable investments of transportation
resources.
Village of Walthill, nebraska
Sitting on the Omaha Reservation, the
Village of Walthill has a population of just
780 residents, 80 percent of whom are
Native American. Many children in the
village walk to school, and safety was a
primary concern. Working with technical
assistance from the Safe Routes to

School National Partnership, the village
successfully established a Complete
Streets ordinance. Walthill followed
up on the ordinance by submitting an
application for safety funding for walking
and bicycling improvements, and is
continuing to put the building blocks in
place for healthy community design.
Zoning and subdivision codes are another
important part of ensuring walkable
and bikeable streets. These codes set
out requirements for the design of
future development. As a result, code
language that requires features that
support bicycling and walking can create
a major shift in the way roads are built
and maintained. However, lower-income
communities are less likely than upper-
income communities to have zoning codes,
subdivision codes, and other land use laws
that require pedestrian or bicycle friendly
improvements – and in fact, may have
codes that are actively negative for walking
and bicycling.
sodus, new york
A community of less than 1,800 people,

Sodus sits midway between Rochester
and Syracuse. With no community center,
the school has become the primary
gathering place for community residents,
and accessibility is a priority. But many
streets on the way to school have no
sidewalks; in other areas, sidewalks
are cracked and dangerous. Wanting to
see improvements through adoption of
a Complete Streets policy, Jay Roscup,
Project Director for the 21st Century
Community Learning Center, and Sandra
Hamilton from the Village Planning Board
brought together stakeholders and
built a coalition in three months. The
goal of this process was to “change
the way residents of Sodus view their
community and change the expectations

the community ha[d] for infrastructure
development.” The coalition worked to
successfully pass a sustainable, binding
Complete Streets resolution. Their
success shows how a small group of
concerned citizens could make a big
impact on how their community will be
constructed going forward.
33
For more details about how zoning and subdivision codes can
support active
transportation, see these ChangeLab solutions resources:
•Pedestrian Friendly Code Directory: Provides explanations and
examples of
different code components that support walking and public
transportation.
•Move this Way: Making Neighborhoods More Walkable and
Bikeable: Lays

out the design needs of people walking and bicycling, common
barriers in zoning and
subdivision codes, the implications for health disparities, and
strategies to overcome
these challenges.
PeopleForBikes recently released a
report on how to use protected bike
lanes to advance equity. The report
profiles local advocates who are
working toward protected bike lanes
in communities of color for reasons
that include reducing asthma,
increasing access to healthy food,
and reinvigorating neighborhoods.
The report also highlights national
survey data from 2014 showing
that African Americans and Latinos
bicycle for both transportation and
recreation at similar or slightly higher

rates than white Americans, and
that protected bicycle lanes would
encourage riding by people of color.
PeopleForBikes
Building Equity: Race, Ethnicity, Class,
and Protected Bike Lanes: An Idea Book
for Fairer Cities.19
Of high-income communities, 91 percent
have land use laws that require pedestrian
oriented infrastructure such as sidewalks,
crosswalks, and so on.196 But only 58
percent of low-income communities
have such requirements. In looking at
requirements for bike lanes, 14 percent
of higher-income communities have
these, but only 5 percent of low-income
communities do.197 The lower rate of
adoption and revision of land use policies
in low-income communities is one of the
factors that leads to more inadequate and
unsafe facilities for walking and bicycling.
Communities also need other policies,
such as Safe Routes to School policies
and other institutionalized directives,
that prioritize walking and bicycling and
make it an essential part of transporta-
tion planning. As with the zoning policies
described above, such policies are likely
to exist differentially in low-income versus
upper-income communities. In addition,
such policies need to dig into local condi-

tions and needs, actively addressing equity
wherever relevant.
high-income
communities
low-income
communities
Streets with
LightingWho has streets with Lighting?
http://changelabsolutions.org/childhood-obesity/pedestrian-
friendly-code
http://changelabsolutions.org/childhood-obesity/pedestrian-
friendly-code
34
Equity Atlases: Using Data and Maps to
Understand Transportation Equity Issues
A specific kind of data visualization tool known as
an equity atlas can help in analyzing and advocating
around transportation equity issues. Equity
atlas reports map out the existing inventory of
transportation options, housing, jobs, schools, and
other community amenities, allowing assessment of
which neighborhoods are rich in resources and where

there are gaps in goods and services.200 Another type
of data visualization tool is known as opportunity
mapping.201 Opportunity mapping aggregates different
dimensions of equity into summary scores, which
identify areas of high and low opportunity.
For equity atlases, the key component is also
mapping, but without collapsing different measures
into single scores. Equity atlas mapping usually
occurs at the regional scale, with the transportation
network as a core component. Equity atlases provide
data that shows how communities are connected
by transit and other transportation modes, and
highlight where regions are falling short in providing
access to opportunity for low-income populations.
In particular, the tool provides a way to visualize
the spatial relationship between seemingly disparate
issues like affordable housing and good jobs.
A n E q u i t y At L A s C A n :
1 . Bring Together Stakeholders.
By visually mapping the relationships
between different issues, stakeholders can
better see, for example, how preschool
facilities are laid out in a region and how
they do and don’t intersect with where
people work. An equity atlas can help
bring together regional stakeholders by
showing them how working together
would better leverage their resources
and capacity. For example, the Denver
Regional Equity Atlas served as the
call to action for forming Mile High
Connects, a collaborative of nonprofits,
funders, and financial institutions

working to ensure that the region’s
$7.8 billion investment in expanding
the transit system improves access to
opportunity for all. All of these groups
had been working on social equity issues
for years, but the Equity Atlas helped
them see how their work intersected.
2 . Drive Advocacy. An equity atlas can
bring crucial attention to equity issues.
In many cases, an equity atlas helps
identify communities vulnerable to
displacement or gentrification because
of new real estate and infrastructure
investments. For example, in Los Angeles,
the LA THRIVES collaborative is using
their equity atlas to make the case
for greater investment in affordable
housing near transit by highlighting
spatial disparities in existing affordable
housing stock. Advocates have also been
able to identify where existing policies
such as rent control ordinances need to
be better enforced. Similarly, Atlanta’s
Transit-Oriented Development (TOD)
Collaborative is using its equity atlas to
call out the region’s jobs-housing divide.
In Atlanta, most low-income workers
live in the western and southern parts of
the city, far away from the region’s jobs
in the downtown and northern parts. By
mapping job access disparity, the TOD
Collaborative is using the equity atlas as a
tool to convince local leaders to prioritize

affordable housing and community
investment near MARTA stations so that
low-income workers can live closer to the
region’s jobs.
3 . Steer Investment. Lastly, the data
and maps contained in an equity atlas
can help decision makers adjust their
activities and investments. In Denver,
creating an equity atlas has helped
investors in the Transit-Oriented
Development (TOD) Fund identify
sites near transit for affordable housing
investments, highlight gaps in existing
small business and neighborhood
incentive programs, and promote the
use of a fund for sites near transit stations
that are within food deserts.
Links to Equity Atlases:
Denver: www.denverregionalequityatlas.org
Los Angeles: www.losangelesequityatlas.org
Portland: www.equityatlas.org
Atlanta: www.atlantaequityatlas.com
New York: http://prattcenter.net/research/transportation-equity-
atlas
National Equity Atlas: http://nationalequityatlas.org/
http://www.denverregionalequityatlas.org/
http://www.denverregionalequityatlas.org/
http://milehighconnects.org/main.html

http://milehighconnects.org/main.html
http://www.rtd-fastracks.com/main_1
http://www.rtd-fastracks.com/main_1
http://jcurrydesign.com/movela/wp-
content/uploads/2012/07/ThriveLA_5-9_final.pdf
http://www.atlantaregional.com/land-use/transit-oriented-
development/atlanta-tod-collaborative
http://www.atlantaregional.com/land-use/transit-oriented-
development/atlanta-tod-collaborative
http://www.urbanlandc.org/denver-transit-oriented-
development-fund/
http://www.urbanlandc.org/denver-transit-oriented-
development-fund/
http://milehighconnects.org/events.html
http://www.denverregionalequityatlas.org
http://www.losangelesequityatlas.org
http://www.equityatlas.org
http://www.atlantaequityatlas.com
http://prattcenter.net/research/transportation-equity-atlas
http://nationalequityatlas.org/
35
Gentrification and Active transportation
A core topic related to active transportation and
equity involves gentrification and displacement
– the concern that new walkable neighborhoods,
bicycle lanes, and transit-oriented development
will lead to displacement of existing residents
in low- to moderate-income neighborhoods.
Will new bike lanes or even improved sidewalks
make neighborhoods desirable to upper-income

demographics, leading to significant changes to the
community? Will the housing opportunities created
by new developments be affordable to everyone who
wants to live there, including long-time residents?
This issue often comes to the fore around new bike
lanes. Many low-income communities perceive a bike
lane as a symbol of gentrification, not as a tangible
benefit to the neighborhood. This can come as a surprise
to active transportation advocates, who see safety
improvements and health benefits for local residents.
The previous section detailed many of the governmental policies
that affect active transportation and
equity, some functioning to advance equitable walking and
bicycling, and others as obstacles. In this
section, we turn our attention to the work on the ground. We
look at advocates and initiatives that are
wrestling with challenges and embracing opportunities related
to equity and active transportation.
Around the country, people are working in many different ways
to create communities where health,
equity, and active transportation options come together.
STATE OF THE COUNTRy
Working Toward Transportation Equity and Justice
sECtion V

36
Gentrification and
Displacement
The terms “gentrification” and
“displacement” are often used
interchangeably, but they can be
distinguished as two different
but related events that occur in
communities as they become
more attractive places to live.
Gentrification refers to the process
of communities changing socially
and economically, typically with
new residents and businesses
moving into areas that were
economically depressed or
were home to industrial or other

land uses incompatible with
residential living.202 This can
cause the culture of a community
to change, leading some older
residents to no longer feel at
home. Displacement is the physical
relocation of existing residents
who lived in these communities,
often because rents and the
overall cost of living increases
as these communities become
more popular. In some cases, old
apartment buildings and businesses
are bought out by developers and
converted into higher-rent units or
storefronts, which forces existing
residents out. Gentrification can
cause displacement, but there

is considerable debate about
whether displacement occurs in all
circumstances of gentrification.203
Debates over Gentrification’s Effects
A recent Slate article claimed that gentrification was a “myth,”
that it typically
bypasses low-income neighborhoods with a high concentration
of poverty, and
that it generally leaves residents better off than they were
before.204 The article
created an intense debate online, demonstrating how sensitive
the issue has
become for many communities.205 An article in The Atlantic
focusing on the
economic revitalization of Minneapolis206 was countered a few
days later in the
same publication, with the rebuttal claiming the city’s
gentrification only benefited
a certain slice of the population.207
gentrification and displacement are
products of large economic and social
forces. After decades of neglect and
disinvestment in urban areas, the new

resurgence of urban living has drawn in
development dollars, political interests,
and a shifting kaleidoscope of interests.
Mayors and young professionals see
the economic growth, vibrant city life,
and development activity as a sign of
improvement. But from the perspective
of local residents who have lived in
underinvested areas, street infrastructure
improvements can indicate rising rents
and displacement. Bike lanes and
improvements to sidewalks and crosswalks
often signal that the community has
gotten the attention of elected officials and
developers as a “hot” neighborhood worth
investing more public dollars in, and so
current residents don’t see these features as
a socially valuable investment intended to
benefit them. But residents’ concerns about
displacement are coupled with a desire
to see and direct meaningful investments
in their neighborhoods. Low-income
residents want to see their communities
flourish. Active transportation advocacy
may not be driving displacement – but
street infrastructure investments are a
factor in a larger struggle for control over
neighborhoods.
gentrification and displacement also arise
in conjunction with transit improvements.
For the first time in decades, many
regions are investing in upgrading their
public transportation systems with
modern technology like light rail and
bus rapid transit. Transit investments can

provide a significant boost to economic
development and revitalize urban
neighborhoods through what is known
as “transit-oriented development” or
TOD. Compact, mixed-use development
creates an environment where walking and
bicycling are safe and convenient ways
to get around, which results in a greater
demand for it. yet transit and TOD can
also have negative effects on surrounding
neighborhoods, especially low-income
communities. greater demand for living
in these neighborhoods can lead to the
displacement of existing low-income
residents and small businesses as rents
increase, and low-income residents can
experience other negative effects such as
the elimination of bus routes that overlap
with new transit lines and the shifting of
resources away from communities farther
from transit.
So what can be done? Real community
engagement can go a long way toward
avoiding a negative reaction to new
active transportation investments. People
want to see improvements that relate to
the problems they experience in their
neighborhoods, and they want to feel like
the improvements are intended to benefit
them. By bringing planning processes to
churches, community centers, schools,
senior centers, and street corners, planners
and active transportation advocates
can work with community members to

develop proposals that meet local needs. In
addition, active transportation proponents
need to be involved in local communities
and engage with concerns articulated
by the community, particularly around
affordable housing efforts. For those
working in the space of equity and active
transportation, affordable housing and
anti-displacement efforts are a core part of
the work.
Section V: State of the Country: Working Toward
Transportation Equity and Justice
37
Low income children and Latino and
African American children have the
highest obesity rates of any population
group, and experience the most dangerous
pedestrian and bicycle infrastructure,
which discourages walking and biking
and contributes to disproportionately high
pedestrian and bicycling injury rates.215,216
Moreover, many low-income students have
no choice but to walk to school through
hazardous traffic conditions, meaning they
experience greater exposure to the dangers
of unsafe routes to school. An analysis of
Safe Routes to School funding under the
2005 federal transportation bill shows that
low-income students and schools appear to
be getting a proportionate share of federal
Safe Routes to School resources. Of schools

that benefitted from federal Safe Routes to
School standalone funding, 69 percent are
Title I schools (schools with the highest
percentage of low-income students), which
is significantly more than the 57 percent
of schools nationally that are Title I.217 In
addition, 47 percent of students enrolled
at schools receiving Safe Routes to School
funds were eligible to receive free and
reduced price meals, which is very close to
national figures.218
When active transportation and equity concerns collide, a
frustration often arises over the failure to engage with the
community around planned facilities. The cultural clashes
that occur here are exacerbated by a larger challenge with
transportation and community planning – their non-inclusive,
top-down, highly technical nature. Transportation planning
occurs through complex, multilayered, multijurisdictional
processes – just understanding who a decision maker is can
be a challenge, much less navigating the circuitous pathways
to figure out how to weigh in and influence decisions.
Sometimes community members feel excluded from public
input processes – but it is worth emphasizing that the

public at large, including active transportation advocates,
is excluded from these processes, or often included in
inconvenient and cursory ways. This is not to say that
professional advocates don’t have a leg up over community
members – the ability to attend daytime meetings and
devote time to mastering complex processes and jargon, as
well as the benefits of class, race, and professional privilege
certainly go a long way to helping to influence outcomes –
but these advantages still interact with processes that are
often deeply exclusive at their core. Working to demand
creative, innovative, community-centered engagement
processes will benefit active transportation and equity
stakeholders along with the community at large.
Safe Routes to School National
Partnership offers a Low-income
resource Guide for volunteers
and professionals implementing
Safe Routes to School in low-
income schools and communities.
Equity on the
route to school
Since 1969, the number of students

walking to school has dramatically
declined as communities became less
friendly to walking and bicycling, and
parents became more concerned about
stranger danger.208 In addition to the
health benefits of walking and bicycling
to school,209 students who are physically
active and those with a healthy weight
perform better academically, and have
lower rates of stress, sleep problems, and
depression. 210,211
Safe Routes to School initiatives make it
safer to walk and bike to school by funding
new and improved sidewalks, crosswalks,
bike lanes, and other pedestrian and
bicycle infrastructure near schools. Safe
Routes to School programs also support
activities that encourage walking and
bicycling to school, like supervised
“walking school buses” and “bike trains”
that make it safe and convenient for
students to get physical activity on the way
to school.212
Since federal funding for Safe Routes to
School began in 2005,213 there have been
more than 17,000 Safe Routes to School
initiatives funded around the country,
and recent studies show conclusively
that Safe Routes to School programs and
infrastructure improvements not only
decrease traffic injuries, but are also
effective in getting more kids walking and
bicycling to school.214

While Safe Routes to School programs
are important everywhere, the most
compelling need is in low-income
top-down Culture of transportation Planning is at odds with
Community Engagement
http://saferoutespartnership.org/resourcecenter/publications/low
-income-guide
http://saferoutespartnership.org/resourcecenter/publications/low
-income-guide
38
The Safe Routes to School National Partnership’s factsheet on
overcoming obstacles in underserved
Communities describes a variety of effective approaches that
state departments of transportation have taken
to overcoming the hurdles that low-income communities
experience in trying to access Safe Routes to School
funding and to Safe Routes to School and implementation
opportunities.
Despite those indications of funds
getting to low-income communities,
the greater need in those communities,
and unmet need generally, means
that it is important to ensure that Safe
Routes to School funding and programs
prioritize underserved areas. At the
state level, California has taken the

lead with legislation creating an Active
Transportation Program (ATP), which
requires that 25 percent of all funds in the
ATP benefit low-income communities.219
In the first cycle of the ATP, California also
dedicated a percentage of funds for Safe
Routes to School program.220 California,
as well as some other states, also provides
technical application assistance to low-
income communities seeking Safe Routes
to School funds but lacking access to the
planners, engineers, and other resources
necessary to develop and implement
Safe Routes to School proposals.221 Such
assistance is critical to ensuring that
low-income communities are equitably
represented in Safe Routes to School
At the local level, cities and towns can
adopt Safe Routes to School policies that
prioritize equity, as the City of Portland
did. Portland’s Safe Routes to School policy
sets two goals, to be achieved by 2035:
first, that 75 percent of all elementary
school students will receive biking and
walking education, and second, that 75
percent of all elementary school students
will travel to school by foot or bike.222
The policy explains that while the Safe
Routes to School “program is committed
to achieving the goals in all schools ... [it]
is especially committed to meeting the
goals in schools with high percentages
of students and families that have the
highest risk of having inequitable access to
transportation, including people of color,

[and] people experiencing poverty.”223
The policy goes on to incorporate equity
considerations into all phases of the Safe
Routes to School program, including
strongly weighting the criteria used for
project selection to favor schools which are
predominantly attended by low-income
students of color or recent immigrants.224
grants.
C h r o n i C A b s E n t E E i s M A n D
s A F E r o u t E s t o s C h o o L
Lack of transportation can also pose
a barrier to education. Transportation
obstacles pose a key factor in chronic
absenteeism, which is defined as missing
10 percent or more of the school year,
whether for excused or unexcused
absences.225,226 Children who miss a
significant amount of school fall behind
on learning, with long lasting effects
on academic achievement, graduation
rates, economic success, and health.227
Compared to more affluent students,
children who are in poverty are 25 percent
more likely to miss three or more days
of school per month.228 Students who
walk and bicycle to school have higher
levels of physical fitness and are healthier
than others,229 while children who are
overweight or obese have higher rates of
school absenteeism.230 When students have
poor attendance, it can cost schools money

and can translate into lower academic
achievement.231 Safe Routes to School
programs can help deal with chronic
absenteeism. Walking school buses are one
technique that has been employed to great
success to address these problems.
s C h o o L s i t i n G
School siting is another area where equity
and active transportation intersect in
complex ways. The location of schools
is integral to the success of Safe Routes
to School initiatives. In addition,
school siting has enormous impacts on
neighborhood vitality – the proximity of a
school affects housing prices, desirability,
and community cohesion. But schools
have also been a contentious zone of
difficult community and political fights
– over desegregation, school closings,
privatization, and more – and so the
seemingly simple notion that it is desirable
for students to live near enough to school
that they can walk or bicycle is not so
simple after all.
How does school siting affect Safe Routes
to School? As discussed above, in order for
most students to walk or bicycle to school,
they must attend a school located within
one to two miles of their home. Parents
report that the biggest factor that prevents
their children from walking or bicycling
to school is distance from school.232 But
in recent years, there has been a trend

toward locating schools on the outskirts
of towns, due to a perceived need for
large schools with sizeable playing fields,
outdated state reimbursement policies,
sprawling development approaches, and
consideration of one-time land costs.233
As a result, today, two-thirds of schools
are located far from where children live.234
39
Walking school buses improve Attendance
Why would the kids who lived closest to school – all within one
mile – have the
highest rates of chronic absenteeism? The answer became clear
when health
workers realized that Providence School District in Rhode
Island doesn’t provide
school bus service to families living within one mile of school.
Transportation was
an obstacle to attendance for many of these children – they
couldn’t take the

bus and many did not have a family car, and their parents often
worked morning
shifts and weren’t available to walk or drive them to school.
The students lived
close enough to walk to school, but families weren’t
comfortable letting their
elementary kids walk alone.
Staff at Providence Children’s Initiative (PCI), a program of
Family Service of
Rhode Island, came up with the idea of starting a walking
school bus program
with volunteer adult chaperones to accompany the kids to
school. The first step
was reaching out to the families to explain the idea and get
them on board. PCI
got little response to flyers
sent home with the students
announcing the walking school
buses. Then they tried calling
homes, but many of the
numbers were out of order.

Finally, they went door-to-door.
After visiting with the families
and explaining the walking
school bus program, PCI found
that there was solid support
for starting a program that
would allow students to walk to
school safely.
The first walking school bus started in September 2012, and the
program has
since expanded to two schools, four routes, and 30 kids who
walk to and from
school every day. Since the program started, 100 percent of
participating
students have improved their attendance at school.
“The kids love it. Our volunteers are on a consistent schedule so
the students
can get to know them, and they also get to meet local
‘celebrities’ who walk
with them sometimes, such as the Providence Police, the State
Police, and even

the Governor. Plus, with recess time getting cut, walking to
school gives them a
chance to get more exercise and be outside,” said Allyson
Trenteseaux, program
and policy coordinator at PCI.
The program is so successful that there is now a waitlist of
students who want
to participate. The only thing holding PCI back from adding
more routes is a
shortage of volunteers.
Schools sited near where children live
not only helps kids walk and bicycle to
school, but can also support children’s
physical activity and community well-
being after school hours by providing
a convenient location for play, athletic
activities, community meetings, and
emergency centers, with shared use
agreements promoting good uses of nearby
amenities.235
In an added twist, economic and political
pressures to close schools are having
negative effects not only on walkability,
but also the welfare of students of color.236
Analyses have shown that school closures
disproportionately affect schools with
high percentages of low-income students
and students of color.237 When a low-
performing school closes, students are

not likely to be transferred to better-
performing schools where they will learn
and thrive; rather, they are commonly
transferred to schools with similar or
worse academic records. In addition,
they now must travel further, sometimes
through hostile gang territory, while their
neighborhoods lose the community center
offered by the local school.238
At the same time, high levels of
neighborhood segregation and uneven
investments in local schools mean that
without a more nuanced approach
ensuring equity in school siting, walkable
neighborhood schools have the potential to
increase school segregation and exacerbate
educational inequity.239 Digging into this
challenge, advocates have concluded that
walkability and diversity in schools are
compatible outcomes, with advocacy for
the following three joint demands:
• Investinginqualitypubliceducationfor
all children in all communities;
• Engagingincommunityandschool
planning to prioritize health and
walkability;
• Integratingneighborhoodseconomically
and racially by diversifying housing
options while protecting existing
residents.240
Once again, one of the key lessons is that

in order to promote active transportation
while supporting equitable outcomes,
advocates must embrace the larger goals
of potential partners, supporting strategies
and advocacy around quality education as
well as residential diversity.
Community organizing
Many initiatives that address equity and
active transportation begin as community
organizing or service programs, with the
focus on improving walking and bicycling
conditions for low-income residents
emerging organically out of the work.
For example, in 2013, the Asian Pacific
Islander Obesity Prevention Alliance
(APIOPA) launched Bike to China, a
program to promote physical activity
among Asian Pacific Islander youth in
Los Angeles. High school students from
Chinatown bicycled 5,000 miles in one
summer, roughly the distance from Los
Angeles to China, while studying how
the built environment affects physical
activity. The students led public officials
on tours of their communities and
gave recommendations for safer routes
for Chinatown residents to walk and
bicycle. In 2014, APIOPA added a Bike
to Japan program with Little Tokyo high
school students. APIOPA then went on

to conduct multilingual surveys, finding
that Chinatown has one of the highest
populations of elderly residents in greater
Los Angeles, with almost 20 percent of
Chinatown residents being older than
60 years old. Of those surveyed, the
majority of older adults used walking as
their primary mode of transportation,
emphasizing the importance of making
streets in Chinatown safe for walking for
residents of all ages.
“In our community, violence
prevention is a priority, the
high unemployment rate is a
priority, and things that take
away from those priorities
are considered frivolous.
But a comprehensive bike
strategy that connects
people allows people to shop
locally and live healthier
lives, and contributes to our
communities being safer and
more economically viable.”
Olatunji Oboi Reed
Slow Roll Chicago246
tour de Dreams
The Tour de Dreams, now in its seventh year, is a 540 mile
bicycle ride in California
undertaken each summer in support of undocumented college
students. Since

2009, students from California’s colleges and universities have
come together
each summer to ride from UC Berkeley to UCLA to demand
educational and civil
rights access for undocumented students. The ride raises
awareness about the
goals, dreams, and obstacles encountered by undocumented
students, and also
raises money for tuition.247 The students who initiated the ride
turned to the bicycle
as a way to speak out because many of them were undocumented
and, in the
words of Evelyn Martinez, an organizer of this year’s tour,
“They didn’t have a way
to get around the community… Rather than breaking the law
and driving [without a
license], or standing on corners and waiting for buses, they
decided to take their
mobility into their own hands and ride bicycles.”248 The ride
serves as a fundraiser,
political action, and embrace of access and mobility.249
For other community organizing
initiatives, the active transportation
element is built in from the start. Slow

Roll Chicago is an example of this type of
organization. A nonprofit organization in
Chicago, Slow Roll Chicago was “[i]nspired
by the energy, diversity, and spirit of the
Slow Roll Detroit rides.”241 As Slow Roll
Chicago’s website explains: “Jamal Julien
and Olatunji Oboi Reed founded Slow
Roll Chicago in September of 2014. They
explicitly set out to use the movement and
bicycles as vehicles for social change.”242
The organization has a three-fold strategy:
hosting community bike rides; providing
youth and family activities; and engaging
in bicycle equity advocacy. Shortly after
their founding, Slow Roll Chicago and four
other black-led, Southside-based bicycling
organizations sent an open letter to City
of Chicago Mayor’s Bicycle Advisory
Council pointing out the inequitable
distribution of bicycling infrastructure,
education, and resources in Chicago,
and requesting seven specific steps to
redress these inequities.243,244 In response,
Chicago Department of Transportation
Commissioner Rebekah Scheinfeld
acknowledged that more effort needs to be
made to promote bicycling in communities
that don’t already have high ridership, and
promised that equity would be strongly
considered in prioritizing future projects.245
Slow Roll Chicago’s state and local
advocacy continues on behalf of African
American and low-income communities
in Chicago specifically and Illinois more
generally.

40
“It is representative of the power and potential we all have
to be self-sufficient, to move freely, without fear.”
Tour de Dreams rider Irene O’Connell250
PA r E n t s W o r K i n G t o
C h A n G E G A r D E n G r o V E ,
C A L i F o r n i A
In garden grove, California, where 28
percent of the population is vietnamese
and 37 percent is Latino, parents are
leading the charge to make sure their
children, friends and neighbors have safe
places to walk – a campaign they did not
originally plan on taking on. In 2012, an
initiative to address pedestrian access and
connectivity emerged out of two parent-
led efforts to improve the health of their
children and communities.
The initiative first started with Champion
Moms, a group of “promotoras” providing
classes in nutrition and physical activity
under the Network for a Healthy California
Champions for Change program.
(Promotoras are Latino community
members who receive specialized training
to provide basic health education in the
community without being a professional

health care worker.) As these women
were educating their neighbors on how
to buy and cook healthy food and how
to get the recommended amount of daily
exercise, they repeatedly heard concerns
about lighting, traffic speeds, and sidewalk
maintenance that were discouraging people
from walking in their neighborhood.
41
At the same time, local university students
working on a neighborhood revitalization
project approached a parent group from
one of the elementary schools to better
understand the dynamics of the local
neighborhood. The parent group was
primarily made up of vietnamese residents
and functioned like a parent teacher
organization, building bridges between
vietnamese parents and the school
administration and supporting children’s
education. The parent group talked about
community ties and culture, but also spoke
up about a dangerous street their children
had to cross in order to get to the school
campus.
In response to the issues, the promotoras
asked the local public health department
to conduct a walk audit as they sought to
better understand the process for making
changes to the streets and sidewalks. The

students and parents from both groups
successfully gathered signatures for a
petition and presented their ideas to the
city public works department, working
with the department to develop a new
crosswalk and traffic signal that will allow
more children to walk and bicycle to
school safely.
the national Active
transportation Diversity
task Force
Partnership has convened a National
Active Transportation Diversity Task
Force since 2012. This task force,
composed of organizations focused
on active living, health equity,
and racial justice, among others,
has forged new partnerships and
commitment, explored many of the
issues laid out in this report, and
ignited a national conversation on
equity and active transportation.

42
bike ownership
and repair Programs
Another way to provide low-income
residents with access to a bike is through
programs that collect donated bicycles and
then give them to residents (along with a
helmet and other supplies) in exchange for
completing a bike safety or maintenance
class, helping to refurbish the bike, or
volunteering.
Such “earn a bike” programs are usually
run by nonprofit bicycling organizations
such as the Community Cycling Center,
in Portland, Oregon, which provides
low-income adults with a bike in
exchange for completing a bike safety
and maintenance training course,251 and
FreeRide! in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, in
which participants receive a free bike in
exchange for repairing it and volunteering
hours.252,253 Local governments can also get
involved in such programs. One example is
Boston’s “Roll It Forward” program, which
offers donated, refurbished bicycles to low-
income and homeless people in exchange
for attending a bicycle safety educational
workshop.254 San Francisco recently
amended its code to require the San
Francisco Police Department to turn over
recovered bicycles to the city’s Department

of Human Services, which facilitates
community bike builds, where community
members refurbish the recovered bicycles
for low-income residents.255
Obtaining a bike, however, is just the first
step. The ability to maintain and repair
bikes is often an underappreciated barrier
to active transportation in low-income
communities and communities of color.256
Many low-income areas do not even have
a bicycle repair shop. Without access
to affordable repairs, bikes can become
useless. Even a flat tire can become an
insurmountable barrier. In some locations,
organizations have stepped in to meet
this need, but much more is needed. One
example is the Boston Bicyclists Union
which operates a “Bike to Market” program
which provides free or low-cost bike
repairs in low-income neighborhoods.
Other Boston area groups, such as the
Commonwheels Bicycle Co-Op, Rozzie
Bikes, and the yawkey Bike Club have
also organized free bike repair stations.257
In the San Francisco Bay Area, an
innovative BikeMobile program hosts free
bicycle repair clinics at schools, libraries,
recreation centers, and community events,
focusing on low-income areas.258 However,
the program, funded by the Metropolitan
Transportation Commission, the Solano
Transportation Commission, and Safe
Routes to School, is set to expire in June
2015.259

In a rarer model, the City of Albuquerque’s
Parks and Recreation Department operates
a community bicycle shop that provides
skills and safety classes and also bicycle
maintenance and repair.260 Build-a-bike
classes are focused on youth, and teach
bike mechanics as well as safety. Earn-a-
bike classes are for adults. They cost $10,
and require adults to complete a safety and
maintenance class. In return, they get a
refurbished bicycle, helmet, and lock. The
program works with local high schools to
provide work/study opportunities.
“Sometimes having a bike doesn’t help the parents
because it costs a lot to get it repaired.”
Participant in barriers to bicycling focus group held
by Community Cycling Center, Portland, Oregon261
native Kids ride bikes:
integrating urban
Experiences with the
teachings of the Elders
Artist and Michigan State assistant
professor Dylan Miner uses bicycles
as the canvas for his community
art project Anishnaabensag
Biimskowebshkigewag: Native Kids
Ride Bikes, exploring the intersection

of transportation, experiences of
urban Native American youth, and
sacred Anishinaabeg teachings.262
Bicycles become the linkage
between youth and the elders,
with relevancy to both previous
and current generations of Native
Americans. Local Native American
middle and high school students
worked with Michigan State
University students and Native
American artists to construct seven
lowrider bicycles that signify the
seven sacred teachings of the
elders. Miner created the project
after returning from a residency
program at the Smithsonian
Institution’s National Museum of

the American Indian where he
explored indigenous culture and
the bicycle as a sustainable means
of transportation. Miner says,
“By envisioning the bicycle from
an Indigenous perspective, this
project redirects the discourse on
sustainable transportation and has
a positive influence on Native health
when more youth ride bicycles.”263
b i C y C L E P r o G r A M s
F o r y o u t h
Bike programs designed specifically for
youth in underserved areas not only
introduce them to a healthy form of active
transportation, but also empower them with
opportunities to develop self-confidence

and self-sufficiency. In addition to these
immediate benefits, people who start
bicycling when they are young are more
likely to continue using active transportation
as an adult.
Typically operated by nonprofits, youth
bike programs in underserved communities
are growing around the country. Some are
operated as bike clubs. The Major Taylor
Project bike club, for example, operated by
Cascade Bicycle Club in Seattle, Washington,
operates after school bike clubs in multiple
schools where students go on weekly rides,
participate in community building projects,
and learn about bike safety, nutrition,
map-reading, route design, stretching,
and the impact of bicycling in their
communities. Students can also participate
in an eight-week “earn a bike” class
that teaches bike mechanic skills.264
Jack and Jill of America
Jack and Jill of America is a
membership organization formed
during the Great Depression with
the goal of instilling values and
developing leadership skills for
African American children. The

organization holds a biennial
teen leadership summit aimed at
supporting leadership building,
volunteer service, and civic duty. At
the 2014 summit, one of the tasks
combined community service with
a challenge called “Build a Bike”
with teens working in teams to put
together youth bikes to be donated
to local low-income children. As
a National Active Transportation
Diversity Task Force Member,
Jack and Jill reached out to the
Safe Routes to School National
Partnership to partner and expand
the premise of the Build a Bike
from just a leadership activity into
an opportunity to talk about health

and safety. Youth and parents
were provided with information
and training materials on bicycling
in their communities and regional
leaders were empowered to talk
about health and accessibility issues
in their states back home.
“There’s a lot that you can do
with the bicycle, using it as a
tool to teach people... When
we’re working with youth, we
say it’s all about the bike... But
in reality it’s not [just] about
the bike. It’s about everything
else. It’s all the other life
lessons and skills that can be
obtained by using the bicycle.”
Katie Lupo
Co-Founder of Gearin-Up which runs Earn a Bike
programs and other bicycle-related job training
programs for youth in Washington, D.C.271 “Now we do the
Youth Leadership
Retreat every year. We pull five
or six students from each [bike]
club so we have 20 to 25 students
for the weekend. We talk about
leadership, personal power, race,
diversity, food justice, equity,

social justice. We always relate
it back to the bike and how the
bike affects each of those areas.”
Ed Ewing
Director of Diversity and Inclusion, Cascade Bicycle
Club, & Co-Founder of the Major Taylor Project, a
program that uses bicycling to empower underserved
youths in the Seattle area.272
Cycles of Change, in Oakland, California
follows a similar model.265
Other youth programs operate out of a
community bike repair shop and also offer
training and employment opportunities.
gearin’ Up Bicycles in Washington, D.C.,
for example, offers six- to eight-week classes
in which children ages eight and older
refurbish and earn a bike. Teens can also
get hands-on training in bike mechanics
and customer service leading to potential
employment at gearin’ Up Bicycles or other
bike stores.266 Still other programs may
be focused around a short-term project.
In some cases, informal programs involve
a few people in the community simply
reaching out to youth to organize rides, like
Eastside Riders Bike Club in Los Angeles.267
The youth Bike Summit is an annual
three-day conference that brings together
participants from different backgrounds
to “network, learn, and explore how the
bicycle is a catalyst for positive social
change.”268 The summit, co-organized by
youth, is a diverse and inclusive space that

brings together hundreds of young people
to turn learning and discussion into actions
that benefit their health and empowerment.
youth-oriented bike programs make
an important contribution to active
transportation equity and more are needed
in low-income areas and communities of
color. The job opportunities are meaningful,
with an analysis by the U.S. Bureau of Labor
Statistics finding that “bicycle repairer” is
among the top 85 growing occupations and
projecting 2,700 additional jobs for bike
mechanics by 2022 – an increase of about 25
percent from 2012.269
Bike Works Seattle,
a nonprofit with youth and
adult oriented programming,
provides a two-week unit
on physics concepts,
demonstrated through
bicycles, for local
high schools each year.270
43
44

Black Women Bike
East Side Riders
Local Spokes: Lower East Side and
Chinatown Bicycling Coalition
Los Ryderz
Major Taylor Bicycling Clubs
Bikesanas del Valle
Ovarian Psyco-Cycles
Red, Bike and Green
Richmond Spokes
Slow Roll Detroit
Slow Roll Chicago
The National Brotherhood
of Cyclists
Changing the Culture of
recreational bicycling
It is not uncommon to hear negative
stereotypes about bicycling in communities
of color. Some view bicycling as a leisure
activity for the well-to-do while others
dismiss it as a mode of last resort for
the poor, to be avoided if at all possible.
Others may not even think about bicycling
as an option because they don’t see other

people who look like them riding bicycles.
Sometimes women feel they will be unsafe
or conspicuous on a bicycle. And many
are not aware of how bicycling can help
improve their health and community.
Around the country a number of grassroots
ridership groups, organized by people of
color, for people of color, have formed to
encourage members of their community
to ride bicycles and to make bicycling
more visible. In addition to leading rides,
many groups also using bicycling as
vehicle for raising broader health, equity,
and other community issues; some also
take on an advocacy role. A Red, Bike
and green chapter in Atlanta, gA, for
example, helped successfully lobby for a
fairer distribution of bike lanes and more
equitable funding provisions in pending
bike legislation.273
Sometimes such groups create
communities and rides that are only for
members of the specified group; other
times they join larger more diverse rides
with a core constituency. Either way, these
groups are redefining people’s image of
what it means to be a bicyclist in the
United States.
the new Movement:
bike Equity today
Read profiles of many of the biking

groups organized by and for people
of color in the League of American
Bicyclists’ The New Movement:
Bike Equity Today, an October 2014
report.
selected bicycling Groups for riders of Color
slow roll Detroit
Slow Roll Detroit is a weekly Monday night community-based
group bicycle
ride. Started in 2011, Slow Roll has grown to be one of the
world’s largest
weekly bike rides, averaging around 2,000 riders, and last
season had up
to 4,000 people participating in some rides. Slow Roll has a
welcoming,
parade-like atmosphere, with a highly diverse community of all
races,
backgrounds, men and women, all ages, Millennials to Baby
Boomers,
families and kids, Detroiters and suburbanites alike. Slow Roll
Detroit
has created real change in Detroit by building a movement and
sense of

community, with bicycling as the forum that brings it all
together.274
Mike MacKool
http://bikeleague.org/sites/default/files/The_New_Movement_R
eport_Web.pdf
http://bikeleague.org/sites/default/files/The_New_Movement_R
eport_Web.pdf
45
Addressing Crime, Fear of
Crime, and racial Profiling
Crime and fear of crime create an
environment that is hostile to walking and
bicycling and detrimental to community
well-being. Traditionally, crime has been
considered primarily a safety issue for
law enforcement to address. In recent
years, however, there has been increasing
recognition that crime is not just a safety
issue; addressing crime is also a critical
to public health and to successfully
promoting healthy living, healthy eating,
and active transportation efforts. Nor can
crime be effectively addressed by police
alone. Thus, community leaders are
bringing together advocates, researchers,
nonprofit and government agencies, and
other stakeholders from many sectors.
These stakeholders are coming together to

take a comprehensive approach to crime –
an approach that supplements traditional
enforcement measures with prevention
measures that aim to reduce the likelihood
of crime happening in the first place.275
“Advocates in the field of
healthy eating and active
living have pivotal roles to
play—recognizing the impact
of violence, raising their
voices to broaden advocacy
efforts, and undertaking
cross-cutting strategies to
help eliminate the causes of
violence and chronic disease.”
Prevention Institute276
Partnership has produced a report
on violence prevention and Safe
Routes to School efforts. The
report, Taking Back the Streets
and Sidewalks: How Safe Routes
to School and Community Safety
Initiatives Can Overcome Violence
and Crime, catalogues how Safe
Routes to School programs

have been structured to protect
children from crime and decrease
violence in communities, discusses
related and more distant violence
prevention initiatives, and highlights
opportunities for greater partnership
between safe routes proponents and
violence prevention advocates.
selected bicycling Groups for riders of Color
Such a strategy involves engaging
government agencies, youth, schools,
businesses, and others to create
opportunities to build community, provide
alternatives to crime, and develop a more
positive physical environment.277,278
This type of holistic approach, along
with progressive police initiatives
such as community policing, not only
reduces violence but also helps achieve
transportation equity by creating safer
places for low-income people to walk and
bicycle.
Making neighborhoods safer directly
supports the use of active transportation;
conversely, active transportation programs

and infrastructure also improve safety.
Everything from bike paths and bike
parking to traffic calming measures and
better sidewalks helps get more people
out and about, and thus helps create a
safer environment – especially when the
infrastructure is designed with crime
reduction in mind.279
Addressing racial profiling and police
brutality are also crucial objectives related
to equity and crime prevention. As
“One of the things we created, and are launching as a non-profit
right now, is a bike depot in a low-income community…It’s had
a
big impact [in] improving the feeling of safety on the street. It
has
also gotten more people out volunteering, working with kids, as
well as bicycling in the community. It helped balance things
out—
people feel safer.”
From Prevention Institute’s Addressing the Intersection:
Preventing Violence and Promoting Healthy Eating and Active
Living280
discussed in the opening sections of this
report, people of color and low-income
individuals are exposed to racial profiling
by police as well as vigilantes while
walking and bicycling. Addressing this
reality requires a multipronged approach
that takes on unfair policing practices,
community habits that contribute to
profiling, and the potential complacency
of white active transportation proponents.

One arena for collaboration is in advocacy
for the removal of unnecessary laws
imposing requirements on bicycling.
Because local bicycling restrictions vary
widely and often are not based on sound
evidence of safety or other benefits, such
laws can discourage bicycling or impose
unnecessary barriers, while also giving
police an ever-present excuse to stop
riders of color. Avoiding the imposition
of burdensome or unnecessary laws
on bicycling – not to mention other
unnecessary laws – may assist in reducing
racial profiling of riders of color. The
Detroit-based story in the sidebar provides
an example of how and why to work on
such issues.
http://saferoutespartnership.org/sites/default/files/pdf/Taking-
Back-the-Streets-and-Sidewalks.pdf
46
In 2009, the Detroit Greenways
Coalition and other active
transportation advocates partnered
with the Detroit Coalition Against
Police Brutality to get the city council

to repeal an ordinance requiring
city-issued licenses to ride bicycles.
The ordinance was on the books,
but had not been enforced. Then,
police indicated that they intended to
start enforcing the requirement as a
tool to combat drug dealing. As the
police began ticketing unlicensed
riders, despite the fact that bicycle
licenses weren’t even yet available,
many in Detroit were concerned that
the ordinance was simply providing
an excuse for stopping and harassing
young men of color.
At the same time, active transportation
advocates also objected to the
ordinance, because they saw it as
placing an unnecessary barrier to

use of active transportation. As
Todd Scott, executive director of the
Greenways Coalition explained, “The
major reason for us was we are trying
to reduce the barriers to people for
riding bikes – we want to get them in
people’s hands.” The two organizations
teamed up to successfully demand
that City Council repeal the law,
despite opposition by the police
department. Todd Scott said, “We had
organized a protest ride, but since City
Council removed the ban, it turned into
a celebration ride.”
Joining together to remove barriers
Mike MacKool

The partnership gave momentum to
the active transportation advocates,
who went on to get a multimodal
plan passed by the City Council. The
Greenways Coalition and Coalition
Against Police Brutality have continued
to partner, with the Greenways
Coalition hosting a group bike ride and
discussion about policing on Belle Isle
State Park for the Coalition Against
Police Brutality, Detroit bike clubs, and
the regional and statewide chief of state
parks. The groups continue to work on
removing outdated bicycle ordinances,
and are working with youth to get laws
that restrict bicycling for young people
off the books.
Ron Scott, the city’s most prominent

Detroit Police watchdog, had purchased
a bicycle as part of his opposition to
the licensing requirement, and has now
become an avid bike rider and bicycle
advocate, too.305
bike share Programs
Bike share programs provide new
opportunities to use a bike to easily get
around to jobs, doctors’ appointments, and
errands without having to own, maintain,
or store a bike. When bike share stations
are strategically coordinated with public
transit, they can greatly ease the challenges
of completing the first or last leg of a
longer trip or commute, making even more
destinations accessible by transit. Since
2010, when Washington D.C., Denver, and
Minneapolis started the first large-scale
bike share programs in the United States,
they have been growing in popularity, and
dozens of additional cities have followed
suit.282
For low-income people, bike share
programs have a lot of apparent potential.
The ability to afford a bicycle and to keep
it maintained and in good condition can
be a serious obstacle to bicycling – as can
finding room to securely store a bike.283

The recent wave of bike share programs,
however, have ended up primarily serving
male, affluent, white riders, and thus have
reinforced transportation inequities instead
of mitigating them. As has been amply
documented, there are significant barriers
preventing low-income riders and riders of
color from being able to take advantage of
bike sharing. First, it is common to see few
bike stations located in low-income areas;
instead, stations are sited in more affluent
areas or tourist-oriented areas that will
produce the most revenue to help ensure
financial viability. In addition, the cost of
using the bike share program, along with
credit card or bank account requirements,
also excludes many people from benefiting
from the system.284 Moreover, most bike
share programs roll out with little or no
outreach to underserved neighborhoods to
develop community support.
The glaring inequities in bike share
programs have garnered significant media
attention, and many bike share programs
are now actively trying to reduce these
barriers through a range of different
strategies, including siting more stations
in low-income areas, providing discounted
memberships and alternatives to credit
card and bank account requirements,
and doing community outreach.285 Bublr,
the bike share program in Milwaukee,
Wisconsin, is offering a new, simplified,

and less expensive fee system that is
designed to make it more affordable
for residents of all income levels.286
These efforts need to be encouraged
and strengthened in order to effectively
overcome existing barriers.
Philadelphia is leading the way with its
new bike share program, named Indego,
launched in April 2015. Using combined
public and private funding, Indego was
deliberately designed to be the most
equitable bike share program in the
country from inception, and if successful,
will serve as a model for others. Fully
one-third of its 60 bike share stations are
located in low-income neighborhoods.288
It will also have a cash option available
to any resident; no credit card or bank
account required. Community involvement
was also a priority: focus groups were
held with low-income residents to identify
barriers, residents were asked for input
on station locations, neighborhood
“ambassadors” were hired to introduce the
program, and low-income students and
artists created murals highlighting the new
bike stations.289
“The rates of low-income ridership of all bike-
share programs around the world is pitifully
low. So we can only do better.”
Caroline Samponaro
Transportation Alternatives, New York287
“Our bike share [program] will be accessible

to underserved communities from day one.”
Carniesha Fenwick-Kwashie
Grant Manager of the Mayor’s Fund for Philadelphia290
better bike share
Partnership
Members of the Better Bike
Share Partnership (BBSP) that
collaborated on Indego are also
continuing to work on bike share
equity issues around the country.
One member, for example, The
National Association of City
Transportation Officials (NACTO), is
collecting and disseminating best
practices on bike share, including
equity strategies. Another member,
PeopleForBikes, is providing grant
money to different communities to
develop and implement strategies
that increase bike share in

underserved areas. PeopleForBikes
is also funding a “storytelling effort”
to better communicate the ongoing
challenges and achievements of
grantees in real time through blogs,
articles, images, and videos.291
These efforts should continue the
momentum to make bike share
programs live up to their potential
to significantly contribute to an
equitable active transportation
system.
47
Key role for Public transit
Most of this report has focused on the state
of equity and the active transportation
movement. But public transportation

is integral to supporting walking and
bicycling, and plays a key role in creating
healthy and equitable communities.
Nationally, transit ridership is highest
among low-income households, and many
endure long commutes via transit to get to
work or other destinations because of gaps
in the network. Because many of the issues
that transit justice advocates are working
on overlap with equity issues in active
transportation, and because transit and
walking and bicycling are closely linked
forms of transportation, there are great
opportunities for collaborative efforts.
i n V E s t i n G i n t r A n s i t
n E C E s s i tAt E s G r E At E r
i n V E s t M E n t s i n W A L K i n G
A n D b i C y C L i n G
The success of transit is largely dependent
on how easily people can access it.
Research studies regularly find that
providing easy pedestrian and bicycle
access to stations will encourage higher
transit ridership, especially at employment
centers where people are less inclined to
walk long distances.292 Thus, many transit
agencies and local planning departments
focus on “first and last mile” connections
to the transit network. yet many have
struggled to invest in the infrastructure
necessary to create safe walking and
bicycling conditions. One challenge arises
because most transit agencies do not
have authority over the land surrounding

their stations, requiring coordination
Streetsblog’s “sorriest bus stop”
contest received many entries.
Submissions showed bus stops with
no sidewalk leading up to them, on
highways, on busy arterial streets,
interfering with bicycle lanes, with
no markers, without safe crossings,
snowed in, and more.295 The award
winner featured a bus stop on a four
lane divided highway with nothing more
than a sign to mark it – no sidewalk, no
bench, no set back from the highway,
no way to cross the highway. The sign
sat near a drainage ditch in an empty
field, with no street in sight.296
As many communities consider new
transit options, active transportation

advocates can play an integral role
in addressing first and last mile
connections, especially in low-income
neighborhoods where transit use
is high and the path to the nearest
stop is frequently unsafe. This work
provides an opportunity to bring
nontraditional partners such as public
health, environmental justice and social
justice stakeholders into transportation
planning conversations, as it is a
natural place where these sectors’
work intersects and everyone can
see a benefit from greater access to
the transit system.
with local public works and planning
departments, which can be a difficult
and rocky process. LA Metro recently
published a First and Final Mile Strategic
Plan with recommendations on how to
connect transit riders to their origins and

destinations via walking and bicycling. The
report acknowledges the limited role of
Metro in implementing the recommended
improvements.293 Denver’s Mile High
Connects coalition has also made it a
priority to advocate for first and last mile
connections to Denver’s growing mass
transit network, as well as make sure that
bus riders are not left behind by new rail
investments.294
E q u i tA b L E D E V E L o P M E n t,
t r A n s i t, A n D A C t i V E
t r A n s P o r tAt i o n
At a broader level, the importance
of supporting neighborhoods while
preventing displacement has given rise to a
movement around equitable development.
The goal of equitable development is
to make sure that communities get
the investment, infrastructure, and
resources they need, but in ways that
ensure that everyone benefits. Equitable
development is often framed as a solution
to the problems of gentrification and
displacement.
A key component of equitable
development is mixed-income housing
located in close proximity to transit
stations, usually within a half-mile. There
is a major shortage of affordable housing
across the United States, and because
many low-income households take transit,
walk or bike, they can save money on

transportation costs by living in places
48
An Abundance of unattractive,
Dangerous bus stops
pedbikeimages.org/Dan Burden pedbikeimages.org/Dan Burden
“Equitable development is an
approach to creating healthy,
vibrant[] communities
of opportunity. Equitable
outcomes come about when
smart, intentional strategies
are put in place to ensure that
everyone can participate in
and benefit from decisions
that shape their neighborhoods
and regions.”
PolicyLink, Equitable Development Toolkit297
Affordable housing and
sustainable Communities
Program
One recent success in funding
equitable development has been
California’s Affordable Housing

and Sustainable Communities
program.305 The program’s funding
comes from the California cap-
and-trade revenue, and the first
round of grants will be awarded
in mid-2015. Grants can be
used to fund affordable housing
development near transit stops/
stations, infrastructure to support
the affordable housing projects,
public transit access, pedestrian or
bicycle network improvements, and
associated active transportation
and transit ridership programs.
with multiple transportation options.
But market forces often don’t provide
affordable housing near transit stations
without federal grants or tax subsidies to
developers. And the rising popularity of
living in walkable neighborhoods or near
transit creates market conditions that can

displace existing residents.298
Along the gold Line in Los Angeles,
community work on the ground
counteracted threats of displacement to
preserve affordable housing. The gold
Line opened up a connection across the
LA River to Boyle Heights, making the
neighborhood more popular for downtown
workers and others who desired close
proximity to downtown LA. In addition,
the City of Los Angeles then made plans
to revitalize the LA River by creating
new bike trails. But the larger changes
afoot meant that the neighborhood saw
these plans as a threat rather than an
amenity.299 Community stakeholders have
worked to preserve affordable housing
and build new units as the neighborhood
undergoes changes and sees improvements
to its infrastructure.300 The Alliance for
Community Transit in Los Angeles recently
published a paper with recommendations
for preserving affordable housing in
South Los Angeles and other low-income
along planned transit lines, using lessons
from the gold Line.301
In the Twin Cities region, advocates along
the green Line (formerly the Central
Corridor) mobilized to protect residents
and small businesses along the light rail
route from displacement, both during and
after construction, as the neighborhood

became more desirable due to its role in
relieving the market pressures of the two
downtowns it connects, Minneapolis and
St. Paul.302 They created an Investment
Framework Plan303 and a health impact
assessment304 to address their concerns and
spell out how to address them over time.
Communities have had varied success with
equitable development, and it remains a
significant policy challenge. Funding for
affordable housing is limited and subsidy
programs are always on the chopping
block in state and federal budgets. yet
safe walking and bicycling are an integral
component of equitable development,
given the high proportion of people at
lower incomes who walk and bicycle.
Furthermore, while many transportation
investments take a long time to come to
fruition, they are intricately planned and
regulated by government agencies, and
most of these processes provide regular
opportunities for input. It is important
for walking and bicycling advocates to be
at the table with other advocates fighting
for affordable housing, transit, economic
development, and other equity concerns
that will make our communities safer and
more livable places.
•PolicyLink,Equitable Development
Toolkit: A resource for tools and
solutions to address issues that
arise with transportation investments

and equity concerns
•CenterforTransit-Oriented
Development, Mixed-Income
Transit-Oriented Development
Action Guide: Provides a great
source of information on potential
solutions to gentrification and
displacement issues. The website
features dozens of tools that can
be used to create and preserve
affordable housing and mixed-income
housing and to prevent displacement.
In addition, it provides links to case
studies from all types of communities
that have been successful in
addressing displacement and creating
new affordable housing opportunities
near transit.
•ChangeLab

Solution
s,Preserving,
Protecting, and Expanding
Affordable Housing: A Policy
Toolkit for Public Health
•EnterpriseCommunityPartners,
Preserving Affordable Housing
Near Transit
•Principles of Equitable
Development
Additional resources on Equitable Development
49
http://www.policylink.org/equity-tools/equitable-development-

toolkit/about-toolkit
http://www.policylink.org/equity-tools/equitable-development-
toolkit/about-toolkit
http://www.mitod.org/home.php
http://changelabsolutions.org/publications/affordable_housing_t
oolkit
oolkit
oolkit
oolkit
http://www.enterprisecommunity.com/solutions-and-
innovation/transit-oriented-development/best-practices-and-
reports
reports
reports

reports
50
Transportation is a fundamental aspect of everyday
life. The transportation inequities spelled out in
this report are not just a matter of convenience.
Rather, they have serious and far-reaching impacts
on the safety, health, and quality of life of millions
of children and adults in our country. Because the
dominant orientation of our transportation system
is getting well-to-do people around by car, there are
serious challenges we must overcome if we are to
successfully address these disparities.
Increasing the safety and convenience of walking
and bicycling will reduce air pollution and asthma
rates, address climate change, and support friendlier
streets and neighborhood cohesion – but for low-
income families without a car, it will require decades
of focused effort and enormous investments for
walking, bicycling and transit to truly provide
equitable access to active transportation. At the same
time, millions of low-income Americans are walking

and bicycling in unsafe conditions right now.
CONCLUSION
51
This report reviews a wide array of challenges and opportunities
to
improving active transportation while increasing the equity of
our
transportation system. key lessons include the following:
•Advocatesandagencystaffmustsupport
real, meaningful community engagement
for both governmental and organizational
decision making, projects, and programs.
governmental institutions tend to have
a top-down approach, but including
people in the decisions that affect
them is key to understanding needs,
avoiding unintended consequences,
and acting in ways that are respectful of
community knowledge and expertise.

Don’t rely on inviting the community
to come to you – go to them. Engage
communities early in the process, bring
questions to communities and make
sure that there are real benefits for those
communities in participating in events
and feedback sessions. Be aware of why
the community may feel distrust towards
government and others, and work to
create a basis for trust and joint efforts.
•Oneofthekeyrecurringlessonsofwork
in this arena is that in order to promote
active transportation while supporting
equitable outcomes, active transportation
advocates need to embrace the larger
goals of potential partners. Don’t ignore
or dismiss fears around gentrification,
school siting, and police brutality – take
these concerns seriously, own them, and
be part of the solution. This engagement
is part of realizing a vision of a vibrant,
healthy, equitable society where everyone
can thrive. Active transportation

advocates can act as real allies on
strategies and advocacy around quality
education, affordable housing, residential
diversity, and more. This work won’t be
a distraction – instead, it will bring new
partners and collaborators who will, in
turn, support core active transportation
concerns.
•Inlightoftheconsiderableconcerns
around gentrification and displacement,
it is worth emphasizing this persistent
reality: for those who are working in the
space of equity and active transportation,
affordable housing and anti-displacement
efforts need to be a fundamental part of
the work.
•Activetransportationproponentsand
agency personnel should prioritize
learning, growth, and capacity building
with regard to equity work. Both as a
personal matter and in their professional
roles, there may be need for exploration
of implicit biases, privileges, and

historical roles to help ensure that
stakeholders are ready to engage non-
defensively and openly with equity
partners.
•Advocatesandcommunitystakeholders
play an important role in ensuring
equitable development in our
neighborhoods. By understanding
how market forces work in relation
to walking, bicycling, and transit
investments, communities can
proactively plan for and advocate for
community needs. Transportation
planning is deeply esoteric – it
is important to have community
organizations and experts who can
analyze proposals and policies and
translate them for local residents, and
then translate community demands
back into technical lingo and policy
provisions.
•Workinthisarearequiresthecreation

of deep and lasting collaborations,
coalitions, and partnership. This will
require people to take actions, engage
with issues, and create relationships that
may not be familiar and comfortable –
but the work will be better for it.
•Equityisthetouchstoneforthiswork.
In initial planning, equity must be a key
goal as initiatives and approaches are
developed; work should be evaluated
midstream to ensure that it is focused on
identified needs, community voice, and
other key considerations of equity. In the
end, the results of these efforts should
be assessed to see whether in fact they
advanced equity, and as new initiatives
are developed once more, they should
incorporate the lessons learned.
Demands for both equity and active transportation are
growing louder every day. This report lays out why there
is great need for work at this intersection, identifies the
policies and practices that such work can influence,
and highlights the inspiring efforts already under way.

We look forward to supporting, participating in, and
learning from future initiatives to make our streets safer
for low-income communities and communities of color.
Safe and effective transportation options are not a nicety
for low-income families, but a necessity.
52
Endnotes
Many of these resources can be
found in our library of resources
on the Safe Routes to School
National Partnership’s website at
www.saferoutespartnership.org
1 Max Applebaum, Andrew Camp, Conor Clarke et
al., Beyond the Backlash: Equity and Participation

in Bicycle Planning: Executive Summary (May 2011)
at v, http://www.hunter.cuny.edu/ccpd/repository/
files/es_beyond-the-backlash-2011.pdf.
2 Paul M. Davis, “Are Bike Lanes Expressways to
Gentrification?” Shareable, August 30, 2011,
http://www.shareable.net/blog/are-bike-lanes-
expressways-to-gentrification.
3 April Streeter, “Fixing Urban Biking’s White Bias,
Part II,” Good, 12/29/10, http://magazine.good.is/
articles/fixing-urban-biking-s-white-bias-part-ii.
4 Brian McKenzie, “Modes Less Traveled—Bicycling
and Walking to Work in the United States: 2008–
2012,” American Community Survey Reports, 2014,
http://www.census.gov/prod/2014pubs/acs-25.
pdf.
5 League of American Bicyclists, “The New Majority,
Pedaling Towards Equity,” http://www.ssti.us/wp/
wp-content/uploads/2013/06/Sierra-+-LAB-bike-
equity_report-May-2013.pdf.

6 Tanya Snyder, “Low-Income Americans Walk and
Bike to Work the Most,” Streetsblog, May 8, 2014,
http://usa.streetsblog.org/2014/05/08/low-
income-americans-walk-and-bike-to-work-the-most/.
7 Brian McKenzie, “Modes Less Traveled—Bicycling
and Walking to Work in the United States: 2008–
2012,” American Community Survey Reports, 2014,
http://www.census.gov/prod/2014pubs/acs-25.pdf.
8 In this report, we use the term “African American”
to refer to individuals who identify as black. Most
of the statistical references exclude Latino blacks
from the data reflecting population trends for African
Americans. Likewise, the term “white” generally
does not include white Latinos. We also use the
term “Latino” to describe people whose family
origins are from Mexico or Central or Southern
America rather than the term “Hispanic.”
9 McDonald, N., “Critical factors for active
transportation to school among low-income and
minority students: Evidence from the 2001 National
Household Travel Survey,” American Journal of

Preventive Medicine, 34, 341-3, 2008.
10 John Pucher, Ralph Buehler, Mark Seinen, “Bicycling
Renaissance in North America? An Update and
Re-appraisal of Cycling Trends and Policies,”
Transportation Research Part A 45 (2011): 459 and
Figure 4, http://policy.rutgers.edu/faculty/pucher/
TRA960_01April2011.pdf.
12 Ibid.
13 Ibid.
14 Ibid.
15 Alliance for Biking and Walking,
“Benchmarking Report,” 2012 http://www.
peoplepoweredmovement.org/site/index.php/site/
memberservices/2012_benchmarking_report/;
Pucher, J., and J. Renne, “Socioeconomics of

Urban Travel: Evidence from the 2001 NHTS,”
Transportation Quarterly, 57, 49-77, 2003; Van
Lenthe et al., in Krizek, K., et al., Walking and
Cycling International Literature Review, 2005.
16 Tanya Snyder, “Low-Income Americans Walk and
Bike to Work the Most,” Streetsblog, May 8, 2014,
income-americans-walk-and-bike-to-work-the-most.
17 Nancy McGruckin, “Walking and Biking in California:
Analysis of the CA-NHTS,” Institute of Transportation
Studies, University of California, Davis (2012):
25, Table 13, http://publications.its.ucdavis.edu/
publication_detail.php?id=1661.
18 Mary Brown, “Why Aren’t Women on Wheels?” San
Francisco Bicycle Coalition, http://www.sfbike.
org/?women_mb.
19 John Neff & Larry Pham, “A Profile of Public
Transportation Passenger Demographics and Travel
Characteristics Reported in On-Board Surveys,”
2007, American Public Transportation Association,
http://www.apta.com/resources/statistics/

Documents/transit_passenger_characteristics_
text_5_29_2007.pdf.
20 Mike Maciag, “Public Transportation’s Demographic
Divide,” Governing, February 25, 2014, http://www.
governing.com/topics/transportation-infrastructure/
gov-public-transportation-riders-demographic-divide-
for-cities.html.
text_5_29_2007.pdf.
text_5_29_2007.pdf.

text_5_29_2007.pdf.
text_5_29_2007.pdf.
25 Commuting in America 2013: The National
Report on Commuting Patterns and Trends,
2013, American Association of State Highway
and Transportation Officials, http://traveltrends.
transportation.org/Documents/B7_Vehicle%20
and%20Transit%20Availability_CA07-4_web.pdf.
26 Ibid.

27 Judith Bell & Larry Cohen, “The Transportation
Prescription: Bold New Ideas for Healthy, Equitable
Transportation Reform in America,” PolicyLink,
Convergence Partnership and Prevention Institute,
2009 (Statistics republished from Steven Raphael
and Alan Berube, “Socioeconomic Differences
in Household Automobile Ownership Rates:
Implications for Evacuation Policy,” paper prepared
for the Berkeley Symposium on “Real Estate,
Catastrophic Risk, and Public Policy,” March 23,
2006.
28 Linda Bailey, “Aging Americans: Stranded Without
Options,” Surface Transportation Policy Project,
April 2004, www.transact.org/report.asp?id=232.
29 Irwin Redlener et al., “The Growing Health Care
Access Crisis for American Children: One in Four
at Risk,” The Children’s Health Fund, 2007, http://
www.childrenshealthfund.org/sites/default/files/
WhitePaper-May2007-FINAL.pdf.
30 Stephanie Pollack, Liz Williams, Russ Lopez,
and Ivette Luna, “The Toll of Transportation,”
Northeastern University, Dukakis Center for Urban

& Regional Policy, November 2013. http://www.
northeastern.edu/dukakiscenter/wp-content/
uploads/2013/11/The-Toll-of-Transportation-Final-
Report.pdf.
http://www.saferoutespartnership.org
http://www.hunter.cuny.edu/ccpd/repository/files/es_beyond-
the-backlash-2011.pdf
http://www.shareable.net/blog/are-bike-lanes-expressways-to-
gentrification
http://www.shareable.net/blog/are-bike-lanes-expressways-to-
gentrification
http://magazine.good.is/articles/fixing-urban-biking-s-white-
bias-part-ii
http://magazine.good.is/articles/fixing-urban-biking-s-white-
bias-part-ii
http://www.census.gov/prod/2014pubs/acs-25.pdf
http://www.ssti.us/wp/wp-content/uploads/2013/06/Sierra-+-
LAB-bike-equity_report-May-2013.pdf

http://usa.streetsblog.org/2014/05/08/low-income-americans-
walk-and-bike-to-work-the-most/
http://policy.rutgers.edu/faculty/pucher/TRA960_01April2011.p
df
http://policy.rutgers.edu/faculty/pucher/TRA960_01April2011.p
df
http://www.peoplepoweredmovement.org/site/index.php/site/me
mberservices/2012_benchmarking_report/
walk-and-bike-to-work-the-most

walk-and-bike-to-work-the-most
http://http://publications.its.ucdavis.edu/publication_detail.php?
id=1661
http://http://publications.its.ucdavis.edu/publication_detail.php?
id=1661
http://www.sfbike.org/?women_mb
http://www.sfbike.org/?women_mb
http://www.apta.com/resources/statistics/Documents/transit_pas
senger_characteristics_text_5_29_2007.pdf
http://www.governing.com/topics/transportation-
infrastructure/gov-public-transportation-riders-demographic-
divide-for-cities.html

http://traveltrends.transportation.org/Documents/B7_Vehicle%2
0and%20Transit%20Availability_CA07-4_web.pdf
www.transact.org/report.asp?id=232
http://www.childrenshealthfund.org/sites/default/files/WhitePap
er-May2007-FINAL.pdf
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content/uploads/2013/11/The-Toll-of-Transportation-Final-
Report.pdf

Report.pdf
Report.pdf
Report.pdf
53
31 Eric Moskowitz, “Wide Racial Gap Exists on
Speed of Boston-area Commutes,” Boston.com,
November 24, 2012. http://www.boston.com/
news/local/massachusetts/2012/11/24/wide-
racial-gap-exists-speed-boston-area-commutes/
oW7hHJ0IFWluX6eQI15QPL/story.html.
32 M. Ver Ploeg, et al., Access to Affordable and
Nutritious Food: Updated Estimates of Distance
to Supermarkets Using 2010 Data, United States
Department of Agriculture, Economic Research
Service, 2012.

33 Gordon-Larsen, P., Nelson, M., Page, P. & Popkin, B.
2006. Inequality in the Built Environment Underlies
Key Health Disparities in Physical Activity and
Obesity. Pediatrics. 117(2): 417.
34 The City Project, HEALTHY PARKS, SCHOOLS AND
COMMUNITIES: Mapping Green Access and Equity
for Southern California, 2011.
35 Corinne Ramey, “America’s Unfair Rules of the
Road,” Slate, 2/27/15, http://www.slate.com/
articles/news_and_politics/politics/2015/02/
america_s_transportation_system_discriminates_
against_minorities_and_poor.single.html.
36 Mikayla Bouchard, “Transportation Emerges as
Crucial to Escaping Poverty,” New York Times, May
7, 2015, http://www.nytimes.com/2015/05/07/
upshot/transportation-emerges-as-crucial-
to-escaping-poverty.html?smid=pl-share&_
r=1&abt=0002&abg=1.

r=1&abt=0002&abg=1.
38 American Community Survey, Modes Less Traveled-
Bicycling and Walking to Work in the U.S., 2008-
2012, http://www.census.gov/prod/2014pubs/
acs-25.pdf; see also Streetsblog, May 8, 2014:
39 American Community Survey, Modes Less Traveled-
Bicycling and Walking to Work in the U.S., 2008-
2012, http://www.census.gov/prod/2014pubs/
acs-25.pdf; see also Streetsblog, May 8, 2014:
r=1&abt=0002&abg=1.

41 The Leadership Conference Education Fund, 2011.
Where We Need to Go: A Civil Rights Roadmap to
Transportation Equity, http://www.protectcivilrights.
org/pdf/docs/transportation/52846576-Where-
We-Need-to-Go-A-Civil-Rights-Roadmap-for-
Transportation-Equity.pdf.
42 Adie Tomer, Elizabeth Kneebone, Robert Puentes,
and Alan Berube, “Missed Opportunity: Transit
and Jobs in Metropolitan America,” Brookings
Institute, 2011, http://www.brookings.edu/~/
media/research/files/reports/2011/5/12-jobs-and-
transit/0512_jobs_transit.pdf.
43 Dukakis Center for Urban and Regional Policy,
Stephanie Pollack. Maintaining Diversity In America’s
Transit-Rich Neighborhoods. 2010 – http://nuweb9.
neu.edu/dukakiscenter/wp-content/uploads/TRN_
Equity_final.pdf.
44 Angie Schmitt, “Man Walks 21 Miles to Commute
Each Day Because of Detroit’s Awful Transit,”
Streetsblog, February 3, 2015, http://usa.
streetsblog.org/2015/02/03/man-walks-21-miles-
for-work-each-day-because-of-detroits-terrible-transit/

.
45 Detroit Free Press, January 31, 2015, http://
www.freep.com/story/news/local/michigan/
oakland/2015/01/31/detroit-commuting-troy-
rochester-hills-smart-ddot-ubs-banker-woodward-
buses-transit/22660785/ .
r=1&abt=0002&abg=1.
47 Centers for Disease Control, “Adult Obesity Facts,”
http://www.cdc.gov/obesity/data/adult.html.
48 Mayo Clinic, Diseases and Conditions: Obesity,
http://www.mayoclinic.org/diseases-conditions/
obesity/basics/causes/con-20014834.
49 Centers for Disease Control, “Adult Obesity Facts,”
http://www.cdc.gov/obesity/data/adult.html.

50 Cynthia L. Ogden, PhD et al., “Prevalence of High
Body Mass Index in U.S. Children and Adolescents,
2007-2008,” Journal of the American Medical
Association, 303(3): 242-249, doi:10.1001/
jama.2009.2012.
51 Katie M. Heinrich et al., “How Does the Built
Environment Relate to Body Mass Index and Obesity
Prevalence Among Public Housing Residents?
Journal of Health Promotion. 2008, 22(3):187-194.
52 Laura Sandt et al., “Leveraging the Health Benefits
of Active Transportation: Creating an Actionable
Agenda for Transportation Professionals,” TR
News, May-June 2012, http://onlinepubs.trb.org/
onlinepubs/trnews/trnews280.pdf.

55 Todd Litman, Evaluating Transportation Benefits and
Costs, Victoria Transport Policy Institute, February
2015, http://www.vtpi.org/nmt-tdm.pdf.
56 Penny Gordon-Larsen et al., “Active Commuting and
Cardiovascular Disease Risk: The CARDIA Study,”
Archives of Internal Medicine 169, no. 13 (2009):
1216-1223, http://archinte.jamanetwork.com/
article.aspx?articleid=773531#qundefined.
57 Alliance, “Benchmarking Report,” http://www.
peoplepoweredmovement.org/site/index.php/site/
memberservices/2012_benchmarking_report/;
Pucher, J., and J. Renne, “Socioeconomics of
Urban Travel: Evidence from the 2001 NHTS,”
Transportation Quarterly, 57, 49-77, 2003; Van
Lenthe et al., in Krizek, K., et al., Walking and
Cycling International Literature Review, 2005.
58 John Greenfield, “Advocates Request a Fair Share of
Bike Resources for Black Communities,” Streetsblog

Chicago, 12/19/14, http://chi.streetsblog.
org/2014/12/19/advocates-request-a-fair-share-of-
bike-resources-for-black-communities/.
59 California Department of Public Health, Health and
Environmental Benefits of Active Transportation and
Complete Streets, http://sgc.ca.gov/docs/funding/
Health_and_Environmental_Benfits_of_Active_
Transportation_and_Complete_Streets_12.23.pdf.
60 Todd Litman, “Evaluating Transportation Benefits
and Costs,” Victoria Transport Policy Institute,
February 2015, http://www.vtpi.org/nmt-tdm.pdf.
63 Institute of Medicine (U.S.) Committee on Disability
in America; Field MJ, Jette AM, editors. The Future
of Disability in America. National Academies

Press 2007. Sandra Rosenbloom, “Transportation
Patterns and Problems of People with Disabilities.”
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK11420/.
65 National Council on Disability, “Transportation
Update: Where We’ve Gone and What We’ve
Learned,” 2015, http://www.ncd.gov/
publications/2015/05042015/.
66 National Council on Disability, “Transportation
Update: Where We’ve Gone and What We’ve
Learned,” 2015, http://www.ncd.gov/
publications/2015/05042015/.

Agenda for Transportation Professionals,” TR News,
May-June 2012.
71 Smart Growth America, “Complete Streets Stimulate
Local Economy,” http://www.smartgrowthamerica.
org/documents/cs/factsheets/cs-economic.pdf.
72 Darren Flusche, “Bicycling Means Business: The
Economic Benefits of Bicycle Infrastructure,” 2012,
Advocacy Advance, http://www.advocacyadvance.

org/site_images/content/Final_Econ_
Update%28small%29.pdf.
73 http://www.seattle.gov/transportation/docs/bmp/
apr14/SBMP_21March_FINAL_full%20doc.pdf
(citing Bureau of Transportation Statistics. Pocket
Guide to Transportation. 2009.).
February 2015, http://www.vtpi.org/nmt-tdm.pdf..
February 2015, http://www.vtpi.org/nmt-tdm.
pdf (including annualized land, construction and
operating costs).
77 Angela Glover Blackwell, “Equity is the superior
growth model,” 2/20/14, http://redf.org/equity-
superior-growth-model-angela-glover-blackwell-

policylink/.
78 Darren Flusche, “National Household Travel Survey –
Short Trips Analysis,” 2010, http://www.bikeleague.
org/content/national-household-travel-survey-short-
trips-analysis.
Endnotes
http://www.boston.com/news/local/massachusetts/2012/11/24/wi
de-racial-gap-exists-speed-boston-area-
commutes/oW7hHJ0IFWluX6eQI15QPL/story.html
http://www.slate.com/articles/news_and_politics/politics/2015/0
2/america_s_transportation_system_discriminates_against_mino
rities_and_poor.single.html

http://www.nytimes.com/2015/05/07/upshot/transportation-
emerges-as-crucial-to-escaping-poverty.html?smid=pl-
share&_r=1&abt=0002&abg=1

http://www.protectcivilrights.org/pdf/docs/transportation/52846
576-Where-We-Need-to-Go-A-Civil-Rights-Roadmap-for-
Transportation-Equity.pdf
http://www.brookings.edu/~/media/research/files/reports/2011/5

/12-jobs-and-transit/0512_jobs_transit.pdf
http://nuweb9.neu.edu/dukakiscenter/wp-
content/uploads/TRN_Equity_final.pdf
http://usa.streetsblog.org/2015/02/03/man-walks-21-miles-for-
work-each-day-because-of-detroits-terrible-transit/
http://www.freep.com/story/news/local/michigan/oakland/2015/
01/31/detroit-commuting-troy-rochester-hills-smart-ddot-ubs-
banker-woodward-buses-transit/22660785/

http://www.cdc.gov/obesity/data/adult.html
http://www.mayoclinic.org/diseases-
conditions/obesity/basics/causes/con-20014834
http://www.mayoclinic.org/diseases-
conditions/obesity/basics/causes/con-20014834
http://www.cdc.gov/obesity/data/adult.html

http://onlinepubs.trb.org/onlinepubs/trnews/trnews280.pdf
http://www.vtpi.org/nmt-tdm.pdf
http://archinte.jamanetwork.com/article.aspx?articleid=773531#
qundefined
http://archinte.jamanetwork.com/article.aspx?articleid=773531#
qundefined
http://chi.streetsblog.org/2014/12/19/advocates-request-a-fair-
share-of-bike-resources-for-black-communities/
http://sgc.ca.gov/docs/funding/Health_and_Environmental_Benf
its_of_Active_Transportation_and_Complete_Streets_12.23.pdf

http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK11420/
http://www.ncd.gov/publications/2015/05042015/
http://www.smartgrowthamerica.org/documents/cs/factsheets/cs-
economic.pdf
http://www.smartgrowthamerica.org/documents/cs/factsheets/cs-
economic.pdf
http://www.advocacyadvance.org/site_images/content/Final_Eco
n_Update%28small%29.pdf

http://www.seattle.gov/transportation/docs/bmp/apr14/SBMP_2
1March_FINAL_full%20doc.pdf
http://redf.org/equity-superior-growth-model-angela-glover-
blackwell-policylink/
http://www.bikeleague.org/content/national-household-travel-
survey-short-trips-analysis
54

80 Pedestrian and Bicycle Information Center,
Environmental Benefits of Walking and Bicycling,
http://www.pedbikeinfo.org/data/factsheet_
environmental.cfm.
81 Michael Jerrett et al., Traffic-Related Air Pollution
and Asthma Onset in Children: A Prospective Cohort
Study with Individual Exposure Measurement,
2008, http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/
PMC2569108/.
environmental.cfm.
83 Seth Shonkoff et al., “Environmental Health and
Equity Impacts from Climate Change and Mitigation
Policies in California: A Review of the Literature,”
California Climate Change Center, 2009, http://
www.energy.ca.gov/2009publications/CEC-500-
2009-038/CEC-500-2009-038-D.PDF.

84 U.S. EPA, Climate Change: Basic Information,
http://www.epa.gov/climatechange/basics/.
85 U.S. EPA, Sources of Greenhouse Gas Emissions,
http://www.epa.gov/climatechange/ghgemissions/
sources.html.
environmental.cfm.
87 Ibid.
88 M. Maciag, Pedestrians Dying at Disproportionate
Rates in America’s Poorer Neighborhoods,
Governing (August 2014), http://www.governing.
com/topics/public-justice-safety/gov-pedestrian-
deaths-analysis.html.

90 Safe Routes to School National Partnership, “Safe
Routes to School State Network Project: Building
a Culture of Health through Active Transportation,”
2014, http://saferoutespartnership.org/sites/
default/files/pdf/State-Network-Project-Building-A-
Culture-of-Health-through-Active-Transportation-web.
pdf.
92 Patrick Morency, Lise Gauvin, Céline Plante , et al.,
Neighborhood Social Inequalities in Road Traffic
Injuries: The Influence of Traffic Volume and Road
Design, Am J Public Health, 102(6): 1112–1119
(June 2012), http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/
articles/PMC3483951/.

96 Transportation Alternatives, “Child Crashes: An
Unequal Burden,” 2012, http://transalt.org/sites/
default/files/news/reports/2012/Child_Crashes_
An_Unequal_Burden.pdf.
97 Transportation Alternatives, “Child Crashes: An
Unequal Burden,” 2012, http://transalt.org/sites/
default/files/news/reports/2012/Child_Crashes_

An_Unequal_Burden.pdf.
98 K. Gibbs, S. Slater, N. Nicholson, et al., Income
Disparities in Street Features that Encourage
Walking – A BTG Research Brief. Chicago,
IL: Bridging the Gap Program, Health Policy
Center, Institute for Health Research and Policy,
University of Illinois at Chicago (2012), http://
www.bridgingthegapresearch.org/_asset/02fpi3/
btg_street_walkability_FINAL_03-09-12.pdf.
99 Ibid.
100 Ibid.
101 Ibid.
103 Sara Fecht, Accident-Zone: Poorer Neighborhoods
Have Less-Safe Road Designs, Scientific American

(May 3, 2012 http://www.scientificamerican.com/
article/accident-zone-poorer-neighborhoods/;
Patrick Morency, Lise Gauvin, Céline Plante , et al.,
104 Sara Fecht, Accident-Zone: Poorer Neighborhoods
Have Less-Safe Road Designs, Scientific
American (May 3, 2012), Available at http://www.
scientificamerican.com/article/accident-zone-
poorer-neighborhoods/.
105 Karsch, H. M., Hedlund, J. H., Tison, J., & Leaf, W.
A. (2012, June). Review of Studies on Pedestrian
and Bicyclist Safety, 1991-2007. (Report No. DOT
HS 811 614). Washington, DC: National Highway
Traffic Safety Administration, http://www.google.
com/url?sa=t&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=web&c
d=1&ved=0CCAQFjAA&url=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.
nhtsa.gov%2Fstaticfiles%2Fnti%2Fpdf%2F811614.
pdf&ei=m8bkVJ0cze-gBMmogbAO&usg=AFQjCNEe
7ZzGYdbTZ0SG4oAhmPrC0FSZcw&sig2=NYw4I_oiF

uqpxVEjoybkHg&bvm=bv.85970519,d.cGU.
106 Greg Bluestein, “Raquel Nelson Fights Murder
Charges In Son’s Jaywalking Death In Georgia,”
Huffington Post, 4/17/12, http://www.
huffingtonpost.com/2012/04/17/raquel-nelson-
jaywalking-death-charges-georgia_n_1432177.html.
107 Radley Balko, “Grieving Mother Faces 36 Months In
Jail For Jaywalking After Son Is Killed By Hit-And-Run
Driver,” Huffington Post, 7/21/11, http://www.
huffingtonpost.com/radley-balko/raquel-nelson-jail-
for-jaywalking_b_905925.html.
108 Angie Schmitt, “Raquel Nelson Finally Cleared
of Homicide Charges, Pleads to Jaywalking,”
StreetsBlog, 5/14/13, http://streetsblog.
net/2013/06/14/raquel-nelson-finally-cleared-of-
homicide-charges-pleads-to-jaywalking/.

110 John Greenfield, Why Don’t the South and West
Sides Have a Fair Share of Bike Facilities?
Streetsblog Chicago (Dec. 23, 2014), http://chi.
streetsblog.org/tag/shawn-conley/.
111 The New Majority: Bicycling Towards Equity, League
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112 Max Applebaum, Andrew Camp, Conor Clarke et
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113 Kyle Minaulli, St. Paul Bicycle Plan Widens
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115 Salinas Comprehensive Strategy for Community-
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116 L. Cohen, R. Davis, V. Lee, et al., Addressing the
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117 Charles C. Branas, Rose A. Cheney, John M.
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118 Eugenia C. South, Michelle C. Kondo, Rose A.
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119 Centers for Disease Control, “Residential Proximity
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120 Miranda R. Jones, Ana V. Diez-Roux, Anjum Hajat,
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121 Cheryl Katz, Unequal exposures: People in poor,
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U

e-
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e-
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e-
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e-

U
e-
U
e-
U
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122 David Pace, Minorities Suffer Most from Industrial
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123 Holly Mead, Lara Cartwright-Smith, Karen Jones,
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Care: A Chartbook, Wake Forest University
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racialethnicdisparities_chartbook_1111.pdf.
124 Miranda R. Jones, et al., “Race/Ethnicity, Residential
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American Journal of Public Health November 2014:
Vol. 104, No. 11, pp. 2130-2137. doi: 10.2105/
AJPH.2014.302135.
125 David Pace, Minorities Suffer Most from Industrial
Pollution: Associated Press (Dec. 14, 2005),http://
www.nbcnews.com/id/10452037/ns/us_news-
pollution/.
126 Health Effects Institute, New HEI Report on
Exposure to Traffic Finds Evidence of Health Effects
on Children Near Major Roads, and Continuing Data
Gaps, 2010, http://pubs.healtheffects.org/getfile.

php?u=551.
127 Centers for Disease Control, “Residential Proximity
to Major Highways — United States, 2010,”
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su6203a8.htm.
128 James Pankow, Miguel Figliozzi and Alexander
Bigazzi (2014), Evaluation of Bicyclists Exposure
to Traffic-Related Air Pollution along Distinct Facility
Types, Transportation Research And Education
Center (TREC) at Portland State University, http://
ppms.otrec.us/media/project_files/NITC-RR-560.
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particles, Environmental Health News (Nov. 1,
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ehs/news/2012/unequal-exposures.
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131 http://www.nbcnews.com/id/10452037/ns/us_
news-environment/t/minorities-suffer-most-industrial-
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132 Jennifer Swanson, Arnelle Ramirez, Kipling Galllion,
Increasing out of School and Out of Class Physical
Activity among Latino Children, Salud America! (July
2013) at 6-7, http://www.communitycommons.
org/wp-content/uploads/2013/08/Active-Play-
Research-Review.pdf; Dan Reed, Poor bike/ped
links push Metro commuters to park-and-rides,
Greater Greater Washington (Sept. 4, 2013),
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poor-bike-ped-links-push-metro-commuters-to-park-
and-rides/; Virginia Lee, Leslie Mikkelsen, Janani
Srikantharajah, et al., Strategies for Enhancing
the Built Environment to Support Healthy Eating
and Active Living, Healthy Eating Active Living
Convergence Partnership (2008), http://www.
calendow.org/uploadedfiles/publications/
publications_stories/builtenvironment.pdf.
133 J. Williams, K. Pasch, C. Collins, Eds., Advances

in Communication Research to Reduce Childhood
Obesity, Springer (2013), Chptr. 18 at 339; Low
Income Populations and Physical Activity, Active
Living By Design, University of North Carolina
School of Public Health, http://www.bms.com/
documents/together_on_diabetes/2012-Summit-
Atlanta/Physical-Activity-for-Low-Income-Populations-
The-Health-Trust.pdf; Dorothy Pekmezi, Brooke
Barbara, Jamie Bodenlos, et al., Promoting Physical
Activity in Low Income African Americans: Project
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Practice, Vol. 3 (2)(Fall 2009).
134 J. Williams, supra, at 389-90.
135 How Many People Experience Homeless, National
Coalition for the Homeless (July 2009), http://www.
nationalhomeless.org/factsheets/How_Many.html.
136 Facts and Figures: The Homeless, NOW on PBS
(June 26, 2009), http://www.pbs.org/now/
shows/526/homeless-facts.html.
137 American’s Youngest Outcasts, A Report Card
on Child Homelessness, American Institutes

for Research (Nov. 2014), http://www.
homelesschildrenamerica.org/mediadocs/280.pdf.
138 Bohnia Lee, Thousands of School Children
Homeless in Fresno County, The Fresno Bee (Sept.
10, 2014), http://www.fresnobee.com/welcome_
page/?shf=/2014/09/10/4116464_thousands-of-
school-children-homeless.html.
139 Transporting Children and Youth Experiencing
Homelessness, National Center for Homeless
Education (2014), http://center.serve.org/nche/
downloads/briefs/transportation.pdf.
140 McKinney-Vento Homeless Assistance Act (Subtitle
VII-B), 42 U.S.C. §§ 11431-11435 (2001).
141 Education Barriers for Homeless Youth, National
Network for Youth, https://www.nn4youth.org/wp-
content/uploads/IssueBrief_Education.pdf.
142 See Education For Homeless Children And Youth
Program Title VII-B Of The McKinney-Vento Homeless
Assistance Act, As Amended By The No Child Left
Behind Act Of 2001: Non-Regulatory Guidance, U.S.

Dep’t. Of Education (July 2004), https://www2.
ed.gov/programs/homeless/guidance.pdf.
143 Priscilla Handy, Comment on Tom Foculoro, Bicycle
Paper: ‘Cycling Forward’ empowers homeless youth
with bike fixing skills (April 10, 2012), http://www.
seattlebikeblog.com/2012/04/10/bicycle-paper-
cycling-forward-empowers-homeless-youth-with-bike-
fixing-skills/.
144 Freewheel Bike Program, http://www.ethep.
org/?page=freewheel_bike.
145 Delta Bike Project, http://www.deltabikeproject.
org/.
146 Full Cycle, http://fullcyclebikeshop.org/about-us/.
147 Sandra Hamameh, Wheels to Work: A Unique
Transportation/Employment Program Drives
to End Homelessness in Sacramento,
Legal Services of Northern California,
Race Equity Project, http://equity.lsnc.
net/%E2%80%9Cwheels-to-work%E2%80%9D-a-
unique-transportationemployment-program-drives-to-

end-homelessness-in-sacramento/.
148 Denise Crosby, Bikes put homeless on road to
opportunity, The Chicago Tribune (March 27, 2015),
http://www.chicagotribune.com/suburbs/aurora-
beacon-news/news/ct-abn-crosby-bikes-st-0330-
20150330-story.html.
149 Christine Soja, Cycling Forward Helps Youth Ride
On, BicyclePaper.Com, http://bicyclepaper.com/
articles/370-Cycling-Forward-Helps-Youth-Ride-On.
150 Transportation Equity Network, http://www.
transportationequity.org/.
151 Transportation Equity Caucus, http://equitycaucus.
org/PolicyPriorities.
152 Funders’ Network for Smart Growth and Livable
Communities, The Hardest Road: Philanthropic
Approaches to the Evolving Field of Transportation
Equity, http://www.fundersnetwork.org/files/learn/
TFN_HardestRoad_Print_LowRes.pdf.
153 The Leadership Conference Education Fund, 2011.

Where We Need to Go: A Civil Rights Roadmap to
Transportation Equity http://www.protectcivilrights.
org/pdf/docs/transportation/52846576-Where-
We-Need-to-Go-A-Civil-Rights-Roadmap-for-
Transportation-Equity.pdf.
154 Transportation Equity Network, “What We Want: The
TEN Platform,” http://www.transportationequity.org/
what-we-do/background.html.
155 Transportation Equity Caucus, “Statement of
Principles,” http://equitycaucus.org/About/
StatementofPrinciples.
156 Brookings Institution, 2006. An Inherent Bias?
Geographic and Racial-Ethnic Patterns of
Metropolitan Planning Organization Boards.
http://www.brookings.edu/~/media/research/
files/reports/2006/6/01transportation%20
sanchez/20060124_mpos.pdf.
157 Corinne Ramey, “America’s Unfair Rules of the
Road,” Slate, 2/27/15, http://www.slate.com/
articles/news_and_politics/politics/2015/02/
america_s_transportation_system_discriminates_

against_minorities_and_poor.single.html.
158 Raymond A. Mohl, “The Interstates and the Cities:
Highways, Housing, and the Freeway Revolt,” http://
www.prrac.org/pdf/mohl.pdf.
159 Emily Badger, “The long, painful and repetitive
history of how Baltimore became Baltimore,”
The Washington Post, 4/29/2015, http://
www.washingtonpost.com/blogs/wonkblog/
wp/2015/04/29/the-long-painful-and-repetitive-
history-of-how-baltimore-became-baltimore/.
160 Safe Routes to School National Partnership,
“Integrating Safe Routes to School into the
Transportation Alternatives Program: Reducing
Barriers for Disadvantaged Communities,” http://
saferoutespartnership.org/sites/default/files/pdf/
srts_brief_TAP_MatchingBrief.pdf.
161 See, for instance, The Hill, March 2, 2015.
“On infrastructure, we can’t wait any longer”
http://thehill.com/blogs/pundits-blog/
transportation/234273-on-infrastructure-we-cant-
wait-any-longer `

162 American Society of Civil Engineers, 2013.
America’s Infrastructure Report Card. http://www.
infrastructurereportcard.org/. See also Washington
Post, March 19, 2013. “U.S. Infrastructure Gets D+
in Annual Report.”
163 Brookings Institution, 2013. Crumbling Infrastructure
Has Real and Enduring Costs. http://www.
brookings.edu/blogs/up-front/posts/2013/01/23-
crumbling-infrastructure-galston.
164 PolicyLink, 2012. Equity is the Superior Growth
Model: http://www.policylink.org/find-resources/
library/americas-tomorrow-equity-is-the-superior-
growth-model-summary.
165 Sarah Treuhaft, Angela Glover Blackwell, and Manuel
Pastor, “America’s Tomorrow: Equity Is the Superior
Growth Model: Summary,” PolicyLink, http://www.
policylink.org/sites/default/files/SUMMIT_FRAMING_
SUMMARY_WEB.PDF.
166 Cal.Str. & H.Code § 2380 (2013). The implementing
regulations define “disadvantaged community”

as (1) a community that has a median household
income is less than 80% of the statewide
median, (2) an area identified as among the most
disadvantaged 25% based on a state environmental
health screening tool, or (3) an area in which at
least 75% of public school students are eligible
to receive free or reduced-price meals under the
National School Lunch Program. See 2015 Active
Transportation Guidelines (March 26, 2015) at 8-9.
Available at: http://www.catc.ca.gov/programs/
ATP/2015/2015_ATP_Guideline_032615_
rev_0312.pdf.
167 2015 Active Transportation Guideliens (March 26,
2015) at 8, http://www.catc.ca.gov/programs/
ATP/2015/2015_ATP_Guideline_032615_
rev_0312.pdf.
168 Id. at 14.
Endnotes

http://www.commonwealthfund.org/usr_doc/mead_racialethnicd
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http://pubs.healtheffects.org/getfile.php?u=551
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l-exposures
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l-exposures
l-exposures
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http://www.communitycommons.org/wp-
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http://www.bms.com/documents/together_on_diabetes/2012-
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http://www.nationalhomeless.org/factsheets/How_Many.html
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http://www.pbs.org/now/shows/526/homeless-facts.html
http://www.pbs.org/now/shows/526/homeless-facts.html
http://www.homelesschildrenamerica.org/mediadocs/280.pdf
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http://center.serve.org/nche/downloads/briefs/transportation.pdf
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skills/
skills/
skills/
http://www.ethep.org/?page=freewheel_bike
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http://www.transportationequity.org/
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http://www.transportationequity.org/what-we-
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ne_032615_rev_0312.pdf
ne_032615_rev_0312.pdf
ne_032615_rev_0312.pdf
ne_032615_rev_0312.pdf
ne_032615_rev_0312.pdf
ne_032615_rev_0312.pdf
56
169 Brookings Institution, “An Inherent Bias? Geographic
and Racial-Ethnic Patterns of Metropolitan
Planning Organization Boards,” 2006, http://
www.brookings.edu/~/media/research/

172 Thomas W. Sanchez, “An Equity Analysis of
Transportation Funding,” Race and Regionalism
15:1 (Fall 2008). http://www.urbanhabitat.org/
node.2812 Cited in All Aboard at 8. Brookings
Institution, “An Inherent Bias? Geographic
174 42 U.S.C §§ 2000d - 2000d-7.
175 K. Manaugh, M. Badami, A. El-Geneidy, Integrating

social equity into urban transportation planning:
A critical evaluation of equity objectives and
measures in transportation plans in North America,”
Transport Policy (published online 25 Nov. 2014),
http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/
S0967070X14002145; A. Karner, D. Niemeier, Civil
rights guidance and equity analysis methods for
regional transportation plans: a critical review of
literature and practice,”Journal of Transport Geography
33 (2013) at 128. Available at: http://www.ssti.us/
wp/wp-content/uploads/2014/02/2013-karner-civil
+rights+guidance+critical+review.pdf.
176 http://equitycaucus.org/About/StatementofPrinciples.
177 Manaugh, supra.
178 See Equity Analysis, Plan Bay Area, http://
planbayarea.org/plan-bay-area/plan-elements/equity-
analysis.html; Draft Equity Analysis Report, Plan Bay
Area (March 2013), http://planbayarea.org/pdf/
Draft_Plan_Bay_Area/Draft_Equity_Analysis_Report.
pdf.
179 Knoxville Regional Transportation Planning

Organization, http://www.knoxtrans.org.
180 King County, Advancing Equity and Social Justice
through development of a Strategic Innovation Priority
Plan and Executive department actions, ACO 9-2
(10/4/14) http://www.kingcounty.gov/operations/
policies/executive/administrationaeo/aco92aeo.
aspx.
181 Equity and Social Justice Annual Report, http://
www.kingcounty.gov/elected/executive/equity-
social-justice.aspx.
182 For more information on ways to incorporate active
transportation and Safe Routes to School into
comprehensive plans, see the National Partnership’s
report on Integrating Safe Walking and Bicycling
to School into Comprehensive Planning http://
SRTS_brief_IntegratingCompPlan-FINAL.pdf.
183 Seattle Bicycle Plan at 28 (2010), http://www.
seattle.gov/transportation/docs/bmp/apr14/
SBMP_21March_FINAL_full%20doc.pdf.

184 Id. at 28.
185 Id.at 18-22.
186 Ibid.
187 Id.at 105.
188 Seattle Bicycle Master Plan: Implementation
Plan (2015-2019), http://www.seattle.
gov/transportation/docs/bmp/
BMPImplementationPlanMarch2015.pdf.
189 Seattle Bicycle Master Plan at 113.
190 Advocacy Advance, Active Transportation
Equity: A Scan of Existing Master Plans, 2015,
http://www.advocacyadvance.org/docs/
ActiveTransportationEquityScan.pdf.
191 Portland Bicycle Plan for 2030 (March 2010),
https://www.portlandoregon.gov/transportation/
article/289122
192 Health Equity and the Transportation System Plan:

Recommendations for the City of Portland (March
2012), ftp://ftp02.portlandoregon.gov/PBOT/
Sara%20Schooley/Health_TSP_report_031312.pdf.
193 2035 Comprehensive Proposed Draft, City of
Portland (July 2014) at 157 (Policy 9.58), http://
www.portlandoregon.gov/bps/article/497457.
194 Id. passim.
195 National Complete Streets Coalition, http://www.
smartgrowthamerica.org/complete-streets.
196 Bridging the Gap, “Using Local Land Use Laws to
Facilitate Physical Activity,” Research Brief March
2012, http://www.bridgingthegapresearch.org/_
asset/5q86hg/btg_land_use_pa_FINAL_03-09-12.
pdf.
197 Bridging the Gap, “Using Local Land Use Laws to
Facilitate Physical Activity,” Research Brief March
2012, http://www.bridgingthegapresearch.org/_
asset/5q86hg/btg_land_use_pa_FINAL_03-09-12.
pdf.

198 Lauren M. Rossen and Keshia M. Pollack, “Making
the Connection Between Zoning and Health
Disparities,” ENVIRONMENTAL JUSTICE Volume 5,
Number 3, 2012, http://www.jhsph.edu/research/
centers-and-institutes/johns-hopkins-center-for-a-
livable-future/_pdf/research/clf_reports/zoning%20
health%20disparities%20Rossen%20Pollack.pdf.
199 People for Bikes, Building Equity: Race, Ethnicity,
Class, and Protected Bike Lanes: An Idea Book
for Fairer Cities https://www.dropbox.com/s/
l2wxv9pz9utrien/EquityReport2015.pdf?dl=0.
200 Bill Sadler, Putting Equity on the Map. Living Cities,
April 2014. https://www.livingcities.org/blog/540-
putting-equity-on-the-map-measuring-access-to-
opportunity-with-an-equity-atlas.
201 Kirwan Institute for the Study of Race and Ethnicity,
http://kirwaninstitute.osu.edu/opportunity-
communities/mapping/.
202 Causa Justa, 2014. Development without
Displacement: Resisting Gentrification in the
Bay Area. http://www.liberationink.org/content/

development-without-displacement-resisting-
gentrification-bay-area
203 Washington City Paper, February 20, 2015.
The “Gentrification Myth” Myth. http://
www.washingtoncitypaper.com/blogs/
housingcomplex/2015/02/20/the-gentrification-
myth-myth/
204 Slate, January 2015. “The Myth of Gentrification.”
http://www.slate.com/articles/news_and_politics/
politics/2015/01/the_gentrification_myth_it_s_
rare_and_not_as_bad_for_the_poor_as_people.
single.html.
205 See, for instance, Grist, February 5, 2015. “Who
Says Gentrification is a Myth?” http://grist.org/
cities/who-says-gentrification-is-a-myth/.
206 The Atlantic, February 16, 2015. “The Miracle
of Minneapolis” http://www.theatlantic.com/
magazine/archive/2015/03/the-miracle-of-
minneapolis/384975/.
207 The Atlantic, February 21, 2015. “Minneapolis’s

White Lie” http://www.theatlantic.com/business/
archive/2015/02/minneapoliss-white-lie/385702/.
“What is Safe Routes to School? Background and
Statistics,” www.saferoutespartnership.org/sites/
default/files/pdf/What-is-SRST-factsheet-REVISED-
06-14-11-w-footnotes.pdf.
209 Physical Activity and Health, Centers for Disease
Control and Prevention, http://www.cdc.gov/
physicalactivity/everyone/health/index.html?s_
cid=cs_284; The Importance of 60 Minutes or
More of Daily Physical Activity, Surgeon General’s
Perspectives, Public Health Reports (Sept.–Oct.
2013), Vol. 128, http://www.publichealthreports.
org/issueopen.cfm?articleID=3002; Getting
the Wheels Rolling: A Guide to Using Policy to
Create Bicycle Friendly Communities (Aug. 2013)
at 16, http://changelabsolutions.org/sites/
default/files/Getting_the_Wheels_Rolling_Toolkit-
FINAL_20130823_0.pdf; I. Lee, E. Shiroma, F.
Lobelo et al. Effect of physical inactivity on major
non-communicable diseases worldwide: an analysis
of burden of disease and life expectancy. Lancet

(2012) 380:219-29, http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/
pmc/articles/PMC3645500/.
210 Shore, Stuart, Michael Sachs, Jeffrey Lidicker, et
al., Decreased scholastic achievement In overweight
middle school students, Obesity 16 (2008): 7,
1535-1538; Dann Vinther, Children Who Walk to
School Concentrate Better,” Science Nordic, Nov.
30, 2012, http://sciencenordic.com/children-who-
walk-school-conentrate-better.
211 “Exercise for Children,” MedlinePlus, National
Institutes of Health, last updated Sept. 19,
2012, http://www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/
exerciseforchildren.html; “Changing Diet and
Exercise for Kids,” American Psychological
Association, http://www.apa.org/topics/children/
healthy-eating.aspx; Rothon C., et al., “Physical
activity and depressive symptoms in adolescents:
a prospective study,” BMC Medicine 8 (2010): 32,
http://www.biomedcentral.com/1741-7015/8/32.
212 Safe Routes to School National Partnership, http://
saferoutespartnership.org/national/policy-background.

213 Safe Routes to School National Partnership, http://
saferoutespartnership.org/national/policy-background.
214 Noreen C. McDonald, Ruth L. Steiner, Chanam
Lee, et al., (2014) “Impact of the Safe Routes
to School Program on Walking and Bicycling,”
Journal of the American Planning Association,
80:2, 153-167, https://planning.unc.edu/people/
faculty/noreenmcdonald/McDonald_etal_JAPA_
SRTSEvaluation.pdf. Turner L, Slater S, Chaloupka
FJ, “Elementary School Participation in Safe Routes
to School Programming is Associated with Higher
Rates of Student Active Travel to School - A BTG
Research Brief, ” Bridging the Gap, (2014).
215 Bridging the Gap, “Research Brief: Income
Disparities in Street Features that Encourage
Walking.” March 2012, http://www.
bridgingthegapresearch.org/_asset/02fpi3/
btg_street_walkability_FINAL_03-09-12.pdf; Sara
Fecht, Accident-Zone: Poorer Neighborhoods have
Less-Safe Road Designs, Scientific American (May
3, 2012), http://www.scientificamerican.com/
article/accident-zone-poorer-neighborhoods/.

Endnotes

http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0967070X140
02145
http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0967070X140
02145
http://www.ssti.us/wp/wp-content/uploads/2014/02/2013-karner-
civil+rights+guidance+critical+review.pdf
http://planbayarea.org/plan-bay-area/plan-elements/equity-
analysis.html
analysis.html

analysis.html
http://planbayarea.org/pdf/Draft_Plan_Bay_Area/Draft_Equity_
Analysis_Report.pdf
Analysis_Report.pdf
Analysis_Report.pdf
http://www.knoxtrans.org
http://www.kingcounty.gov/operations/policies/executive/admin
istrationaeo/aco92aeo.aspx
http://www.kingcounty.gov/elected/executive/equity-social-
justice.aspx
justice.aspx
justice.aspx

http://www.seattle.gov/transportation/docs/bmp/BMPImplement
ationPlanMarch2015.pdf
ityScan.pdf
ityScan.pdf
https://www.portlandoregon.gov/transportation/article/289122
https://www.portlandoregon.gov/transportation/article/289122
ftp://ftp02.portlandoregon.gov/PBOT/Sara%20Schooley/Health_
TSP_report_031312.pdf
ftp://ftp02.portlandoregon.gov/PBOT/Sara%20Schooley/Health_
TSP_report_031312.pdf
http://www.portlandoregon.gov/bps/article/497457
http://www.portlandoregon.gov/bps/article/497457

http://www.smartgrowthamerica.org/complete-streets
http://www.smartgrowthamerica.org/complete-streets
http://www.bridgingthegapresearch.org/_asset/5q86hg/btg_land
_use_pa_FINAL_03-09-12.pdf
http://www.jhsph.edu/research/centers-and-institutes/johns-
hopkins-center-for-a-livable-
future/_pdf/research/clf_reports/zoning%20health%20disparities
%20Rossen%20Pollack.pdf

https://www.dropbox.com/s/l2wxv9pz9utrien/EquityReport2015.
pdf?dl=0
https://www.dropbox.com/s/l2wxv9pz9utrien/EquityReport2015.
pdf?dl=0
https://www.livingcities.org/blog/540-putting-equity-on-the-
map-measuring-access-to-opportunity-with-an-equity-atlas
communities/mapping/
communities/mapping/
http://www.liberationink.org/content/development-without-
displacement-resisting-gentrification-bay-area

http://www.washingtoncitypaper.com/blogs/housingcomplex/20
15/02/20/the-gentrification-myth-myth/
1/the_gentrification_myth_it_s_rare_and_not_as_bad_for_the_p
oor_as_people.single.html
http://grist.org/cities/who-says-gentrification-is-a-myth/
http://grist.org/cities/who-says-gentrification-is-a-myth/
http://www.theatlantic.com/magazine/archive/2015/03/the-
miracle-of-minneapolis/384975/

http://www.theatlantic.com/business/archive/2015/02/minneapol
iss-white-lie/385702/
http://www.theatlantic.com/business/archive/2015/02/minneapol
iss-white-lie/385702/
http://www.saferoutespartnership.org/sites/default/files/pdf/Wh
at-is-SRST-factsheet-REVISED-06-14-11-w-footnotes.pdf
http://www.cdc.gov/physicalactivity/everyone/health/index.html
?s_cid=cs_284
?s_cid=cs_284
?s_cid=cs_284
http://www.publichealthreports.org/issueopen.cfm?articleID=30
02
http://www.publichealthreports.org/issueopen.cfm?articleID=30
02
http://changelabsolutions.org/sites/default/files/Getting_the_Wh
eels_Rolling_Toolkit-FINAL_20130823_0.pdf

http://sciencenordic.com/children-who-walk-school-conentrate-
better
http://sciencenordic.com/children-who-walk-school-conentrate-
better
http://www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/exerciseforchildren.html
http://www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/exerciseforchildren.html
http://www.apa.org/topics/children/healthy-eating.aspx
http://www.apa.org/topics/children/healthy-eating.aspx
http://www.biomedcentral.com/1741-7015/8/32
http://saferoutespartnership.org/national/policy-background
https://planning.unc.edu/people/faculty/noreenmcdonald/McDon
ald_etal_JAPA_SRTSEvaluation.pdf

57
216 Jennifer Swanson, Arnelle Ramirez, Kipling Galllion,
Increasing out of School and Out of Class Physical
Activity among Latino Children, Salud America! (July
2013) at 6-7, http://www.communitycommons.
org/wp-content/uploads/2013/08/Active-Play-
Research-Review.pdf; Virginia Lee, Leslie Mikkelsen,
Janani Srikantharajah, et al., Strategies for
Enhancing the Built Environment to Support Healthy
Eating and Active Living, Healthy Eating Active
Living Convergence Partnership (2008), http://
www.calendow.org/uploadedfiles/publications/

publications_stories/builtenvironment.pdf.
219 California Transportation Commission, 2015
Active Transportation Program Guidelines, http://
www.catc.ca.gov/programs/ATP/2015/Final%20
Adopted%202015%20ATP%20Guidelines.pdf.
220 California Transportation Commission, 2014 Active
Transportation Program Guidelines, http://www.
catc.ca.gov/programs/ATP/2014_ATP_Guidelines_
adopted_032014.pdf.

“Addressing the Needs of Low-Income Communities:
Best Practices from and for State SRTS Programs,”
2009, http://saferoutespartnership.org/state/
state-resources/addressing-the-needs-of-low-income-
communities.
222 City of Portland Safe Routes to School Policy
(March 2012) at ii, http://www.portlandoregon.gov/
transportation/article/373691.
223 Ibid.
224 Id. at 25.
225 Chang, Hedy and Romero, Mariajose, “Present,
Engaged and Accounted For: The Critical
Importance of Addressing Chronic Absence in
the Early Grades,” National Center for Children in
Poverty, 2008, http://www.nccp.org/publications/
pdf/text_837.pdf.
226 UC Davis Center for Regional Change, “Factors
Influencing School Attendance for Chronically Absent

Students in the Sacramento City Unified School
District (SCUSD),” Chronic Absenteeism Issue Brief
Series, July 2014, http://explore.regionalchange.
ucdavis.edu/ourwork/publications/chronic-absence-
scusd/factors-influencing-school-attendance-for-
chronically-absent-students-in-the-sacramento-city-
unified-school-district-scusd.
227 Chang, Hedy and Romero, Mariajose, “Present,
Engaged and Accounted For: The Critical
Importance of Addressing Chronic Absence in
the Early Grades,” National Center for Children in
Poverty, 2008, http://www.nccp.org/publications/
pdf/text_837.pdf.
228 Ready, Douglas. “Socioeconomic Disadvantage,
School Attendance, and Early Cognitive
Development: The Differential Effects of School
Exposure.” Sociology of Education 2010 83(271),
http://www.attendancecounts.org/wordpress/wp-
content/uploads/2010/04/Ready-2010-2.pdf.
229 Davison, Kirsten K., Werder, Jessica L. and Lawson,
Catherine T. “Children’s Active Commuting to
School: Current Knowledge and Future Directions.”

Preventing Chronic Disease. 5.3 (2008): A100;
Mendoza JA, Watson K, Nguyen N, Cerin E,
Baranowski T, Nicklas TA. “Active Commuting to
School and Association with Physical Activity and
Adiposity among U.S. Youth.” J. Phys Act Health.
8.4 (2011): 488-49; Cooper AR, LB Andersen, N
Wedderkopp, AS Page, and K Froberg. “Physical
activity levels of children who walk, cycle or are
driven to school.” American Journal of Preventive
Medicine 29 (2005): 3, 179-184.
230 Geier AB, Foster GD, Womble LG, McLaughlin J,
Borradaile KE, Nachmani J, Sherman S, Kumanyika
S, Shults J., “The relationship between relative
weight and school attendance among elementary
schoolchildren.” Obesity. August 2007;15(8):2157-
61.
231 Balfanz, Robert, and Vaughan Byrnes, “The
Importance of Being in School: A Report on
Absenteeism in the Nation’s Public Schools,”
2012, p. 24, http://new.every1graduates.
org/wp-content/uploads/2012/05/
FINALChronicAbsenteeismReport_May16.pdf.

232 Martin S., Lee S., and Lowry R., “National Prevalence
and Correlates of Walking and Bicycling to School,”
American Journal of Preventive Medicine, 33(2):
98-105, 2007.
233 Salvesen D., Good Schools – Good Neighborhoods,
CURS Report No. 2003.03, Center for Urban and
Regional Studies, University of North Carolina at
Chapel Hill, 2003, http://curs.unc.edu/curs-pdf-
downloads/recentlyreleased/goodschoolsreport.
pdf; see also Kuhlman R, Helping Johnny Walk to
School: Policy Recommendations for Removing
Barriers to Community-Centered Schools, www.
preservationnation.org/issues/historic-schools/
helping-johnny-walk-to-school/helping-johnny-walk-to-
school.pdf.
234 U.S. Department of Health and Human Services,
Centers for Disease Control and Prevention.
KidsWalk: Then and Now – Barriers and

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