Research paper - Authentic Asessment
- 1. Authentic Assessment to Differentiate ELL from L D 1 Authentic Assessment to Differentiate Language Acquisition from Learning Disabilities Ximena Naranjo EDCI Assessment Kansas State University May 13, 2014
- 2. Authentic Assessment to Differentiate ELL from L D 2 AUTHENTIC ASSESSMENT TO DIFFERENCIATE LANGUAGE ACQUISITION FROM LEARNING DISABILITIES Introduction and Purpose Acquiring a language enables people to have social interaction and understanding of one-another in an evolving world. Indeed, acquiring English as a second or foreign language helps people do well socially and academically. English language teachers who are in charge of this process, help students develop cognitive, social, and emotional skills so that they can comprehend daily problems and solve them through meaningful communication. But, what if the goal is not achieved? What should ESL/EFL teachers look for as a cause of the problem? Digging for the enigma can be a frustrating experience for students and an unsatisfying practice for teachers. Therefore, teachers must be knowledgeable to identify whether the students are going through a process of language acquisition or facing a learning disability. The domains of “The Ecuadorian in-service English teachers’ standards” require educators to be well-informed of the different language acquisition theories, cultural differences, assessment techniques, and social issues to guide learners in an effective way. (EIES, 2012). Though I concede that teaching methods and specialized assessment techniques help instructors to identify and differentiate the process of second language acquisition from a learning disability, I still insist that teachers need to have a better understanding of the characteristics that these learners present to be able to provide students with necessary accommodations or refer them to more specialized people if that is the case. Therefore in this paper I will discuss different tools and strategies teachers can use to identify language learning problems. I will concentrate my attention on authentic assessments as the most appropriate strategies as they are used for instruction and evaluation of ESL/EFL learning process.
- 3. Authentic Assessment to Differentiate ELL from L D 3 Literature Review Language Acquisition The process of first or second language acquisition is an important mechanism in the development of human beings because language plays a significant role in communication. Klingner (2008), states that language acquisition is a method of developing a language (first or second), which is affected by external factors like social interaction, first language literacy, attitude to the second language, and the type of students´ personalities among others. To put it another way, language acquisition is a cognitive, social-emotional, and physical process of developing language related to external factors. Ganchow (2001) states that cognitive, affective, and individual variables determine the time and level of second language development. She also mentions “motivation, anxiety, self-esteem, and tolerance of ambiguity, risk-taking, aptitude, age, and gender” (Ganchow. 2001. p. 81) as key components of individual differences that can affect the process of learning a language. Indeed, it is highly likely that students might get anxious about making mistakes in grammar, pronunciation, vocabulary, or when trying to understand the teacher, as Schwarz said in the article “Learning Disabilities and Foreign language Learning” (Schwarz, 2013). Robert Gardner, who was cited by Ganschow et al., (2001) in their review, also considered intelligence, language aptitude, motivation, and situational anxiety as variables that can lead to second language learning. Yet an analysis of the multiple variables affecting second language acquisition reveals that anxiety is a typical reaction of students who find it difficult to succeed in the process of learning a second language, which is also related to self–esteem as a predictor of overall achievement, a concept with which Schwarz and Ganschow agree in their investigations (Schwarz, 1997; Ganschow, et al., 2001). It follows then, that students´ reactions
- 4. Authentic Assessment to Differentiate ELL from L D 4 to their fear of communication, tests, or negative evaluations could be misinterpreted as a learning disability. Therefore, there is a need of accurate assessing tools to identify from the bewildering characteristics of learning a second language or learning disabilities (see appendix 1) to support the process in a more meaningful way. Learning Disability Whereas language acquisition is related to the environment, learning disability is a problem within the person. Sharon DiFino states, “A learning disability is a neurological disorder that often runs in families and affects ones learning in one or more areas” (DiFino, 2004, p. 391). Along the same lines, the same author suggests that teachers use special techniques and instruments to identify the type of disability students may have (DiFino, 2004). Consequently, teachers should apply careful techniques and special accommodations to identify leaning disable students and support their education. Leonore Ganschow (2001) emphasizes that a linguistic code deficit could be identified as a characteristic of learning disability in first and second language as it is stated in the following description: “Children who have a disorder in one or more of the basic psychological processes involved in understanding or in using language, spoken or written which disorder may manifest itself in imperfect ability to listen, think, speak, read, write, spell, or to do mathematical calculations” (Ganschow, et al., 2001, p.82). Table 1. in the appendix section summarizes the degree of correspondence of the characteristics of second language acquisition and learning disabilities, which may confuse teachers when trying to identify students’ difficulties. Pre-Assessing to Determine Students with a Disability
- 5. Authentic Assessment to Differentiate ELL from L D 5 Researchers have long assumed that a good set of assessment tools is important to pinpoint the children´s strengths and needs, and consequently determine the necessary accommodations to facilitate children’s development. This literature review will describe three types of strategies that can be used to identify both groups. Modern Language Aptitude Test” MLAT Proponents of “Modern Language Aptitude Test” MLAT (Ganschow et al., 2001, p. 531; Ganschow et al., 2009, p. 80; DiFino, 2004, p.392) identify it as a good measuring tool for prognostic and diagnostic of learning disabilities between second language learners based on communication skills, specifically speaking and listening. The MLAT consists of five subtests: (a) number learning, (b) phonetic script, (c) spelling clues, (d) words in sentences, and (e) paired associates (DiFino, 2004; Ganschow et al., 2009). Pre-referral assessment tool Along the same lines, the “pre-referral assessment tool” is an instrument to identify English language learners who could need special evaluations during the process of identifying learning problems. The pre-referral assessment tool is a good base to decide the conditions students face in the process of acquiring a second language (Cohan & Honigsfeld, 2012). This assessment instrument focuses on ten areas: “1.the language background, 2. personal, cultural, educational background, 3. language acquisition patterns, 4. learning patterns, 5. behavioral patterns, 6. behavior modifications implemented with the student, 7. dimensions of learning disability (LD) detection, 8. child´s learning problem from the perspective of several teachers, 9. key questions on persistent problems, and 10. outcomes” (Cohan & Honigsfeld, 2012, p.14 ). Authentic assessment
- 6. Authentic Assessment to Differentiate ELL from L D 6 As Clay (2002) says, “standardized tests are poor measures of slow progress” (p. 11). That is why teachers have to find more effective ways to lead the eyes to specific learning details that help educators make informed decisions. For instance, teachers need to apply authentic assessments, which are used for instruction and evaluation of the learning outcomes. Fulton & King (1995) describe authentic assessment as a word that is used to outline different ways to examine the development of students’ abilities in the learning process. Students have to learn solve problems or perform tasks that closely resemble authentic situations. This definition is complemented by Luongo- Orlando (2003), who says that authentic assessment involves the application of knowledge and skills in real life situations. The use of authentic assessment is beneficial for students and helpful for teachers because it incorporates the social and behavioral skills necessary outside the classroom. This type of assessment integrates high order thinking skills since teachers put great emphasis on problem solving, critical thinking, comprehension, reasoning, and metacognition (Fulton & King, 1995; Herrera, Morales, & Murry, 2013; Luongo-Orlando, 2003). Authentic assessment also helps English teachers differentiate between learning disabilities or language acquisition difficulties; therefore it is productive for ESL/EFL teachers due to the variety of strategies that can support the process. Curriculum-based assessment or dynamic assessments help teachers collect progress and procedural data while students are being taught. Curriculum based assessment can also help teachers create and adapt tools that are modified to the students culture and language needs in order to identify the students’ real abilities through formative activities (Klinger, et al., 2008). Sharon DiFino (2004) recommends teachers to use frequent assessing techniques to prove the students learning, this strategy is more effective and helpful to students. So too is the use of
- 7. Authentic Assessment to Differentiate ELL from L D 7 nontraditional testing, which reinforces cultural background through classroom assessments and minimizes the student´s levels of affective filter letting learners develop effective knowledge ( DiFino, 2004). On the whole, authentic assessments help ESL/EFL teachers get accurate and valid results while students develop real world tasks demonstrating meaningful application of essential knowledge through listening speaking, reading and writing.
- 8. Authentic Assessment to Differentiate ELL from L D 8 Characteristics of Authentic Assessment Indicators Figure 1 Ximena Naranjo Characteristics of Authentic Assessment Diagram Resembles real life context. Appropriate criteria Multiple indicators of Learning. Projects, writing, journals, weekly daily tasks Rubrics Multiple tasks Formative Assessment Problem solving High order thinking Production of knowledge Collaboration Context Task factor s Student s factor s
- 9. Authentic Assessment to Differentiate ELL from L D 9 Types of authentic assessment Herrera (2011), says that students’ activities that include “experiments, projects, observations, interviews, and students narratives” (p. 26) are good examples of authentic assessments. These multiple indicators of learning can be applied to any content areas, for instruction as well as for assessment purposes. Performance- based assessments. This is a set of strategies for acquisition and application of knowledge where teachers can see the behavior of the students doing tasks (Fulton & King, 1995) Along the same lines (Linn & Miller , 2005) who was cited by (Herrera et. al.,2013) considers performance based assessment as the “actual doing of a task” which is a process of observing and monitoring students while they are participating in class activities (Herrera et al., 2013, p.26). Interview based assessment Interviews are a good way to understand the learning progress because either informal or highly structured questions provide a good insight of the learners’ perspectives in front of the process as well as future learning goals (Herrera et al., 2013). Self- assessment and peer assessment Self- assessment and peer assessment are valuable tools to evaluate CDL students because they develop understanding of the students own progress, and work. These tools motivate learners improve previous tasks, besides they make students aware of their improvements as well as of their own abilities or failings. Portfolios
- 10. Authentic Assessment to Differentiate ELL from L D 10 Portfolios are the collection of assignments which show the production and completion over a period of time, Portfolios are “ visual representations of students accomplishments capabilities, strengths, weaknesses and progress over time” Both authors agree that portfolios have turned out to be the most organized representation of the students work and development. (Fulton & King, 1995; Herrera et al., 2013) Play – based assessment. This is a good strategy for evaluating children and CLD students who are in the process of learning English through the use of toys as real objects as if children were in a natural context. Observing children while they are playing can help teachers determine the cognitive and socio-emotional level of development as well as the understanding of concepts applied to life. On the other hand, CLD students are benefited by the use of play based assessment because students can demonstrate their understanding of language structures at the time of communicating using the four language skills. (Herrera et al., 2013)
- 11. Authentic Assessment to Differentiate ELL from L D 11 AUTHENTIC ASSESSMENT Root = sit with the learner Frequent feedback Observe process of learning Appraising students Active role of students Different cultural backgrounds, learning styles academic ability Measures Judge students Clear data Criterion-referenced Norm referenced Students are passive. ASSESSMENT PERFORMANCE PORTFOLIOS INTERVIEW PLAY-BASED BASED BASED SELF- ASSESSMENT PEER ASSESSMENT
- 12. Authentic Assessment to Differentiate ELL from L D 12 Figure 2 Ximena Naranjo Authentic Assessment Mind map The teacher´s role in authentic assessment Teachers who are applying authentic assessments in their classrooms need to make several changes to help students achieve their cognitive, procedural and attitudinal goals. Instructors have to state learning objectives, plan instruction, and consider documents to back up the collection of data while the learning is developed. Another important point is to develop grading strategies to distribute and interpret authentic assessments. (Fulton & King, 1995) Teachers are required to incorporate authentic assessment into instruction, even though they might think there is not enough time; the point is to replace certain activities like lectures to include meaningful activities where students collaborate and develop skills while learning. Along the same line, introducing manipulatives, problem solving, and group work help students investigate to find out solutions to the presented tasks demonstrating understanding through production, creation and performance.(Fulton & King, 1995). Teachers training and methodology Leonore Ganschow (2009) assures that there is a relationship between learning strategies and the success or failure of the students. Therefore, teachers are responsible for creating a motivating environment; plenty of resources and effective learning strategies to hook the students in the development of a second language. (Ganschow et al., 2009). What is more important children´s education should be based on the constructivist theory where teachers use active processes to build up new concepts linking students present and
- 13. Authentic Assessment to Differentiate ELL from L D 13 past knowledge to produce meaningful learning. This practice of enhancing stages of human lives goes from analyzing how teachers affect students, their families and background, their environment, the material they work with, the curriculum, their assessment until they reach to a point where students and teachers can apply their new knowledge. (Herrera, S., & Murry, K., 2011). Reflection Foreign or second language acquisition is determined by two important factors which are instruction and individual differences. As a teacher, I need to consider intelligence, aptitude, motivation, and the pace or speed of my students in order to provide a quality education. Additionally, I need to base my teaching on the students’ individual needs, rather than rigid methodologies, or mandated curricula since I know every student is different at the time of seeing goals in an effective communication. I will reconsider the techniques for reading and writing to raise the rate of enunciation as well as the level of language for instruction through cognates, repetitions, and paraphrasing, to explain tasks and give instructions. Also the use of pictures, flash cards, technology, or simply writing on the board can give a better understanding of the concepts during students´ instruction, as it is suggested by Case and Taylor (Case &Taylor, 2005). Common sense seems to dictate that realia, like (train schedules, menus, foreign currency, posters announcing concerts, or lectures, recipes from grocery stores) role plays, songs, DVD, assignment sheets” (DiFino, 2004) help to create an engaging atmosphere where students pay attention and develop meaningful learning.
- 14. Authentic Assessment to Differentiate ELL from L D 14 Although, it is true that there are tests like the MLAT (Modern Language Assessment Test), or PLAB that can examine learning patterns. These tools cannot identify special student´s requirements. Furthermore, it is real that examining the students cognitive – academic aptitude connecting their progress in other areas of the curriculum help to better understand the learning problems through looking at the process. I like the idea of using authentic assessment techniques for processing and evaluating the language development. I think it is very applicable in my classroom because the students’ background, their language development, and their motivation vary from gender, age, time of class and time of the year in my school. Authentic assessment will help me view the process of the four language skills while students are presenting projects, working on hands on activities, or practicing speaking to have a better picture of what is going on in the classroom as a true learning experience. Furthermore the idea to create a differentiated instruction can help me integrate what I learnt about constructivist learning theory, learning styles, factors of learners’ readiness, and motivation to improve my teaching practice engaging my students in the process of developing a second language until they reach a proficiency level. The literature stated in this review challenge the work of some Ecuadorian EFL/ESL teachers who don´t have a clear conception of certain overlapping characteristics between language acquisition and learning disability. Consequently, teachers need to be aware of the Ecuadorian educational system and its members to provide with opportunities to connect students with the content through meaningful experiences. Teachers need to use active enhancing learning strategies to support students through their own understanding,
- 15. Authentic Assessment to Differentiate ELL from L D 15 experience, interactions and reflection with the sole goal of learning a language expressed in an effective communication. Indeed, Teachers must know that students become more metacognitive aware of their learning if they are prompted to solve problems, develop arguments, or analyze the way they are building their own knowledge. Therefore, ESL/EFL teachers need to develop metacognitive strategies, such as setting goals, making predictions, and checking for consistency to find out the gaps between language acquisitions or a learning disability in both Spanish and English instruction. Anyone familiar with the Ecuadorian teaching system would agree that teachers need to work as a team to unify efforts in the process of developing fluent English speakers. To put it bluntly, the problems to read spell and write in the students´ first language affect second language as some of the characteristics detailed in this review. Professionally I think that there is a long path to go. Though, I concede that the researches tell educators new approaches to teach ELLs, I still insist that every classroom is different and that every educator has to find the way to reach out the students who are struggling in the process of learning a language and the ones who have learning difficulties.
- 16. Authentic Assessment to Differentiate ELL from L D 16 Appendix Similarities between LD and Language Acquisition literacy: Some Similarities Between LD and Language Acquisition Behaviors Associated w/ LD Behaviors when Acquiring an L2 Difficulty following directions Difficulty following directions because the directions were not well understood; it can be harder to remember directions in a second language. Difficulty with phonological awareness Difficulty auditory distinguishing between sounds not in one’s first language, or sounds that are presented in a different order. Slow to learn sound-symbol correspondence Confusion with sound-symbol correspondence when it is different than in one’s first language. Difficulty pronouncing sounds not in the first language. Difficulty remembering sight words Difficulty remembering sight words when word meanings are not understood. Difficulty retelling a story in sequence Difficulty retelling a story in English without the expressive skills to do so; yet the student might understand more than s/he can convey (i.e., receptive skills in English might be stronger than expressive skills).
- 17. Authentic Assessment to Differentiate ELL from L D 17 Confusion with figurative language Confusion with figurative language, idioms, pronouns, conjunctions, and words with multiple meanings. Slow to process challenging language Slow to process challenging language because it is not well understood. May have poor auditory memory May seem to have poor auditory memory if sounds or words are unfamiliar or not well understood. May have difficulty concentrating Learning in a second language is mentally exhausting; therefore, ELLs may seem to have difficulty concentrating at times. May seem easily frustrated Learning in a second language can be frustrating. Table: 1 (Klinger, 2008, p.2)
- 18. Authentic Assessment to Differentiate ELL from L D 18 References Fulton, C., & King, R. (1995). Authentic assessment A guide to implementation. United States of America: Corwin Press,Inc. Herrera, S., Morales, R., & Murry, K. (2013). Assessment accomodations for classroom teachers of culturally and linguistically diverse students (2nd. ed. ed.). Boston: Pearson. Luongo-Orlando, K. (2003). Authentic assessment. Ontario, Canada: Pembroke Publishers. Cohan, A., Honigsfeld, A. (2012). Differentiating Between Learning Disabilities and Typical Second Language Acquisition: A Case Study. Insights on Learning Disabilities, 13-22. Inglés, E. T. (2012). Ecuadorian in-service English teachers standards. Estandares de Calidad de Educativa, 13. Klingner, J., Hoover, J., Baca,L. (2008). Why do English Language Learners strugge with reading? Distinguishing language Acquisition from Learning Disabilities. United States of America: Corwin Press. Ganschow, L., Sparks, R. (2009). Learning difficulties and foreign language learning: A review of research and instruction. Language Teaching, 79-98. Ganschow, L., Sparks, R., Javorsky, J., Pohlman, J., &Bishop-Marburry, A. (2001). Identifying Native Language Difficulties among Foreigh Language Learners in College: A"Foreign" Language Learning Disability? Journal of Learning Disabilities, 530-542. Herrera, S. G., & Murry, K. G. (2011). Mastering ESL and bilingual methods: Differentiated instruction for the culturally and linguistically diverse students (2nded.). Boston: Allyn &Bacon.
- 19. Authentic Assessment to Differentiate ELL from L D 19 Rod, C., Taylor, S. 2005). Language Difference or Learning Disability? ERIC, 127-130. Schwarz, Robin. (2013). Learning Disabilities and Foreign language Learning. L d On-line WETA . DiFino, S., Lombardino, L. (2004). Language Learning Disabilities: The Ultimate Foreign Language Challenge. ERIC, 390-400.