Principles of language acquisition

Principles and Practice
in
Second Language Acquisition
Stephen D Krashen
University of Southern California

This is the original version of Principles and Practice, as published in 1982, with only minor
changes. It is gratifying to point out that many of the predictions made in this book were
confirmed by subsequent research, for example, the superiority of comprehensible-input
based methods and sheltered subject matter teaching (Krashen, 2003), the inefficacy of error
correction (Truscott, 1996, 1999), and the "power of reading" (Krashen, 2004). Subsequent
research has also, in my opinion, confirmed that in footnote 5, chapter 3, option 3 is the
correct one, that we acquire vocabulary best through comprehensible input (Krashen, 1989;
2003).
I have changed my position on only one issue: At the end of Principles and Practice, I suggest
the use of a form of deception - students may think they are acquiring vocabulary or learning
subject matter, but unknown to them, they are acquiring because they are getting
comprehensible input at the same time. I now think it is very important to make a strong effort
to inform students about the process of language acquisition, so they can continue to improve
on their own.
Krashen, S. (1989) We acquire vocabulary and spelling by reading: Additional evidence for
the input hypothesis. Modern Language Journal 73, 440-464.
Krashen, S. (2003) Explorations in Language Acquisition and Use: The Taipei Lectures.
Portsmouth, NH: Heinemann.
Krashen, S. (2004) The Power of Reading. Portsmouth, NH: Heinemann.
Truscott, J. (1996). The case against grammar correction in L2 writing classes. Language
Learning, 46 (2), 327-69.
Truscott, J. (1999). What's wrong with oral grammar correction? The Canadian Modern
Language Review, 55(4), 437-56.
Introduction to the Internet Edition

Copyright © 1982 Stephen Krashen
All Rights Reserved. This publication may be downloaded and copied without charge for all
reasonable, non-commercial educational purposes, provided no alterations in the text are
made.
First printed edition 1982 by Pergamon Press Inc.
Print Edition ISBN 0-08-028628-3
First internet edition July 2009
i

Acknowledgments
I am indebted to many people who have helped me both directly and indirectly. I can only
mention a few of them here. Earl Stevick and Robin Scarcella kindly provided me with
detailed comments on nearly every aspect of the manuscript. I have also received a great
deal of useful feedback from John Schumann, John Oller, Adrian Palmer, Tracy Terrell,
Andrew Cohen, Steven Sternfeld, and Batyia Elbaum. I am sure this book would be much
stronger if I had followed all their advice. The task of writing this volume was made much
easier by the support and understanding of my family, my wife Eula, my children Deborah and
Daniel, and my parents Leo and Julia Krashen. I would also like to thank my colleagues in the
Linguistics Department at USC for their intellectual stimulation and encouragement. I
especially thank Larry Hyman, Edward Finegan, Eugene Briere, Elaine Andersen, Elinor
Ochs, Edward Purcell, John Hawkins, and Bernard Comrie.
ii

Contents
I. Introduction: The Relationship of Theory to Practice 1
A. Three Approaches to Method 2
1. Theory of second language acquisition 2
2. Applied linguistics research 3
3. Ideas and intuitions from experience 3
B. Interactions Among Approaches to Practice 4
C. What the Three Approaches Have to Say About Method 6
D. Goals of This Book: to reintroduce teachers to theory and 7
hopefully to gain their confidence again
Notes 8
II. Second Language Acquisition Theory 9
A. Five Hypotheses About Second Language Acquisition 10
1. The acquisition-learning distinction 10
2. The natural order hypothesis 12
(a) Transitional forms 14
3. The Monitor hypothesis 15
(a) Individual variation in Monitor use 18
4. The input hypothesis 20
(a) Statement of the hypothesis 20
(b) Evidence supporting the hypothesis 22
5. The Affective Filter hypothesis 30
B. The Causative Variable in Second Language Acquisition 32
1. The causative variables 32
2. Language teaching: does it help? 33
(a) When language teaching helps 34
(b) When language teaching does not help 35
3. Exposure variables 37
4. Age 43
5. Acculturation 45
III. Providing Input for Acquisition 57
A. The Potential of the Second Language Classroom 58
B. Limitations of the Classroom 59
C. The Role of Output 60
1. "Conversation" and language acquisition 61
2. Output and learning 61
iii

Contents cont.
D. Characteristics of Optimal Input for Acquisition 62
1. Optimal input is comprehensible 63
(a) How to aid comprehension 64
2. Optimal input is interesting and/or relevant 66
3. Optimal input is not grammatically sequenced 68
(a) The case against the grammatical syllabus 70
4. Optimal input must be in sufficient quantity 71
(a) Quantity requirements for initial readiness to speak 71
(b) Quantity requirements for higher levels of proficiency 72
E. Other Features that Encourage Acquisition 73
1. The student should not be put on the defensive 73
2. Provide tools to help students obtain more input 76
F. "Teaching" Conversational Competence 78
IV. The Role of Grammar, or Putting Grammar in its Place 83
A. Learning Does Not Become Acquisition 83
B. The Place of Grammar 89
1. Grammar for Monitor use: when the Monitor is used 89
2. What can be Monitored 92
(a) Incompetent Monitor use 94
(b) Rule learnability 96
(c) Some evidence 98
(d) Consequences of teaching "hard" rules 102
C. The Effects of Learning: Accuracy of Self-correction 104
1. Factors affecting self-correction accuracy 105
2. The data 108
D. Other Effects of Conscious Rules 112
E. Presentation of Rules 113
1. The deductive-inductive issue 113
2. Sequencing and learning 115
F. Notes on Error Correction 116
G. Grammar as Subject-matter 119
V. Approaches to Language Teaching 125
A. Present-day Teaching Methods 126
1. Grammar-translation 127
(a) Requirements for optimal input 128
(b) Learning 129
(c) Summary 129
2. Audio-lingualism 129
(b) Learning 132
(c) Summary 132
3. Cognitive-code 132
(b) Learning 134
iv

Contents cont.
(c) Summary 134
4. The direct method 135
(b) Learning 137
(c) Summary 137
5. The natural approach 137
(b) Learning 139
(c) Summary 140
6. Total physical response 140
(b) Learning 142
(c) Summary 142
7. Suggestopedia 142
(b) Learning 146
(c) Summary 146
B. Applied Linguistics Research 146
1. Review of method comparison studies 147
(a) American studies of AL, GT, and CC 149
(b) The GUME project 150
2. Some preliminary conclusions to method comparison studies 151
3. More recent method comparison studies 155
(a) The TPR series 155
(b) Other input methods compared 157
(c) Suggestopedia research 158
C. Alternative to Methods 160
1. Function of the classroom 160
2. The second language classroom and requirement #2 161
3. The alternatives 162
(a) Conversation 163
(b) Pleasure reading 164
(c) Using subject matter for language teaching 167
(d) Evidence for subject matter teaching: the immersion programs 170
(e) Other possibilities in subject matter teaching 171
D. Comments on Achievement Testing 176
1. Normal considerations in test evaluation and selection 176
2. Instructional value 177
3. Language requirements 181
4. University level ESL 182
E. Some Gaps in Materials 182
1. The language laboratory 184
2. A comment on field testing of materials 185
F. Some Problems 186
Bibliography 191
Index 201
v

Chapter I
Introduction: The Relationship of Theory to Practice
The purpose of this book is to take a new look at an old question: the relationship between
second language teaching practice and what is known about the process of second language
acquisition. The usual way to do this is to discuss some research results first, outline a
possible theory, and then list some implications. I will, to some extent, follow this plan. A
significant portion of this book is, in fact, devoted to summarizing the current state of second
language acquisition theory as I see it. Following this, I will draw some general conclusions
about application to methods and materials, and eventually describe what characteristics
effective materials should have.
Before going through this exercise, however, it is important to state in advance that
"theory" and "theoretical research" should not be the only input into deciding on methodology
and materials. While my emphasis here is on theory and its implications, it is dangerous to
rely only on theory. There are at least three different ways of arriving at answers in
methodology and materials, and we must consider all of them. I will devote the remainder of
this introduction to a brief description of these three areas, and a discussion of how they
interrelate with each other. We will then see what each has to say about method in second
and foreign language teaching. My view, for those who like the punch line early, is that all
three ways arrive at precisely the same answer. The solution to our problems in language
teaching lies not in expensive equipment, exotic methods, sophisticated linguistic analyses, or
new laboratories, but in full utilization of what we already have, speakers of the languages
using them for real communication. I will also conclude that the best methods might also be
the most pleasant, and that, strange as it seems, language acquisition occurs when language
is used for what it was designed for, communication.
1

A. Three Approaches to Method
1. THEORY OF SECOND LANGUAGE ACQUISITION
The first area we will discuss will be the central focus of this volume, second language
acquisition theory. As developed today, second language acquisition theory can be viewed as
a part of "theoretical linguistics", i.e. it can be studied and developed without regard to
practical application. As is the case with any scientific theory, it consists of a set of
hypotheses, or generalizations, that are consistent with experimental data. These hypotheses
can be arrived at using any of a variety of means (a brilliant insight, a dream, etc.). They
must, however, be able to predict new data. In other words, hypotheses are not summaries or
categories for existing data and observations, but must pass the test of accounting for new
data. If our current hypotheses are able to predict new events, they survive. If they fail, even
once, they must be altered. If these alterations cause fundamental changes in the original
generalizations, the hypotheses may have to be totally abandoned.
Note that according to this way of doing science, we can never really prove anything!
We can only look for "supporting evidence". When we do not find supporting evidence, or
when we find counter-evidence, our hypothesis is in trouble. Even when we do find supporting
evidence, when the hypothesis makes the correct prediction, a critic can always say that we
have not found "enough". Thus, a scientist, professionally speaking, is never able to state that
anything has been "proven". All the scientist can do is have a current hypothesis that he or
she is interested in testing.
Later in this book I will present a series of hypotheses that make up a coherent theory
of second language acquisition. According to the rules of scientific method, it will always be
"just theory" and never be "definitely proven". The hypotheses I will present have, however,
been found to be consistent with a significant amount of data, experimental and otherwise,
and have not yet been confronted with serious counterexamples, in my view. They make up,
collectively, my "position". This does not mean that I necessarily "believe" them. What it does
mean is that these hypotheses are consistent enough with existing data to be worthy of
consideration, and that they appear to capture the data better than other existing
generalizations.
2

Theory is abstract, and does not attempt to be practical. I hope to convince the reader,
however, that in the case of second language teaching, there is nothing as practical as a
good theory!
2. APPLIED LINGUISTICS RESEARCH
A great deal of research goes on in linguistics that is not aimed at supporting or
attacking any coherent theory. This research, rather, is aimed at solving practical, real
problems that confront society. A few examples will hopefully make this category clear.
An example that will be important to us in our discussion of language teaching consists
of experiments that compare teaching methods. Quite simply, a group of students is taught a
foreign language using method A (e.g. audio-lingual), and another group is taught the same
language using method B (e.g. grammar-translation). The results of such an experiment
would certainly be of interest to theoreticians, since a particular theory might predict that
students studying using one method would do better than students using another. The
experiment itself, however, is designed for practical ends, i.e. to decide which method we
should use in our schools.
The research literature contains many applied linguistics experiments examining other
questions of very practical relevance, e.g.:
Will instruction in a second language make children more intelligent? (or less
intelligent?)
Should non-English speaking children in American Bilingual Education begin to read in
their first language or in English?
3. IDEAS AND INTUITIONS FROM EXPERIENCE
A third approach to method does not rely on experimentation at all. It relies, rather, on
the insights and observations of experienced language teachers and students of foreign
languages. It consists of "ideas that work" (the name of a column in the TESOL Newsletter
edited by Darlene Larson, consisting of pedagogical techniques sent in by teachers),
introspections by language students (e.g. "diary studies"), and other informal observations.
While results of research are regularly presented in professional journals, teachers' insights
are not easily
3

accessed and shared. Language teaching organizations often arrange meetings so that
experienced teachers can share their techniques and insights with others (e.g. the highly
successful "mini-conferences" organized by the California TESOL organization). Empirical
support for new techniques is neither expected nor presented; rather, the word of the teacher
is sufficient evidence, often, for a new idea to be at least tried out in different classes.
B. Interactions Among Approaches to Practice
Before discussing what each approach has to say about methods and materials, I
would like to make a modest proposal: the three approaches should influence and help each
other. It seems obvious, first of all, that researchers would be interested in the results of
applied research, since such experiments can provide potential confirming and counter
evidence for theories of second language acquisition. Similarly, it stands to reason that
applied linguistics researchers should pay some attention to strictly theoretical research, since
a successful theory might give researchers deeper insight into the results of their studies.
It also seems reasonable to suggest that researchers in both theoretical and applied
linguistics would benefit by both teaching and studying languages, in order to get more insight
into the language acquisition process. Similarly, one might expect practitioners to be
interested in the results of research, and one might also expect researchers to be very
interested in the opinions of both teachers and language students.
Figure 1.1 illustrates this ideal world, with information flowing between all three areas
that influence language teaching methodology. Figure 1.2 is, however, much closer to the
actual state of affairs: there is, today, very little interaction between and among the three
areas.
Fig 1.1. Ideal relationship between theory, applied linguistics research, ideas and intuitions and
language teaching practice.
4

Fig. 1.2. Actual relationship between theory, applied linguistics research, ideas and
intuitions and language teaching practice.
In reality, many researchers are no longer involved in language teaching and language
acquisition, and do not interact with teachers. There is also far too little interaction between
theoretical and applied research; those who search for the best method are often too little
concerned with the underlying theory. What is perhaps most evident is that teachers and
materials developers pay little attention to research and theorizing of any sort.
There is good reason for this lack of interaction, especially the failure of researchers
and teachers to interact. The reasons for this lack of communication do not stem from any
anti-intellectualism on the part of teachers. They stem, rather, from the failure of research to
supply relevant input in the past, combined with the insistence on the part of theoreticians that
their insights were the only legitimate determinant of teacher behavior and materials
construction. In other words, we have, in the past, gone straight from theory to practice, and it
simply has not worked.
Some well-known examples of this approach include the direct application of the
principles of behaviorist psychology in the classroom, known as the audio-lingual method.
Theoreticians insisted that dialogue and pattern drill were "the way" to teach language, and
recommended techniques that felt wrong to many teachers and students. A more recent
"application of theory" was what may be called the "applied transformational grammar"
movement, which featured materials directly based on current work in theoretical syntax and
phonology. Applied TG did not significantly advance language teaching, for reasons that will
become clear as we proceed. Its only tangible effect, perhaps, was that it needlessly made
many teachers feel unprepared because they had not been trained in the latest version of
transformational theory. (Lest the reader get the wrong impression, my personal view is that
transformational-generative grammar, and the
5

progress it stimulated in formal linguistics, should be recognized as an extremely important
contribution, and easily outdid previous theories of linguistic structure. My point here is that it
does not necessarily follow that second language methods and materials should be based
directly on TG.)
These two theories, then, failed. The first, behaviorist theory, failed to apply
successfully to language teaching because it was, simply, not a theory of language
acquisition. The second, TG, failed because it was a theory of the product, the adult's
competence, and not a theory of how the adult got that competence. It is not a theory of the
process of language acquisition.
The "new" theory, which I will present in Chapter II, is a theory of second language
acquisition, and attempts to deal with the process of language acquisition, not its product.
Despite these virtues, it should only be considered one of several possible sources of
information in determining methods and materials for second language teaching.
Compounding the failure of theoreticians to supply relevant theory has been the feeling
among practitioners that failure to make the theory "work" has been their fault. They
incorrectly concluded that it was their ignorance of theory that caused these theory-based
methods to fail. As a result of this, teachers in recent years have appealed mostly to area III,
their own ideas and intuitions, in determining what they do in the classroom. What teachers
actually do is no longer based on theoretical or applied research. Materials, and many books
on methodology, are based primarily on what seems to work in the classroom, and only rarely
on a theory (recall earlier books based on audiolingualism or TG), and are usually not field-
tested.
C. What the Three Approaches Have to Say About Method
The purpose of this book is to summarize one current theory and state the implications
of the theory to method. I will briefly summarize here what some of these implications are,
anticipating Chapter III. What current theory implies, quite simply, is that language acquisition,
first or second, occurs only when comprehension of real messages occurs, and when the
acquirer is not "on the defensive", to use Stevick's apt phrase. Language acquisition does not
require extensive
6

use of conscious grammatical rules, and does not require tedious drill. It does not occur
overnight, however. Real language acquisition develops slowly, and speaking skills emerge
significantly later than listening skills, even when conditions are perfect. The best methods are
therefore those that supply "comprehensible input" in low anxiety situations, containing
messages that students really want to hear. These methods do not force early production in
the second language, but allow students to produce when they are "ready", recognizing that
improvement comes from supplying communicative and comprehensible input, and not from
forcing and correcting production.
In several places in this book I will attempt to make the point that research in applied
linguistics is very consistent with the theoretical research in second language acquisition and
its implications. The "best methods" according to comparative research studies (comparing
methods A and B, as described earlier) appear to be "input methods", those methods that
focus on supplying comprehensible input in pressure-free situations.
We can get an idea of what the "ideas and intuitions" area feels is the "best method" by
a survey of pedagogically-oriented papers in current journals and the titles of presentations at
teacher workshops. The titles have changed markedly over the years! A decade ago teacher-
oriented articles and presentations focused on grammatical description, reflecting the concern
with product, and procedures for drilling.1*
Current titles more clearly reflect promoting real
communication in the classroom, helping students understand spoken and written input and
participate in conversations.2
In workshops and mini-conferences, we no longer see presentations on fine points of
grammar, or on types of substitution drill. "Ideas that work" are ideas about role-playing, using
the newspaper as a teaching aid, socio-drama, etc. Moreover, newer methodology has, as a
primary goal, the lowering of student anxiety (see Chapter III).
D. Goals of This Book
The primary goal of this book is to present current theory and its implications. There is
another goal, however, and that is to reintroduce
*
Superscript numbers refer to Notes at end of chapters.
7

teachers to theory and hopefully to gain their confidence again. The time has come to look to
theory again, realizing that the most current theory may still not be the final word on second
language acquisition. I am not asking practitioners or materials developers to follow all of the
implications of theory blindly. My hope is only that our results will be considered as another
source of ideas and input to methods and materials, in partnership with conclusions reached
by practitioners themselves from their own experience as language teachers and language
acquirers.
Notes
1 Consider, for example, the table of contents of Language Learning, vol. 9, 1959, which
included:
"Grammatical theory and practice in an English grammar class"
"Reaching the French verb";
"Noun-classes and the practical teacher"
"Morpheme alternants in Spanish verb forms"
"'Thechnemes' and the rhythm of class activity"
Volume 12, 1962, contained:
"Annotated bibliography of generative grammar"
2 The 1979 volume of the TESOL Quarterly, for example, contains articles such as:
"Using radio commercials as supplementary materials in ESL listening classes"
"Communicative writing"
"Joke-telling as a tool in ESL"
reflecting the current emphasis on communication in the classroom.
(Notes 1 and 2 certainly do not represent a wide sample of activity in the filed, but they
are representative. In recent years, the journal Language Learning has focussed on
theoretical and applied research, rather than pedagogy. For this reason, I used the
TESOL Quarterly, which began publication in 1967, for current titles.)
8

Chapter II
Second Language Acquisition Theory
This chapter summarizes current second language acquisition theory. To do this, it first
describes some very important hypotheses. The first three, the acquisition-learning
distinction, the natural order hypotheses, and the Monitor hypothesis, are reviewed somewhat
briefly, as they have been dealt with a great deal in several other books and professional
papers. Enough detail will be provided, however, to give the uninitiated reader a good idea of
the hypotheses and the sort of evidence that exists to support them. The fourth hypothesis,
the input hypothesis, may be the single most important concept in second language
acquisition theory today. It is important because it attempts to answer the crucial theoretical
question of how we acquire language. It is also important because it may hold the answer to
many of our everyday problems in second language instruction at all levels. Following the
discussion of the input hypothesis, we turn to the concept of the affective filter, a hypothesis
as to how affective variables relate to the process of second language acquisition.
The second portion of this chapter reviews a variety of factors that have been thought
to be related to second language acquisition success, including instruction, different
measures of exposure to the second language, and the age of the acquirer. These factors, it
will be claimed, are not really causative factors. While they seem to relate to success or
failure to acquire second languages, the true causative variables in second language
acquisition derive from the input hypothesis and the affective filter--the amount of
comprehensible input the acquirer receives and understands, and the strength of the affective
filter, or the degree to which the acquirer is "open" to the input.
9

A. Five Hypotheses About Second Language Acquisition
1. THE ACQUISITION-LEARNING DISTINCTION
The acquisition-learning distinction is perhaps the most fundamental
of all the hypotheses to be presented here. It states that adults have
two distinct and independent ways of developing competence in a
second language.
The first way is language acquisition, a process similar, if not identical,
to the way children develop ability in their first language. Language
acquisition is a subconscious process; language acquirers are not
usually aware of the fact that they are acquiring language, but are only
aware of the fact that they are using the language for communication.
The result of language acquisition, acquired competence, is also subconscious.
We are generally not consciously aware of the rules of the
languages we have acquired. Instead, we have a "feel" for correctness.
Grammatical sentences "sound" right, or "feel" right, and errors feel
wrong, even if we do not consciously know what rule was violated.
Other ways of describing acquisition include implicit learning, informal
learning, and natural learning. In non-technical language, acquisition
is "picking-up" a language.
The second way to develop competence in a second language is by
language learning. We will use the term "learning" henceforth to refer
to conscious knowledge of a second language, knowing the rules, being
aware of them, and being able to talk about them. In non-technical
terms, learning is "knowing about" a language, known to most people
as "grammar", or "rules". Some synonyms include formal knowledge
of a language, or explicit learning.1*
Some second language theorists have assumed that children acquire,
while adults can only learn. The acquisition-learning hypothesis
claims, however, that adults also acquire, that the ability to "pick-up"
languages does not disappear at puberty. This does not mean that
adults will always be able to achieve native-like levels in a second language.
It does mean that adults can access the same natural "language
acquisition device" that children use. As we shall see later, acquisition
is a very powerful process in the adult.
* Superscript numbers refer to Notes at end of chapters.
10

Error correction has little or no effect on subconscious acquisition, but is thought to be
useful for conscious learning. Error correction supposedly helps the learner to induce or
"figure out" the right form of a rule. If, for example, a student of English as a second language
says "I goes to school every day", and the teacher corrects him or her by repeating the
utterance correctly, the learner is supposed to realize that the /s/ ending goes with the third
person and not the first person, and alter his or her conscious mental representation of the
rule. This appears reasonable, but it is not clear whether error correction has this impact in
actual practice (Fanselow, 1977; Long, 1977).
Evidence from child language acquisition confirms that error correction does not
influence acquisition to any great extent. Brown and his colleagues have shown that parents
actually correct only a small portion of the child's language (occasional pronunciation
problems, certain verbs, and dirty words!). They conclude from their research that parents
attend far more to the truth value of what the child is saying rather than to the form. For
example, Brown, Cazden, and Bellugi (1973) report that a sentence such as:
Her curl my hair
"was approved, because the mother was, in fact, curling Eve's hair" (p. 330). On the other
hand,
Walt Disney comes on on Tuesday
was corrected, despite its syntactic correctness, since Walt Disney actually came on
television on Wednesday. Brown et al. conclude that it seems to be "truth value rather than
syntactic well-formedness that chiefly governs explicit verbal reinforcement by parents--which
renders mildly paradoxical the fact that the usual product of such a training schedule is an
adult whose speech is highly grammatical but not notably truthful" (p. 330).
The acquisition-learning distinction may not be unique to second language acquisition.
We certainly "learn" small parts of our first language in school (e.g. for most people, the who/
whom distinction), and similar distinctions have been made in other domains (see, for
example, Reber, 1976; Hall, 1959; and the review in d'Anglejan, 1978).
11

2. THE NATURAL ORDER HYPOTHESIS
One of the most exciting discoveries in language acquisition research in recent years
has been the finding that the acquisition of grammatical structures proceeds in a predictable
order. Acquirers of a given language tend to acquire certain grammatical structures early, and
others later. The agreement among individual acquirers is not always 100%, but there are
clear, statistically significant, similarities.
English is perhaps the most studied language as far as the natural order hypothesis is
concerned, and of all structures of English, morphology is the most studied. Brown (1973)
reported that children acquiring English as a first language tended to acquire certain
grammatical morphemes, or functions words, earlier than others. For example, the
progressive marker ing (as in "He is playing baseball".) and the plural marker /s/ ("two dogs")
were among the first morphemes acquired, while the third person singular marker /s/ (as in
"He lives in New York") and the possessive /s/ ("John's hat") were typically acquired much
later, coming anywhere from six months to one year later. de Villiers and de Villiers (1973)
confirmed Brown's longitudinal results cross-sectionally, showing that items that Brown found
to be acquired earliest in time were also the ones that children tended to get right more often.
In other words, for those morphemes studied, the difficulty order was similar to the acquisition
order.
Shortly after Brown's results were published, Dulay and Burt (1974, 1975) reported that
children acquiring English as a second language also show a "natural order" for grammatical
morphemes, regardless of their first language. The child second language order of acquisition
was different from the first language order, but different groups of second language acquirers
showed striking similarities. Dulay and Burt's results have been confirmed by a number of
investigators (Kessler and Idar, 1977; Fabris, 1978; Makino, 1980). Dulay and Burt used a
subset of the 14 morphemes Brown originally investigated. Fathman (1975) confirmed the
reality of the natural order in child second language acquisition with her test of oral
production, the SLOPE test, which probed 20 different structures.
Following Dulay and Burt's work, Bailey, Madden, and Krashen (1974) reported a
natural order for adult subjects, an order quite similar
12

to that seen in child second language acquisition. As we shall see later, this natural order
appears only under certain conditions (or rather, it disappears only under certain conditions!).
Some of the studies confirming the natural order in adults for grammatical morphemes include
Andersen (1976), who used composition, Krashen, Houck, Giunchi, Bode, Birnbaum, and
Strei (1977), using free speech, and Christison (1979), also using free speech. Adult research
using the SLOPE test also confirms the natural order and widens the data base. Krashen,
Sferlazza, Feldman, and Fathman (1976) found an order similar to Fathman's (1975) child
second language order, and Kayfetz-Fuller (1978) also reported a natural order using the
SLOPE test.
As noted above, the order of acquisition for second language is not the same as the
order of acquisition for first language, but there are some similarities. Table 2.1, from Krashen
(1977), presents an average
TABLE 2.1. "Average" order of acquisition of grammatical morphemes for English
as a second language (children and adults)
Notes:
1. This order is derived from an analysis of empirical studies of second language acquisition (Krashen,
1977). Most studies show significant correlatons with the average order.
2. No claims are made about ordering relations for morphemes in the same box.
3. Many of the relationships posited here also hold for child first language acquisition, but some do not:
In general, the bound morphemes have the same relative order for first and second language acquisition (ING,
PLURAL, IR. PAST, REG. PAST, III SINGULAR, and POSSESSIVE) while AUXILIARY and COPULA tend to be
acquired relatively later in first language acquisition than in second language acquisition.
13

order for second language, and shows how the first language order differs. This average
order is the result of a comparison of many empirical studies of grammatical morpheme
acquisition.
While English is the best studied language, it is not the only one studied. Research in
order of acquisition for other language is beginning to emerge. As yet unpublished papers by
Bruce (1979), dealing with Russian as a foreign language, and van Naerssen (1981), for
Spanish as a foreign language, confirm the validity of the natural order hypothesis for other
languages.
We will deal with the pedagogical implications of the natural order hypothesis later, I
should point out here, however, that the implication of the natural order hypothesis is not that
our syllabi should be based on the order found in the studies discussed here, that is, I do not
recommend teaching ing early and the third person singular /s/ late. We will, in fact, find
reason to reject grammatical sequencing in all cases where our goal is language acquisition.
We will deal with this later, however, after we have finished laying the theoretical groundwork.
(a) Transitional forms
Studies supporting the natural order hypothesis show only the order in which mature,
or well-formed structures emerge. Other studies reveal the path acquirers take en route to
mastery. (For a review, see Dulay, Burt, and Krashen, in press. Ravem, 1974; Milon, 1974;
Gillis and Weber, 1976; Cancino, Rosansky, and Schumann, 1974; Wode, 1978 and Nelson,
1980 are some second language studies in this area.) There is surprising uniformity here as
well--acquirers make very similar errors, termed developmental errors, while they are
acquiring. For example, in acquiring English negation, many first and second language
acquirers pass through a stage in which they place the negative marker outside the sentence,
as in:
No Mom sharpen it. (from Klima and Bellugi's (1966)
study of child L1 acquisition)
and Not like it now. (from Ravem's (1974) study of child
L2 acquisition)
14

A typical later stage is to place the negative marker between the subject and the verb, as in:
I no like this one. (Cancino et al. (1975) study of child
L2 acquisition)
and This no have calendar. (from Schumann's (1978a) study of
adult L2 acquisition)
before reaching the correct form.
Predictable stages in the acquisition of wh- questions in English include an early stage
in which the wh- word appears before the rest of the sentence, which is otherwise left in its
normal uninverted form, as in:
How he can be a doctor? (Klima and Bellugi, 1966, child L1
acquisition)
and What she is doing? (Ravem, 1974, child L2 acquisition)
Only later do acquirers begin to invert the subject and verb of the sentence. (A detailed review
can be found in Dulay et al., in press.)
Transitional forms have been described for other languages and for other structures.
The stages for a given target language appear to be strikingly similar despite the first
language of the acquirer (although particular first languages may influence the duration of
certain stages; see Schumann, 1979). This uniformity is thought to reflect the operation of the
natural language acquisition process that is part of all of us. (For a discussion of some of the
current issues and controversies concerning the natural order hypothesis, see Krashen,
1981.)
3. THE MONITOR HYPOTHESIS
While the acquisition-learning distinction claims that two separate processes coexist in
the adult, it does not state how they are used in second language performance. The Monitor
hypothesis posits that acquisition and learning are used in very specific ways. Normally,
acquisition "initiates" our utterances in a second language and is responsible for our fluency.
Learning has only one function, and that is as a Monitor, or editor. Learning comes into play
only to make changes in the form of our utterance, after is has been "produced" by the
acquired system. This can happen before we speak or write, or after (self-correction). Figure
2.1 models this process.
15

Fig. 2.1. Acquisition and learning in second langauge production.
Conscious learning is available only as a "Monitor", which can alter the output of the
acquired system before or after the utterance is actually spoken or written. It is the
acquired system which initiates normal, fluent speech utterances.
The Monitor hypothesis implies that formal rules, or conscious learning, play only a limited
role in second language performance. These limitations have become even clearer as
research has proceeded in the last few years. This research, reviewed in Chapter IV, strongly
suggests that second language performers can use conscious rules only when three
conditions are met. These conditions are necessary and not sufficient, that is, a performer
may not fully utilize his conscious grammar even when all three conditions are met. I list these
conditions here, with a brief description. We will discuss them in greater detail in Chapter IV:
(i) Time. In order to think about and use conscious rules effectively, a second language
performer needs to have sufficient time. For most people, normal conversation does not allow
enough time to think about and use rules. The over-use of rules in conversation can lead to
trouble, i.e. a hesitant style of talking and inattention to what the conversational partner is
saying.
(ii) Focus on form. To use the Monitor effectively, time is not enough. The performer
must also be focussed on form, or thinking about correctness (Dulay and Burt, 1978). Even
when we have time, we may be so involved in what we are saying that we do not attend to
how we are saying it.
(iii) Know the rule. This is a very formidable requirement. Linguistics has taught us that
the structure of language is extremely complex, and they claim to have described only a
fragment of the best known languages. We can be sure that our students are exposed only to
a small part of the total grammar of the language, and we know that even the best students
do not learn every rule they are exposed to.
The evidence for the production schema shown in Fig. 2.1 comes originally from the
natural order studies. (Confirming evidence has
16

been also produced from other sources, see, for example, Bialystok and Frohlich, 1977,
1978a, 1978b.) These studies are consistent with this generalization: we see the natural order
for grammatical morphemes, that is, the child's (second language) difficulty order (similar to
the order of acquisition; Krashen, 1977), when we test subjects in situations that appear to be
"Monitor-free", where they are focused on communication and not form. When we give our
adult subjects tests that meet the three conditions, i.e. a pencil and paper "grammar"-type
test, we see "unnatural" orders, orders unlike the child L2 order of acquisition or difficulty
order. The interpretation of this result is that the natural order reflects the operation of the
acquired system alone, without the intrusion of the conscious grammar, since adult second
language acquisition is posited to be similar to child (second) language acquisition. When we
put people in situations where the three conditions are met, when they have time, are focused
on form, and know the rule, the error pattern changes, reflecting the contribution of the
conscious grammar.
It appears to be the case that unnatural orders are the result of a rise in rank of certain
morphemes, the late-acquired, more "learnable" items. In English as a second language,
when performers are put in situations where they can and do Monitor, we see a rise in rank of
the third person singular morpheme and the regular past, both late-acquired, low on the list in
Table 2.1, and both relatively straightforward, both syntactically and semantically. (See
studies by Larsen-Freeman, 1975, described in Chapter IV, Table 4.1; and Brown, described
in Note 4, Chapter IV.)2
Use of the conscious Monitor thus has the effect of allowing performers to supply items
that are not yet acquired. As we shall see in Chapter IV, however, only certain items can be
supplied by most Monitor users; the Monitor does a better job with some parts of grammar
than with others. Specifically, it seems to do better with rules that can be characterized as
"simple" in two different ways. First, rules that do not require elaborate movements or
permutations; rules that are syntactically simple. Easy rules in this sense include bound
morphology, such as the third person singular in English, or the de + le = du contraction in
French. Difficult rules in this sense include the English wh- question rule, which requires
moving the questioned word to the front of
17

the sentence, a subject-auxiliary inversion, and in some cases the insertion of do in the right
place. Rules can also be easy and difficult due to their semantic properties. The English
article system is easy to describe formally--one simply inserts the or a or sometimes nothing
before the noun. But its semantics are very difficult to describe (see, for example, Hawkins,
1978).
To summarize thus far, Monitor use results in the rise in rank of items that are "late-
acquired" in the natural order, items that the performer has learned but has not acquired.3
Only certain items can rise in rank, however, When Monitor use is heavy, this rise in rank is
enough to disturb the natural order. (As discussed in Chapter IV, it is possible to see small
changes in certain late-acquired morphemes that are not enough to disturb the natural order;
this may be termed light Monitor use. See especially Note 5, Chapter IV.
As we shall see in Chapter IV, it is not easy to encourage noticeable Monitor use.
Experimentation has shown that anything less than a real grammar test will not bring out the
conscious grammar in any force. Keyfetz (1978) found natural orders for both oral and written
versions on the SLOPE test, showing that simply using the written modality is not enough to
cause an unnatural order. Houck, Robertson and Krashen (1978a) had adult subjects
(university level international students) correct their own written output, and still found a
natural order for the corrected version. Krashen, Butler, Birnbaum, and Robertson (1978)
found that even when ESL students write compositions with plenty of time and under
instructions to be very "careful", the effect of Monitor use was surprisingly light. The best
hypothesis now is that for most people, even university students, it takes a real discrete-point
grammar-type test to meet all three conditions for Monitor use and encourage significant use
of the conscious grammar.
(a) Individual variation in Monitor use
Some of the individual variation we see in adult second language acquisition and
performance can be accounted for in terms of differential use of the conscious Monitor.
Studies of case histories suggest that there may be three basic types of performer (Krashen,
1978; Stafford and Covitt, 1978; Kounin and Krashen, 1978).
18

(i) Monitor Over-users. These are people who attempt to Monitor all the time,
performers who are constantly checking their output with their conscious knowledge of the
second language. As a result, such performers may speak hesitantly, often self-correct in the
middle of utterances, and are so concerned with correctness that they cannot speak with any
real fluency.
There may be two different causes for over-use of the grammar. Over-use may first of
all derive from the performer's history of exposure to the second language. Many people,
victims of grammar-only type of instruction, have simply not had the chance to acquire much
of the second language, and may have no choice but to be dependent on learning. Another
type may be related to personality. These overusers have had a chance to acquire, and may
actually have acquired a great deal of the second language. They simply do not trust this
acquired competence and only feel secure when they refer to their Monitor "just to be sure".
(ii) Monitor under-users. These are performers who have not learned, or if they have
learned, prefer not to use their conscious knowledge, even when conditions allow it. Under-
users are typically uninfluenced by error correction, can self-correct only by using a "feel" for
correctness (e.g. "it sounds right"), and rely completely on the acquired system.
Stafford and Covitt (1978) note that some under-users pay "lip service" to the value of
conscious grammar. Their subject "I" felt that people need conscious rules to speak
"correctly", and that "grammar is the key to every language". "I" himself, however, hardly used
conscious rules at all, in speech or writing.
(iii) The optimal Monitor user. Our pedagogical goal is to produce optimal users,
performers who use the Monitor when it is appropriate and when it does not interfere with
communication. Many optimal users will not use grammar in ordinary conversation, where it
might interfere. (Some very skilled performers, such as some professional linguists and
language teachers, might be able to get away with using considerable amounts of conscious
knowledge in conversation, e.g. Rivers, 1979, but this is very unusual. We might consider
these people "super Monitor users", after Yorio, 1978.) In writing, and in planned speech,
however, when there is time, optimal users will typically make
19

whatever corrections they can to raise the accuracy of their output (see, for example, Krashen
and Pon, 1975).
Optimal Monitor users can therefore use their learned competence as a supplement to
their acquired competence. Some optimal users who have not completely acquired their
second language, who make small and occasional errors in speech, can use their conscious
grammar so successfully that they can often produce the illusion of being native in their
writing. (This does not imply that conscious learning can entirely make up for incomplete
acquisition. Some unacquired rules will be learnable and others not. The optimal user is able
to fill part of the gap with conscious learning, but not all of it.
4. THE INPUT HYPOTHESIS
We will take much more time with this hypothesis than we did with the others for two
reasons. First, much of this material is relatively new, while the other hypotheses have been
described and discussed already in several published books and articles. The second reason
is its importance, both theoretical and practical. The input hypothesis attempts to answer what
is perhaps the most important question in our field, and gives an answer that has a potential
impact on all areas of language teaching.
The important question is: How do we acquire language? If the Monitor hypothesis is
correct, that acquisition is central and learning more peripheral, then the goal of our pedagogy
should be to encourage acquisition. The question of how we acquire then becomes crucial.
This section is organized as follows: I will first present the input hypothesis before
giving any supporting evidence. Following this is a description of the evidence from research
in first and second language acquisition. We will then briefly cover evidence from applied
linguistics research, which is discussed in more detail in Chapter V.
(a) Statement of the hypothesis
Let us first restate the question of how we acquire: given the correctness of the natural
order hypothesis, how do we move from one stage to another? If an acquirer is at "stage 4",
how can he progress to "stage 5"? More generally, how do we move from stage i, where i
represents
20

current competence, to i + 1, the next level? The input hypothesis makes the following claim:
a necessary (but not sufficient) condition to move from stage i to stage i + 1 is that the
acquirer understand input that contains i + 1, where "understand" means that the acquirer is
focussed on the meaning and not the form of the message.
We acquire, in other words, only when we understand language that contains structure
that is "a little beyond" where we are now. How is this possible? How can we understand
language that contains structures that we have not yet acquired? The answer to this apparent
paradox is that we use more than our linguistic competence to help us understand. We also
use context, our knowledge of the world, our extra-linguistic information to help us understand
language directed at us.
The input hypothesis runs counter to our usual pedagogical approach in second and
foreign language teaching. As Hatch (1978a) has pointed out, our assumption has been that
we first learn structures, then practice using them in communication, and this is how fluency
develops. The input hypothesis says the opposite. It says we acquire by "going for meaning"
first, and as a result, we acquire structure! (For discussion of first language acquisition, see
MacNamara, 1972.)
We may thus state parts (1) and (2) of the input hypothesis as follows:
(1) The input hypothesis relates to acquisition, not learning.
(2) We acquire by understanding language that contains structure a it
beyond our current level of competence (i + 1). This is done with the help of
context or extra-linguistic information.
A third part of the input hypothesis says that input must contain i + 1 to be useful for
language acquisition, but it need not contain only i + 1. It says that if the acquirer understands
the input, and there is enough of it, i + 1 will automatically be provided. In other words, if
communication is successful, i + 1 is provided. As we will discuss later, this implies that the
best input should not even attempt to deliberately aim at i + 1. We are all familiar with syllabi
that try to deliberately cover i + 1. There is a "structure of the day", and usually both teacher
and student feel that the aim of the lesson is to teach or practice a specific grammatical item
or structure. Once this structure is
21

"mastered", the syllabus proceeds to the next one. This part of the input hypothesis implies
that such a deliberate attempt to provide i + 1 is not necessary. As we shall see later, there
are reasons to suspect that it may even be harmful.
Thus, part (3) of the input hypothesis is:
(3) When communication is successful, when the input is understood and there
is enough of it, i + 1 will be provided automatically.
The final part of the input hypothesis states that speaking fluency cannot be taught
directly. Rather, it "emerges" over time, on its own.4
The best way, and perhaps the only way,
to teach speaking, according to this view, is simply to provide comprehensible input. Early
speech will come when the acquirer feels "ready"; this state of readiness arrives at somewhat
different times for different people, however. Early speech, moreover, is typically not
grammatically accurate. Accuracy develops over time as the acquirer hears and understands
more input. Part (4) of the input hypothesis is thus:
(4) Production ability emerges. It is not taught directly.
(b) Evidence supporting the hypothesis
(i) First language acquisition in children. The input hypothesis is very consistent with
what is known about "caretaker speech", the modifications that parents and others make
when talking to young children. The most interesting and perhaps the most important
characteristic of caretaker speech for us is that it is not a deliberate attempt to teach
language. Rather, as Clark and Clark (1977) point out, caretaker speech is modified in order
to aid comprehension. Caretakers talk "simpler" in an effort to make themselves understood
by the child.
A second characteristic of interest to us here is the finding that caretaker speech, while
it is syntactically simpler than adult-adult speech, is "roughly-tuned" to the child's current level
of linguistic competence, not "finely-tuned". In other words, caretaker speech is not precisely
adjusted to the level of each child, but tends to get more complex as the child progresses.
Very good evidence for rough-tuning comes from the research of Cross (1977) and Newport,
Gleitman, and
22

Gleitman (1977), who report that correlations between input complexity and measures of the
child's linguistic maturity, while positive and often significant, are not usually very large. An
interpretation of this finding is that caretakers are not taking aim exactly at i + 1. The input
they provide for children includes i + 1, but also includes many structures that have already
been acquired, plus some that have not (i + 2, i + 3, etc.) and that the child may not be ready
for yet. In other words, caretakers do not provide a grammatically based syllabus! (For a more
complete review of rough-tuning, see Krashen 1980, 1981.)
A third characteristic of caretaker speech that concerns us is known as the "here and
now" principle. It is well established that caretakers talk mostly about what the child can
perceive, what is in the immediate environment. Discourse with children is far more likely to
deal with what is in the room and happening now ("See the ball?") than what is not in the
room and not current ("What will we do upstairs tomorrow?"). As Newport et al. (1977) points
out, this is a topical constraint--the "here and now" principle reflects the common interests of
the caretaker and child.
While there is no direct evidence showing that caretaker speech is indeed more
effective than unmodified input, the input hypothesis predicts that caretaker speech will be
very useful for the child. First, it is, or aims to be, comprehensible. The "here and now" feature
provides extra-linguistic support (context) that helps the child understand the utterances
containing i + 1. As MacNamara (1972) pointed out, the child does not acquire grammar first
and then use it in understanding. The child understands first, and this helps him acquire
language.
As discussed earlier, roughly-tuned caretaker speech covers the child's i + 1, but does
not focus on i + 1 exclusively. Part (3) of the input hypothesis claims that this is optimal.
Rough-tuning has the following advantages in child first language acquisition:
(1) It ensures that i + 1 is covered, with no guesswork as to just what i + 1 is for
each child. On the other hand, deliberate aim at i + 1 might miss!
(2) Roughly-tuned input will provide i + 1 for more than one child at a time, as
long as they understand what is said. Finely-tuned input, even if accurate (i.e.
even if it "hits" i + 1), will only
23

benefit the child whose i + 1 is exactly the same as what is emphasized in the
input.
(3) Roughly-tuned input provides built-in review. We need not be concerned
with whether a child has "mastered" a structure, whether the child was paying
attention to the input that day, or whether we provided enough. With natural,
roughly-tuned input, i + 1 will occur and reoccur.
In other words, if part (3) is correct, if it is the case that with enough natural
communication and understanding that i + 1 is always provided, the caretaker need not worry
about consciously programming structure.
This must be a good thing! Adding the responsibility of grammatical sequencing to
parenthood would make parent-child communication much less spontaneous and far more
difficult.
(ii) Evidence from second language acquisition: simple codes. The input hypothesis
also holds for second language acquisition. First, as presented earlier, the second language
acquirer, child or adult, is also an "acquirer", just like the child acquiring first language. Also,
according to hypothesis (2), there is a natural order of acquisition for second language as well
as first language, so we can talk about the second language acquirers' i + 1 as well. Third,
second language acquirers can also receive the kind of modified input that children get.
This modified input is of three sorts. Foreigner-talk results from the modifications native
speakers make with less than fully competent speakers of their language (see, for example,
Hatch, Shapira, and Gough, 1978 for some good examples). Teacher-talk is foreigner-talk in
the classroom, the language of classroom management and explanation, when it is in the
second language. A third simple code is interlanguage talk, the speech of other second
language acquirers.
While there are some differences between these simple codes and caretaker speech
(Long, 1980; Freed, 1980), there are important similarities. As is the case with caretaker
speech, modifications made in foreigner-talk and teacher-talk5
are not made for the purpose
of language teaching, but are made for the purpose of communication, to help the second
language acquirer understand what is being said. Second, the available research indicates
that foreigner-talk and teacher-talk
24

are roughly-tuned to the level of the acquirer, and not finely-tuned (Freed, 1980; Gaies, 1977;
for a review, see Krashen, 1980); more advanced second language performers tend to get
more complex input, but the correlation between proficiency and input complexity is less than
perfect.
Foreigner-talk and teacher-talk may not always be in the "here and now",6
but helpful
native speakers and teachers find other ways to make input comprehensible. In addition to
linguistic alterations, they take advantage of the acquirer's knowledge of the world, which is,
of course, greater than that of the child acquiring a first language. Teachers, in addition, use
pedagogical aids, such as pictures and realia (see discussion in Chapter III).
The input hypothesis predicts that these simplified codes will be very useful for the
second language acquirer, just as caretaker speech is posited to be useful for the child. (For
some preliminary case history data supporting this hypothesis, see Krashen, 1980, 1981.)
The input hypothesis also predicts that natural, communicative, roughly-tuned,
comprehensible input has some real advantages over finely-tuned input that aims directly at i
+ 1, in other words, classroom exercises that aim to teach the structure of the day.
The case against the grammatical syllabus is presented in fuller detail in Chapter III,
but here is a brief summary. The arguments are very similar to those presented against giving
the child finely-tuned input:
(1) All students may not be at the same stage. The "structure of the day" may
not be i + 1 for many of the students. With natural communicative input, on the
other hand, some i + 1 or other will be provided for everyone.
(2) With a grammatical syllabus, each structure is presented only once. If a
student misses it, is absent, is not paying attention, or if there simply has not
been enough practice (input), the student may have to wait until next year,
when all structures are reviewed! On the other hand, roughly-tuned
comprehensible input allows for natural review.
(3) A grammatical syllabus assumes we know the order of acquisition. No such
assumption is necessary when we rely on comprehensible input, on roughly-
tuned natural communication.
25

(4) Finally, a grammatical syllabus, and the resulting grammatical focus, places
serious constraints on what can be discussed. Too often, it is difficult, if not
impossible, to discuss or read anything of real interest if our underlying motive
is to practice a particular structure. In other words, a grammatical focus will
usually prevent real communication using the second language.
If these arguments are correct, they mean that we should not attempt to teach along
the natural order, or any other order, when our goal is acquisition. (This is not necessarily true
when the goal is conscious learning; see Chapter IV.)
(iii) Evidence from second language acquisition: the silent period and L1 influence. The
input hypothesis is also consistent with other findings and hypotheses in second language
acquisition. One of these can be termed the "silent period", a phenomenon that is most
noticeable in child second language acquisition.
It has often been noted that children acquiring a second language in a natural, informal
linguistic environment may say very little for several months following their first exposure to
the second language. What output there is consists usually of memorized language, whole
sentences learned as if they were one word. Hatch (1972), for example, reported that Paul, a
five-year-old Chinese speaker acquiring English as a second language, did not really use
"creative" language for his first few months in the United States. His only output was
memorized sentences, such as
Get out of here.
It's time to eat and drink.
He had clearly learned these as whole utterances without a real understanding of their
components (e.g. he probably would not understand the word "out" or "time" if it were used in
another sentence). Such memorized sentences were probably very useful for Paul, both in
the classroom and playground.7
When "real" language did start to emerge, it looked very
much like first language development, with short, simple sentences such as
This kite.
Ball no.
26

The explanation of the silent period in terms of the input hypothesis is straight-forward--
the child is building up competence in the second language via listening, by understanding
the language around him. In accordance with the input hypothesis, speaking ability emerges
on its own after enough competence has been developed by listening and understanding. We
should note that case histories dealing with children acquiring second languages (see also
Hakuta, 1974; Ervin-Tripp, 1974) agree that several months may elapse until they start
talking, and that the speech that emerges is not error-free. This finding has important
pedagogical considerations, as we shall see in Chapter III.
Adults, and children in formal language classes, are usually not allowed a silent period.
They are often asked to produce very early in a second language, before they have acquired
enough syntactic competence to express their ideas. According to a hypothesis first proposed
by Newmark (1966), performers who are asked to produce before they are "ready" will fall
back on first language rules, that is, they will use syntactic rules of their first language while
speaking the second language.
Stated more formally, an acquirer will substitute some L1 rule for i + 1, a rule of the
second language, if the acquirer needs i + 1 to express himself but has not yet acquired it.
The L1 rule used may be quite similar to the L2 i + 1, but may also differ in certain ways.
When the L1 and L2 rules are different, the resulting error is referred to often as
"interference". But according to Newmark, it is not interference at all; it is not the result of the
L1 interfering with second language performance, but the result of ignorance--the lack of
acquisition of an L2 rule that is needed in performance.
(iv) Advantages and disadvantages of L2 rule use. The substitution of some L1 rule for
some i + 1 has both advantages and disadvantages. The advantages are short term,
however, while the disadvantages appear to be quite serious.
One obvious advantage is that the use of an L1 rule allows the performer to
"outperform his competence", to meet a practical need in L2 communication before he has
acquired the relevant i + 1 rule. When the L1 rule used is identical to a rule in the L2 ("positive
transfer"), the performer seems to have got something for free. Even if the L1 rule is
27

not the same as the L2 rule, one could argue that the performer still comes out ahead, as,
quite often, he can still communicate his point despite the incorrect form.
Another advantage is that the early production allowed by the use of L1 rules also
helps to invite input--it allows the performer to participate more in conversation, and this could
mean more comprehensible input and thus more second language acquisition.
There are real disadvantages to falling back on the L1, however. First, the L1 rule may
not be the same as an L2 rule, as noted above, and errors can result. The conscious Monitor
can note and repair these errors in some cases, but not all, since, as we have seen the
constraints on Monitor use are severe. Thus, use of L1 rules requires constant vigilance on
the part of the Monitor, and is an awkward way to produce formally correct sentences in a
second language. (Note that Monitor correction of such errors will not, according to the
theory, produce acquisition, or permanent change. It will not eradicate the L1 rule, even if
done effectively over long periods of time. Real acquisition comes only from comprehensible
input.)8
There may be another serious disadvantage to the use of L1 rules in second language
performance. Even if the L1 rule is similar to an actual L2 rule or transitional form, it is not
clear that these rules will help the acquirer progress--they may not take the place of "true" L2
rules in the developmental sequence. In Krashen (1982) I discuss the hypothesis that
acquisition requires a comparison between i and i + 1 (Clark and Andersen, 1980;
Lamendella, 1979). It may be the case that the "distance" between i and i + 1 cannot be too
great--i and i + 1 can only differ in small ways. Transitional forms, I hypothesize, may be
useful in that they can temporarily serve as i, helping to decrease the amount of distance
between i and i + 1.
If, for example, the target rule in English is the negative (i + 1, presented to the system
by input), the intermediate form no + v (provided by the creative construction system
internally) may be closer to the mature negative form. The acquirer may thus use no + v at i,
rather than a more primitive form of the negative (e.g. no + S).
If transitional forms can temporarily serve as i, the next question is whether L1 rules,
even when they happen to be similar to L2 rules or transitional forms, can perform this
function. The answer may be
28

"no". For example, Spanish speakers often have a long period in their acquisition of English in
which they produce no + v for the English negative, a structure that is similar to a transitional
form in English as a first and second language (Schumann, 1979). It may be the case that
earlier no + v performance is the use of the L1 rule, while later no + v performance is the true
intermediate form. It may be the case that only the latter can help the system "move
forward".9
To summarize, use of L1 rules is hypothesized to be the result of falling back on first
language knowledge when a second language rule is needed in production but is not
available. It may temporarily enhance production, but may not be real progress in the second
language. The real cure for "interference", according to Newmark, is not drill at the points of
contrast between the two languages (Newmark and Reibel, 1973, p. 239). Drill will, at best,
produce learning, and, as we have seen, this is only a short term cure. The real cure "is
simply the cure for ignorance" (Newmark, 1966, p. 81): real language acquisition. This can
happen only when the acquirer obtains comprehensible input.10 11 12
(v) Applied linguistics research. The input hypothesis is also consistent with the results
of what can be called "method comparison" experiments. Several scholars and groups of
scholars have attempted to determine directly which teaching methods are best by simple
comparison. Groups of students studying second and foreign languages using two different
methods are compared, both in long-term and short-term studies. We will have a detailed look
at this research in Chapter V, but I will state my own conclusions in advance. My reading of
studies comparing the more commonly used methods (audio-lingual as compared to
grammar-translation or cognitive-code) is as follows:
(1) "Deductive" methods (rule first, then practice, e.g. grammar-translation and
cognitive-code) are slightly more efficient than audio-lingual teaching for adults.
The differences are often statistically significant, but are not huge. Students
clearly make some progress using any of these approaches.
(2) For adolescents, there is no measurable difference.
29

I interpret this failure to find large differences in this way: none of the methods
compared in these studies provides much in the way of comprehensible input! The input
hypothesis predicts, moreover, that an approach that provides substantial quantities of
comprehensible input will do much better than any of the older approaches.
There are several newer methods that do this, such as Asher's Total Physical
Response Method (Asher, 1966, 1969) and Terrell's Natural Approach (Terrell, 1977). In
these methods, class time is devoted to providing comprehensible input, where the focus is
on the message and not the form, and students are not expected to produce in the second
language until they themselves decide they are "ready". Reports confirming the superiority of
such "input methods" have been appearing in the professional literature over the last ten
years (e.g. Asher, 1972; Gary, 1975; Postovsky, 1974; more detail is provided in Chapter V).
(The focus on comprehensible input is not the only reason for the success of the newer
methods, however; see discussion below of affect, and Chapters III and V.)
Since the bulk of this book is intended to deal with implications of second language
acquisition theory (Chapters III, IV, and V), this section should really be delayed until later. I
cannot resist, however, briefly stating one implication here, since, in my opinion, the
implications of the input hypothesis are truly exciting for all of us interested in language
acquisition. Most important, the input hypothesis predicts that the classroom may be an
excellent place for second language acquisition, at least up to the "intermediate" level. For
beginners, the classroom can be much better than the outside world, since the outside usually
provides the beginner with very little comprehensible input, especially for older acquirers
(Wagner-Gough and Hatch, 1975). In the classroom, we can provide an hour a day of
comprehensible input, which is probably much better than the outside can do for the beginner.
We will elaborate on this a bit more after discussion of the Affective Filter.
5. THE AFFECTIVE FILTER HYPOTHESIS
The Affective Filter hypothesis states how affective factors relate to the second
language acquisition process. The concept of an Affective
30

Filter was proposed by Dulay and Burt (1977), and is consistent with the theoretical work
done in the area of affective variables and second language acquisition, as well as the
hypotheses previously covered in this chapter.
Research over the last decade has confirmed that a variety of affective variables relate
to success in second language acquisition (reviewed in Krashen, 1981). Most of those studied
can be placed into one of these three categories:
(1) Motivation. Performers with high motivation generally do better in second
language acquisition (usually, but not always, "integrative"13
(2) Self-confidence. Performers with self-confidence and a good self-image
tend to do better in second language acquisition.
(3) Anxiety. Low anxiety appears to be conducive to second language
acquisition, whether measured as personal or classroom anxiety.
In several places I have hypothesized that these attitudinal factors relate directly to
acquisition and not learning, since they tend to show stronger relationships to second
language achievement when communicative-type tests are used, tests that tap the acquired
rather than the learned system, and when the students taking the test have used the
language in "acquisition-rich" situations, situations where comprehensible input was plentiful.
The Affective Filter hypothesis captures the relationship between affective variables
and the process of second language acquisition by positing that acquirers vary with respect to
the strength or level of their Affective Filters. Those whose attitudes are not optimal for
second language acquisition will not only tend to seek less input, but they will also have a
high or strong Affective Filter--even if they understand the message, the input will not reach
the part of the brain responsible for language acquisition, or the language acquisition device.
Those with attitudes more conducive to second language acquisition will not only seek and
obtain more input, they will also have a lower or weaker filter. They will be more open to the
input, and it will strike "deeper" (Stevick, 1976).
The Affective Filter hypothesis, represented in Fig. 2.2, claims that
31

the effect of affect is "outside" the language acquisition device proper. It still maintains that
input is the primary causative variable in second language acquisition, affective variables
acting to impede or facilitate the delivery of input to the language acquisition device.
The filter hypothesis explains why it is possible for an acquirer to obtain a great deal of
comprehensible input, and yet stop short (and sometimes well short) of the native speaker
level (or "fossilize"; Selinker, 1972). When this occurs, it is due to the affective filter.
Fig 2.2. Operation of the "affective filter".
The "affective filter", posited by Dulay and Burt (1977), acts to prevent input from
being used for language acquisition. Acquirers with optimal attitudes (see text) are
hypothesized to have "low" affective filters. Classrooms that encourage low filters
are those that promote low anxiety among students, that keep students "off the
defensive" (Stevick, 1976).
This picture does not diminish, in any way, the importance of affective variables in
pedagogy. The Affective Filter hypothesis implies that our pedagogical goals should not only
include supplying comprehensible input, but also creating a situation that encourages a low
filter. As discussed in Chapter V, several methods focus on just this (e.g. Counseling-
Learning and Suggestopedia).
The input hypothesis and the concept of the Affective Filter define the language
teacher in a new way. The effective language teacher is someone who can provide input and
help make it comprehensible in a low anxiety situation. Of course, many teachers have felt
this way about their task for years, at least until they were told otherwise by the experts!14
B. The Causative Variable in Second Language Acquisition
1. THE CAUSATIVE VARIABLES
Our review of second language acquisition theory thus far can be summarized as
follows:
1. Acquisition is more important than learning.
32

2. In order to acquire, two conditions are necessary. The first is comprehensible
(or even better, comprehended) input containing i + 1, structures a bit beyond
the acquirer's current level, and second, a low or weak affective filter to allow
the input "in".
This is equivalent to saying that comprehensible input and the strength of the filter are
the true causes of second language acquisition. Other variables may relate to second
language success, that is, we may see positive correlations between other variables and
measures of achievement in second language, but in all cases in which language acquisition
is attained, analysis will reveal that the relationship can better be explained in terms of
comprehensible input plus filter level.
In this section, we will perform such an analysis, looking at several factors that have
been shown to relate to success in second language acquisition. We will see that not only can
they be re-analyzed, but that the comprehensible input + filter explanation helps to solve
some apparent problems and contradictions in the research literature.
We will begin with the effect of language teaching on second language acquisition,
then examine variables relating to exposure (length of residence in the country where the
language is used and reported use of the second language), and then turn to age. Finally, we
will consider Schumann's acculturation hypothesis, to see whether it too can be reanalyzed in
this way.
2. LANGUAGE TEACHING: DOES IT HELP?
If acquisition is more central, and learning of less use to second language
performance, and if comprehensible input and the filter are the essential causative variables
for second language acquisition, the classroom should help only to the extent it supplies
comprehensible input in an environment conducive to a low filter. This may indeed be, as
mentioned earlier, its main function.
It seems reasonable to hypothesize that the classroom should be especially valuable
for beginners, those who cannot easily utilize the informal environment for input. It will be of
less value to those who can, who have other sources of comprehensible input, and who are
linguistically advanced enough to take advantage of it.
The question then becomes not "Does language teaching help?" but
33

"When does language teaching help?". A possible answer is this: language teaching helps
when it is the main source of low filter comprehensible input, that is, for beginners and for
foreign language students who do not have a chance to get input outside the class. It will be
of less help when rich sources of input are available. If the research literature supports these
generalizations, it confirms the generalization that language teaching helps second language
acquisition when it supplies comprehensible input, which is the true cause of second
language acquisition.
(a) When language teaching helps
Brière (1978) investigated the factors that predicted successful acquisition of Spanish
as a second language among 920 native Mexican children, ages four through twelve. Among
the best predictors of Spanish proficiency was attendance in class in the village school
(promotoria). This makes sense in terms of our hypothesis, since the promotoria was the
major source of comprehensible input in Spanish, as opportunities to use Spanish outside the
classroom were not plentiful. (The two other significant predictors were the father's ability to
speak Spanish and the parents' need for Spanish.)
Some adult studies report fairly large positive correlations between the amount of
classroom exposure to the second language and proficiency. In each case, however, it can be
argued that the class was the primary source of comprehensible input. Krashen, Zelinski,
Jones, and Usprich (1978) tested students in an extension (evening and weekend) program in
English as a second language at Queens College in New York, and reported robust
correlations between reported years of formal study and performance on a variety of ESL
tests, i.e.:
_____________________________________________________________________
Test Correlation with years of formal study
_____________________________________________________________________
Michigan (Lado) r = 0.50
Composition r = 0.34
Cloze r = 0.47
SLOPE r = 0.42 (reported in Krashen, 1976)
_____________________________________________________________________
All correlations were very significant (p < 0.01 or better).
Despite the fact that these students were in the United States and
34

technically in a second language and not a foreign language environment, it is likely that, in
many cases, they did not have a rich input source available to them outside the class. First,
some had not been in the country for a long time, their primary exposure to English having
been in a foreign language situation. Second, since these were extension and not regular
day-time university students, there was the strong possibility that many of them were not
utilizing English very much in their daily lives, even though they were living in New York. This
is confirmed below, when we note the lack of a strong relationship found for these same
students between length of residence in the United States and proficiency, and when we
examine the effect of instruction on regular university students who do have a rich source of
input outside the classroom. (See Krashen, Seliger, and Hartnett, 1974 and Krashen and
Seliger, 1976, for similar results.)
Chihara and Oller (1978) also report substantial correlations between length of formal
study and second language proficiency, finding a correlation of r = 0.45 for performance on a
cloze test and similar results for other measures. Their subjects were Japanese studying
English as a foreign language in Japan, a clear foreign language situation in which the
classroom was the main, if not only, source of comprehensible input.
(b) When language teaching does not help
Not all the research literature concludes that language teaching is good for second
language acquisition! (I must admit that I am astounded to see that so few studies have
investigated such a crucial issue! What is presented in this section is practically the entire
literature on this question.) There are generalizations that can be made about studies that
seem to decide against second language teaching, however. In all cases, students had a rich
source of comprehensible input outside the classroom, and were competent enough in the
second language to be able to take advantage of it, i.e. understand.
Two studies deal with child second language acquisition and both with English as a
second language. Fathman (1975) found no significant differences in English proficiency
between children who had ESL instruction and children who did not. All children in her study,
however,
35

were enrolled in English-medium public schools in Washington, D.C. and all had been in the
United States from one to three years. It can be hypothesized that they were getting
comprehensible input from the school and playground, and the extra input from the ESL class
did not make a difference (nor did grammar and drill!).
Hale and Budar (1970) studied immigrant adolescents in Hawaiian junior high schools.
In their paper (titled "Are TESOL classes the only answer?"), they noted that the subjects
formed a natural division. One group was composed of students who spoke less common
languages. These students did not have the "benefit" of a formal ESL program and were
isolated from speakers of their own language. The second group consisted of students who
had the chance to associate with other students who spoke their own first language. These
students did attend ESL classes. Hale and Budar report that the first group actually made
better progress in English, a finding that seems to question the value of ESL classes. The first
group, however, may have had more comprehensible input, possibly through having to
associate more with English speakers and with other non-native speakers using English as a
lingua franca. This study also fits our generalization and confirms that the issue is not plus or
minus ESL or language teaching but plus or minus low filter comprehensible input.
Two adult studies also appear to decide against the classroom. Upshur (1968) studied
three groups of ten foreign students studying law at a special summer session at the
University of Michigan. All students took seminars and classes that used English as the
medium of instruction. In addition, they took formal ESL classes, each group taking a different
amount, depending on placement scores. Upshur's analysis of their progress in English over
the summer revealed no significant effects attributable to the amount of instruction they
received: those with more ESL did not necessarily acquire more than those with less over the
course of the summer. Mason (1971), in a study done at the University of Hawaii, simply
allowed a small group of intermediate15
level international students to postpone a required
ESL class for a semester. Their progress in ESL was compared to students who actually took
the course. Mason reported no significant differences between the two groups.
The two adult studies are consistent with the hypothesis. In both
36

cases, students had a rich source of comprehensible input outside the classroom, and in both
cases they were advanced enough to be able to utilize it.
I conclude from this that language teaching certainly can help. Its primary function is to
supply comprehensible input for those who can not get it elsewhere, those constrained by
their situation (i.e. foreign language students who do not have input sources outside the
class) or by their competence (those unable to understand the language of the outside world).
While it is less useful for those who have other sources of input, there still are things the
competent classroom can contribute to the intermediate student. It can supply conscious
learning for optimal Monitor use (see Chapter IV), and give tools to help the acquirer utilize
the outside environment more fully for further acquisition (Chapter III). Table 2.2 summarizes
studies discussed in this section.16
3. EXPOSURE VARIABLES
Several exposure variables have been investigated with respect to second language
acquisition. Some studies show a clear relationship between the amount of exposure and
proficiency and some do not. We shall see again that the hypothesis that comprehensible
input plus low filter are the true causative variables predicts quite well when exposure
variables relate to second language acquisition and when they do not. Thus, exposure
variable are also indirect and not in themselves causative.
Several studies have examined length of residence (LOR) in the second language
environment. For those studies of child second language acquisition, it can be plausibly
argued that LOR may reflect simply the amount of comprehensible input the child obtains.
(This is of course not always the case in child second language acquisition; all too often
children living in a country do not get comprehensible input, either in or out of school.) We
thus see, in these studies, a clear relationship between LOR and second language
proficiency.
Fathman (1975) was discussed above. In addition to her finding on the non-effects of
formal instruction on ESL achievement, Fathman also reported that LOR did predict
proficiency for her sample of children (ages 6-14, enrolled in public school in Washington,
D.C.).
37

Table 2.2. Formal instruction and second language acquisition
a All subjects had been in the U.S. at least one year.
38

Those who had been in the United States for three years did better on the SLOPE test than
those who had been in the United States for two years, and this group, in turn, outperformed
those who had been in the United States for only one year.
Walberg, Hase, and Rasher (1978) studied Japanese-speaking children who had been
in the United States a range of zero to 12 years, with most reporting a LOR of three to four
years. Self-report and report of teachers were used as estimates of the children's proficiency
in English. Walberg et al. did find a significant relationship between LOR and proficiency in
English as a second language, but noted that even higher correlations were found with a
"diminishing returns" model: "For children of all ages in the sample, acquisition proceeds at a
fast rate initially, but the amounts of gain diminish with time" (p. 436). Specifically, "it may be
estimated that equal... units are gained in the first two months, the next five months, the
following one year, the next two years, and the next eight years" (p.436).
Ekstrand (1976), however, found no relationship between LOR and child second
language proficiency in his study of immigrant children in Sweden. The median LOR in his
study was only 10.5 months, and it may be the case that LOR effects are not seen unless the
children have been in the country for some minimum length of time (one year?). This
condition is satisfied in the Fathman and Walberg et al. studies, and may be due to the fact
that approximately one year is necessary to offset the advantage the older children have in
rate of acquisition in early stages (Krashen, Long, and Scarcella, 1979; see also discussion
below on age).
Walberg et al.'s diminishing returns hypothesis predicts that there is also a maximum
LOR, beyond which we see no relationship between LOR and second language acquisition.
Data from some other studies confirm this. Seliger, Krashen and Ladefoged (1974), Oyama
(1976, 1978), and Patkowski (1980) all report no relationship between LOR and proficiency in
English as a second language using a variety of measures for groups of subjects who had
arrived in the United States at different ages, some arriving as children and some as adults. In
all cases, however, very long LORs were involved, the minimum being five years with most
being much longer.
Two other studies that bear on the issue of LOR and child second
39

language acquisition will be covered in a subsequent section (Ramsey and Wright, 1974;
Minoura, 1979).
Adult studies of the relationship between LOR and second language proficiency show,
in my view, that LOR "counts" when there is evidence that it reflects high interaction and
therefore comprehensible input. Because of the variability in filter level in adults, however, we
might expect lower correlations for adults in general, as compared to children (see discussion
of age below).
International university students fully involved in the academic environment should give
us significant correlations between LOR and proficiency in the second language, provided a
large enough range of LOR is examined, since students should have access to large amounts
of comprehensible input, both in and out of class. Two studies utilized international students.
Murakami (1980) studied 30 Japanese-speaking students at Southern Illinois University and
found a significant correlation between performance on a dictation test of ESL and LOR (r =
0.68), and a positive but not significant correlation using a cloze test (r = 0.29). These results
are nearly identical to those of Oller, Perkins, and Murakami (1980), who examined a group of
182 students, also at SIU (which did not include the 30 students Murakami studied alone).
They also report a significant correlation between LOR and dictation (r = 0.46) but no
significant correlation for cloze (correlation not reported).
LOR and proficiency was also probed in our study of extension students at Queens
College (cited above; Krashen et al., 1978). Correlations were occasionally significant (due to
the large sample size) but were quite modest.
__________________________________________________
Correlation Measure
__________________________________________________
0.18 Michigan test (Lado)
0.22 Composition
0.24 Cloze
0.014 SLOPE test (Krashen, 1976)
__________________________________________________
These results are predictable. We would expect extension students to have variable,
and often very low, contact with English as compared to full-time students. Some may have
lived in the United States many years without much comprehensible input. (Similar results are
reported
40

in Krashen, Seliger, and Hartnett, 1974, and Krashen and Seliger, 1976.)
Two studies examine "time abroad" to foreign language students, but differ somewhat
in environment and also in results. Carroll (1967) reported that foreign language majors in
American universities who were able to spend their junior years abroad in the country where
the language was spoken performed better on the FSI rest of listening comprehension than
those who had only spent a summer abroad. The summer travelers, in turn, outperformed
those who had never been abroad. These clear results probably reflect the fact that such
students, most likely, sought out interaction, and thus comprehensible input in the second
language while they were abroad.
In Chihara and Oller (1978), students of English as a foreign language in Japan were
studied. No relationship was found, however, between the amount of time spent abroad and
tests of English (r = 0.04 for cloze, with other measures producing similar results; Chihara and
Oller report higher correlations between time abroad and self-report of English proficiency; r =
0.24 for speaking and r = 0.23 for listening comprehension). In contrast to Carroll's American
foreign language majors study, in which acquirers were in daily contact with the target
language, time abroad in this case need not have a direct relationship with amount of
comprehensible input. Table 2.3 summarizes LOR studies.
A second exposure variable that has been studied is reported use of the second
language. Several studies (but surprisingly few) have asked whether those who say they use
the second language more actually acquire more. We would expect a significant relationship
between "use" and acquisition, since use nearly always entails comprehensible input. Of the
three studies I know of that explore this variable, two do in fact show a clear relationship with
second language proficiency. (Failure to find a clear relationship in every case may be due to
the unreliability of self-report; see Oller and Perkins, 1978.)
All studies examining reported use involve adult subjects. Johnson and Krug (1980)
studied 72 international students at Southern Illinois University and found a modest but
significant 0.34 correlation between proficiency in English (as measured by accuracy of
grammatical morphemes in obligatory occasions in an interview situation) and subjects'
41

Table 2.3. Length of residence (LOR) and second language acquisition (SLA)
a CI = comprehensible input.
b Average LOR = 3-4 years.
c No relationship between LOR and SLA presumably due here to relatively short LOR.
42

report of the amount of leisure time they spent speaking and listening to English. Oller,
Perkins, and Murakami (1980), however, examining a similar sample, found no relationship
between a report of "time spent with English speakers" and second language proficiency, as
measured by dictation and a cloze-type grammar test.
The Heidelberg project, as cited in Schumann (1978b), examined factors predicting
proficiency in German as a second language for guest-workers (Italian and Spanish
speakers) in Germany. They reported a correlation of 0.64 between German syntactic
proficiency and "leisure contact" with Germans and one of 0.53 between German proficiency
and "work contact". Both leisure and work contact can plausibly be interpreted as indicating
comprehensible input.
4. AGE
It has been popularly assumed that age itself is a predictor of second language
proficiency, that younger acquirers are better at second language acquisition than older
acquirers. It can be argued, however, that age is not in itself a predictor of second language
rate or attainment, and that here too everything reduces down to the quantity of
comprehensible input and the level of the affective filter.
Krashen, Long, and Scarcella (1979) reviewed the available empirical research on the
effect of age and second language acquisition and concluded that all published studies were
consistent with these three generalization:
1. Adults proceed through the early stages of second language development
faster than children do (where time and exposure are held constant).
2. Older children acquire faster than younger children, time and exposure held
constant.
3. Acquirers who begin natural exposure to second languages during childhood
generally achieve higher second language proficiency than those beginning as
adults.
Thus, it is not simply the case that "younger is better": children are superior to adults
only in the long run.
The explanations for these observed differences that seem most
43

plausible to me involve input and the level or strength of the affective filter. First, let us
consider the older acquirer's rate superiority (generalizations (1) and (2) above). Scarcella
and Higa (forthcoming) found that younger acquirers actually received "simpler" input in a
block building task, a result that confirms observations made by Wagner-Gough and Hatch
(1975), and that seems to predict greater speed for younger, and not older acquirers.
Scarcella and Higa noted that the older acquirers (adolescents) were better able to regulate
both the quantity and quality of their input. They were better at encouraging speech and at
getting the native speaker to modify it for greater comprehensibility. They could, for example,
ask for help, change the topic, and direct the conversation better. They had, in other words,
more "conversational competence". Thus, despite the simpler input directed at the younger
children, it is likely that older acquirers actually get more comprehended input, and this may
be a key factor in their faster initial progress.
There may be other reasons for the older acquirers' superiority in rate of acquisition.
Adults have means of producing language earlier, of "beating the Silent Period", means that
have nothing to do with natural language acquisition but that may nevertheless help them
participate in conversation and hence obtain comprehensible input.
I have hypothesized in earlier papers (see, for example, Krashen, 1981) that significant
Monitor use is only possible after the acquirer has undergone formal operations, a stage in
cognitive development that generally occurs at about puberty (Inhelder and Piaget, 1958).
The availability of the conscious grammar, the Monitor, allows adults to produce formally
acceptable utterances using first language rules repaired by the Monitor, as discussed earlier
in this chapter. While the use of this mode does not require comprehensible input, it helps the
acquirer to talk early, to participate in conversations, and thereby obtain input, at least some
of which will be comprehensible.
Both explanations for the older acquirers' rate superiority reduce to the greater ability of
the adult and older child to obtain comprehensibly input. Thus, comprehensible input again is
hypothesized to be the causative variable, and not age per se.
The child's superiority in ultimate attainment has been hypothesized to be due to the
strengthening of the affective filter at about puberty,
44

an event that may also be related to formal operations (Krashen, 1981). As argued
elsewhere, this hypothesis has several advantages. First, it claims that child-adult differences
in attainment are not due to any change in the "language acquisition device" (LAD) but are
due to the filter, a factor that is, in a sense, external to the LAD. Second, it is consistent with
the claim that adults are still "acquirers", that they retain the natural language acquisition
capacity children have. It also allows for the possibility that some adults can achieve
extremely high levels of competence in a second language and may even be taken for native;
it predicts that such "Good Language Learners" will be, above all, good acquirers, with the
ability to obtain a great deal of comprehensible input with a low affective filter. In many cases,
the filter prevents the adult only from going the last few inches.17
5. ACCULTURATION
A similar argument can be made concerning Schumann's Acculturation
Hypothesis. Schumann (1978b) has hypothesized that acculturation
is the "major casual variable in second language acquisition" (p.
29). Schumann maintains that "Second language acquisition is just one
aspect of acculturation, and the degree to which the learner acculturates
to the target language group will control the degree to which he
acquires the target language" (p. 34).
While the Acculturation Hypothesis seems to account for second language acquisition
data in extended sojourn situations, it is easily expressible in terms of comprehensible input
and low filter level. Acculturation can be viewed as a means of gaining comprehensible input
and lowering the filter. Moreover, the comprehensible input hypothesis accounts for second
language acquisition in situations that acculturation does not attempt to deal with.
Schumann defines two types of acculturation:
"In type one acculturation, the learner is socially integrated with the TL group and, as a
result, develops sufficient contact with TL speakers to enable him to acquire the TL. In addition,
he is psychologically open to the TL such that input to which he is exposed becomes intake.
Type two acculturation has all the characteristics of type one, but in this case the learner
regards the TL speakers as a reference
45

group whose life styles and values he consciously or unconsciously desires to adopt. Both
types of acculturation are sufficient to cause acquisition of the TL, but the distinction is made to
stress that social and psychological contact with the TL group is the essential component in
acculturation (as it relates to SLA) that that adoption of the life style and values of the TL group
(characteristics traditionally associated with the notion of acculturation) is not necessary for
successful acquisition of the TL" (p.29).
Type one acculturation is thus "weaker" than type two in that it does not involve
adoption of the new life style. Since Schumann hypothesizes that type one is all that is
necessary for successful second language acquisition, we restrict our discussion to type one
acculturation.
Type one acculturation is easily restatable in terms of the framework presented in this
chapter: social integration with resulting contacts leads to comprehensible input, while the
open psychological state Schumann refers to is equivalent to a low filter. The evidence
Schumann presents in support of the Acculturation Hypothesis can be similarly interpreted.
The Heidelberg project, mentioned earlier, studied variables correlating with successful
acquisition of German by foreign workers. Reported amounts of leisure contact with speakers
of German correlated with syntactic performance (r = 0.64) as did amount of work contact (r =
0.55). Apparently, either form of interaction was effective in encouraging second language
acquisition. (Schumann notes that "among the best speakers, those who had little leisure
contact with Germans all had considerable work contact" (p. 39); thus, some guest-workers
who acquired German did so without much leisure contact.) This confirms that it is interaction,
and the resulting comprehensible input, that "causes" second language acquisition, a view
consistent with both the comprehensible input plus low filter view as well as the Acculturation
Hypothesis.
Schumann, in reporting the Heidelberg research, also notes that "learners whose work
required communication with co-workers did better in German than workers who provided
services (hairdressers, kitchen help, etc.)" Also, "learners who worked in an environment that
was noisy or which constrained movement were at a disadvantage".
46

These results also suggest that those who were able to interact more in the target language
acquired more German, all of which means more input meeting the requirements of the input
hypothesis.
Schumann draws a parallel between natural ("free" or informal) second language
acquisition and the pidginization-decreolization continuum, suggesting that early second
language acquisition is similar to pidginization (secondary hybridization) and that late second
language acquisition is similar to the mesolect and acrolect stages of decreolization.18 As
evidence, he describes the case of Alberto, a Spanish-speaking adult living in the United
States who appeared to be at a considerable psychological and social distance19 from English
speakers, and whose speech showed marked signs of pidginization, i.e. lack of several
grammatical morphemes, little use of inversion in questions, and use of more primitive
transitional forms in negation (Schumann, 1978a provides details). Alberto thus fits the
Acculturation Hypothesis, since he showed little second language acquisition and little
acculturation, defined as the degree of social and psychological distance. Albert is also quite
consistent with the theoretical framework presented here and the hypothesis that
comprehensible input and filter level are primary determinants of second language
acquisition. Alberto, it can be claimed, received little comprehensible input in English (he
worked nights, did not own a TV set, did not attend ESL classes, and made little effort to get
to know English speakers., according to Schumann, 1978a), and probably had a strong
affective filter as well.20
Stauble's subjects, reported in Stauble (1978) are also considered to be evidence for
the Acculturation Hypothesis. All three were Spanish speakers who had been in the United
States for many years, and who had apparently "fossilized" at different levels in their
development of negation. Stauble attempted to relate their progress in second language
acquisition, as reflected by the transitional forms they used for negation, and acculturation,
measured by an informal questionnaire probing social and psychological distance from
speakers of English. The subject Xavier showed the least progress in English negation, but
also showed the least social distance. Stauble's questionnaire revealed that his psychological
distance, however, was greater than that of the others, which is consistent with the
Acculturation Hypothesis. Paz, the most advanced speaker, had the greatest social distance,
but, along
47

with Maria, the other subject, had relatively low psychological distance. Stauble's
interpretation of these findings is that psychological distance may be a more important
determinant of acculturation, and hence language acquisition, than social distance.
Stauble's data can also be analyzed in terms of our theoretical framework. Since all
three subjects had been in the United States for many years, all three had had considerable
comprehensible input (recall our earlier generalization that LOR, when over a long period of
time, does not predict SLA, a hypothesis consistent with Walberg et al.'s diminishing returns
hypothesis), enough to allow a "zero filter" acquirer to reach native-speaker levels. We can
then simply hypothesize that it was Paz's lower filter, reflected by the lower psychological
score, that allowed this acquirer to make more progress.21
Finally, it can be claimed that the comprehensible input plus filter position is more
general. The acculturation hypothesis predicts second language acquisition only in
immigration and extended sojourn situations. (Indeed, it is unfair to ask it to account for other
situations, since Schumann has made it very clear in his writings that the acculturation
hypothesis is designed to account for second language acquisition only in this situation.) The
theory of SLA presented in this chapter can not only account for extended sojourn and
immigrant SLA but also predicts success in the classroom, as detailed in Chapters III, IV, and
V, and is claimed to be applicable to all language acquisition.
The Acculturation Hypothesis has considerable merit. It may be the case that
acculturation is the most effective way of lowering the affective filter and getting input for
immigrants and long-term visitors. Figure 2.3 attempts to capture the parallel between second
language acquisition and the effect of acculturation. "Free" second language acquisition and
the continuum are similar in that acculturation may be the "motivating force" behind both.22
Creole speakers gradually acquire closer versions of the standard as they are acculturated
into the target culture. This acculturation brings them into contact with speakers of the
standard, and makes them more "open" to the input (lowers the filter). Also, acculturation may
"motivate" second language acquisition. As the individual acquirer acculturates into a culture,
he obtains more input via more interaction, and is more "open" to it. The difference
48

Fig. 2.3. Acculturation, pidginization-decreolization, and second langauge acquisition.
Second langauge acquisition and the pidginization - decreolization continuum are similar in
that both progress via comprehensible input supplied in a low filter situation (area inside the
box).
a Enculturation = "the process by which an individual assimilates to his own culture or to
some segment of it", i.e. the case of European elite professionals who acquire English in their
own countries, (For discussion, see Schumann (1978b), pp. 47-48).
49

is that acculturation is the necessary motivating force for movement along the decreolization
continuum, while it is only one way to bring the filter down and obtain comprehensible input.
Input can be obtained with acculturation, and there are many techniques for bringing down
the filter that have nothing to do with acculturation.
Notes
1 The acquisition-learning distinction is not new with me. Several other scholars have
found it useful to posit similar kinds of differences. Bialystock and Frohlich (1972) distinguish
"implicit" and "explicit" learning, and Lawler and Selinker (1971) discuss mechanisms that guide
"automatic" performance and mechanisms that guide "puzzle and problem solving
performance" (p. 35). Also, Corder (1967) and Widdowson (1977) suggest similar ideas.
2 Those of us who have studied languages with a great deal of inflectional morphology in
school, using methods that focus on grammatical accuracy, often have first-hand experience
with this phenomenon. Consider what happens just before a grammar test in a language such
as German; students carefully review the inflectional system (der-das-die; den-das-die; plus the
list of prepositions that take different cases) on the way to the exam. As soon as they sit down
in class to take the test, they immediately scribble what they can remember of the inflectional
system on the side of the page, so that when they need the correct marker, they can find it and
use it. At the end of the exam, before handing in the paper, they erase their notes. The
morphology on the side of the page is, most likely, late-acquired, and unavailable in rapid
conversation for most people. The notes on the side, then, act like a conscious Monitor, raising
the accuracy of the output in situations where the student has time, is focused on form, and can
access the rule; grammar tests fill these conditions nicely. Students thus do much better in
terms of grammatical accuracy on such tests than they would in free conversation, the late-
acquired, or not-yet-acquired, items that are learnable rising in rank.
3 An interesting parallel hypothesis is that we will see greater numbers of transitional
forms in Monitor-free conditions. The literature is consistent with this hypothesis, since the
transitional forms noted for adult acquirers have all been found in subjects who appear to be
non-users, or under-users of the conscious Monitor, for example, Schumann's Alberto
(Schumann, 1978); Nelson's McGill university janitors (Nelson, 1980), and Hanania and
Gradman's Fatmah (Hanania and Gradman, 1977). This is predictable, since transitional forms
are hypothesized to reflect the operation of the acquired system.
4 To be more precise, speaking skills that depend on acquired competence emerge over
time as a result of comprehensible input. There appear to be, however, at least two ways of
beating the system, at least over the short run. We can produce using memorized language, or
routines and patterns (Krashen and Scarcella, 1978), and we can also produce by using the
first language surface structure plus conscious grammar (L1 plus Monitor Mode). As we shall
see later, both of these methods of performing without acquired competence have drawbacks
and limitations.
5 Interlanguage talk, the speech of second language acquirers to each other, may or may
not be useful for acquisition. This is an important question that, to my knowledge, has not been
directly dealt with in the professional literature. Arguments in favor of its utility for language
acquisition are these: it satisfies the input hypothesis in that it is meant
50

for communication and might contain input at some acquirers' i + 1. On the other hand there
is the question of whether the ungrammaticality of much interlanguage talk outweighs these
factors. Also, much interlanguage talk input might be too simple and may not contain i + 1 for
the more advanced acquirer. See Krashen (1980, 1981) for a discussion of some of the
empirical evidence that might shed light on this issue.
6 In a recent study, M. Long (1980) reported that foreigner talk discourse did not contain
significantly more verbs marked for present tense than native speaker-native speaker
discourse. It is thus not more in the "now" of the "here and now", to paraphrase Long.
7 A look at some of the memorized sentences and phrases children pick up during the
silent period confirms their utility in a variety of social situations. Quite often, however, the
children do not always acquire the knowledge of exactly when and how to use them. A
particularly vivid example is the child, who had been in the United States approximately two
months, who greeted an acquaintance of mine with "I kick you ass."
8 Conscious Monitoring need not always result in the full repair of an L1 influenced error.
If the repair job appears to be too complex for the Monitor to deal with, the performer may
simply abort the entire sentence and try to express the idea in a simpler way. This may be the
cause of the avoidance phenomena, first reported by Schachter (1974). In Schachter's study, it
was shown that Chinese and Japanese speakers produced fewer relative clauses in English as
a second language than did Farsi and Arabic speakers, but were more accurate. Schachter
relates this result to L1-L2 differences: Chinese and Japanese relative clauses are constructed
to the left of the head noun, while Farsi and Arabic, like English, have relative clauses to the
right of the head noun.
One possible interpretation is that the Chinese and Japanese speakers in Schachter's
study consciously knew the correct English relative clause rule but had not acquired it. Also, in
their production of English, they utilized their L1 rule. Their Monitor was thus presented with the
task of moving relative clauses around a head noun, a very complex operation. In many cases,
subjects simply decided that it was not worth the effort! When they did produce relative
clauses, however, they were accurate. These were the cases when they went to the trouble of
applying a difficult rule.
Avoidance is thus predicted in cases where a rule has been consciously learned but
not acquired, and when the L1 and L2 rules are quite different, where repair by the Monitor
requires difficult mental gymnastics.
Avoidance is also predicted in cases where the performer consciously knows the rule
imperfectly, not well enough to make the necessary chance but well enough to see a mismatch
between the L1 rule he has used and the correct target language rule. Since he cannot repair
but knows there is an error, he can exercise his option to avoid the structure. Kleinman's
avoidance data (Kleinman, 1977) fits this description. His Arabic-speaking subjects showed
evidence of avoiding the passive in English, and his Spanish-and Portuguese-speaking
subjects avoided infinitive complements and direct object pronouns in sentences with infinitive
complements (e.g. "I told her to leave"). In both cases, according to Kleinman, contrastive
analysis predicts difficulties. These subjects, unlike Schachter's, were not unusually accurate
with these constructions when they produced them. In this case, it is possible that the subject's
knowledge of the rule was not complete enough to effect a perfect repair, so avoidance was
the result.
In both cases described above, conscious rules serve a filtering function, telling the
performer where his L1 rule differs from the L2 rule. In one case, repair is possible but difficult,
and in the other the conscious rule does not permit repair.
9 Based on Hyltenstam's data on the acquisition of negation by adult acquirers of
Swedish (Hyltenstam, 1977), Hammarberg (1979) argues that acquirers may begin at
51

different developmental stages depending on their first language. The normal course of
development in the acquisition of negation in Swedish consists of the following transitional
stages:
(1a) Acquirers place the negative marker before all other parts of the VP,
before the auxiliary and the main verb.
(1b) Acquirers place the negative marker after the auxiliary but before the
main verb.
(2) Post-verbal negation.
In subsequent stages, acquirers move closer to the Swedish rule of post-verbal negation in
main clauses and pre-verbal negation in subordinate clauses.
According to Hammarberg, speakers of languages that have pre-verbal negation
(Serbo-Croatian) typically start this developmental sequences at the beginning, at stage 1a.
English speakers, however, appear to begin at 1b. We do not see English speakers, in
Hyltenstam's data, who produce "neg + aux" structures. Since 1b "is an English-like solution"
(p. 10), one can hypothesis that English speakers skipped the (1a) transitional stage.
There are several possibilities here. First, Hammarberg's suggestion may be true. If so,
if acquirers can skip a transitional stage tj, when their language has a rule identical to tj + 1, this
implies that tj was not essential--it did not have to serve as i. This does not rule out the
possibility that tj would have been useful.
A second possibility is that tj was present, but escaped the observer's notice. Indeed, it
may have been present as tj but never uttered. Adult performers who have consciously learned
the target language rule, or who have even learned parts of it, may be able to use the
conscious Monitor to detect transitional errors and either avoid them in performance or repair
them (see discussion in footnote 7 on avoidance). They may, however, have more of a
tendency to accept such transitional forms when they coincide with an L1 rule, even if they are
errors (Schachter et al., 1976). This could explain why transitional forms that are unlike L1 rules
are less frequently seen in performance. It should be noted, however, that the Serbo-Croatian
speakers in Hyltenstam's study did show clear signs of stage 1b, which does not correspond to
any rule in Serbo-Croatian.
There are thus at least two possibilities--the English speakers did indeed skip a stage,
which implies that the skipped stage may not have been crucial to further development, or the
stage was "there" but undetected, due to its short duration and/or its having not been used in
the performer's output. Consistent with Schumann's findings (Schumann, 1979), the transitional
stage that coincides with the L1 rule was quite evident, both in the case of Serbo-Croatian
speakers (stage 1a) and English speakers (stage 1b). As suggested in the text, this
stage may have, in each case, been two stages in one, first the L1 rule, and then the "real"
transitional stage, with only the latter helping real progress to continue.
10 Several scholars have pointed out that this view of transfer is too strong in that it
predicts the occurrence of "transfer" errors that in fact do not occur. This problem can be
resolved by positing several constraints on transfer, or conditions that must be met before a
performer can substitute a first language rule for some i + 1.
Zobl (1980a, b, c) notes that the L1 rule itself must be a productive one. This accounts
for the fact that French speakers acquiring English as a second language do not make errors of
the kind:
52

John comes he?
after the French:
Jean vient-il?
The French rule, according to Zobl, is no longer productive in French. Citing Terry (1970), Zobl
notes that it is mainly limited to present tense contexts, an indication that the rule is becoming
unproductive.
Kellerman (1978) provides another condition on transfer: the performer must perceive
the transferred rule to be potentially non-language specific. Kellerman's original experiments in
lexical transfer showed that foreign language students were less willing to transfer features of
words they considered to be less "core". For example, a Dutch-speaking student of English
would be more likely to presume that he could transfer the Dutch verb 'brechen' (break) in an
English sentence:
He broke his leg.
than in:
The waves broke on the shore.
A similar constraint exists in syntax. Dutch students of English, Kellerman reports, were not
willing to accept a literal translation into English of the Dutch equivalent of:
The book read well.
apparently because the intransitive use of read was perceived to be language-specific and
infrequent (see also Jordans and Kellerman, 1978).
Another constraint comes from the work of Wode (1978), and accounts for the finding
that L1 influenced errors do not seem to occur at all stages of the acquirer's development.
Wode states that for an interlinguistic error to occur, the L1 rule and the L2 rule it substitutes for
must meet a "crucial similarity measure" (p. 116). In other words, if an L1 rule is to be utilized, it
must be preceded by some i of the L2 that differs from it only in minimal ways. Wode's
example, from child second language acquisition of English by German speakers, illustrates
this point nicely. Wode notes that errors such as:
John go not to school
occur in which German-like post-verbal negation is used. These errors are not found in
beginning acquirers, but occur, according to Wode, only after the acquirer has reached the
"aux-negation" stage and already produces sentences such as:
John can not go.
The acquirer then overgeneralizes the negative rule from post-auxiliary to post-verbal, and uses
the first language rule.
11 There is another way in which use of the L1 may indirectly help second language
acquisition. The existence of cognates will help to make input comprehensible, even if form and
meaning are not identical across languages. This factor will increase the rate of acquisition but
not alter the order.
12 The hypothesis that L1 rules cannot contribute to real progress implies that fossilized
use of a L1 rule is the "end of the line" for acquisition. Does this mean that a single L1 error, a
single prolonged substitution of some i + 1 halts all acquisition? It only implies this if we accept
a strictly linear view of the natural order hypothesis, that there is only one stream of progress
that acquirers follow in strict sequence. Clearly, this is not the
53

case. If it were, acquirers would always show us just one transitional error at a time! Of course,
individuals show us many error types at once. This indicates that several streams of
development are taking place at the same time. These streams appear to be correlated; a
performer at a given stage in one stream will usually be at a predictable stage in another
stream. Schumann (1980) provides good evidence for this, noting that his subjects who were at
the no + v stage in negation produced few relative clauses or relative clauses without relative
pronouns. For L1 acquisition, Shipley, Smith and Gleitman (1969) report that verb phrase
related items are correlated fairly highly for order of acquisition, and noun phrase related items
are correlated, but agreement across the groups is not high (see also Krashen, Madden and
Bailey, 1975; and Andersen, 1978, for similar suggestions). Of course, it is quite possible that
transitional forms or rules from one stream may help out those in any other by serving as i. If
say ten parallel streams of development occur at any given time in an acquirer, it may be the
case that a given stream will interact with some, but not all, of the others in this way.
13 "Integrative" motivation refers to the desire to "be like" speakers of the target language.
In foreign language situations (e.g. studying French in Anglophone Canada), students with
more integrative motivation are usually superior, especially over the long run (Gardner and
Lambert, 1972). In situations where there is some urgency in second language acquisition and/
or where there is less desire to "integrate", the presence of integrative motivation may not relate
to second language achievement. Rather, "instrumental" motivation, the desire to use the
language for practical means, may predict success better (Lukmani, 1972; Gardner and
Lambert, 1972; Oller, Baca, and Vigil, 1977).
14 Stevick (1980) provides a poignant example, a story related to him by one of his
students:
"Four years ago I was looking for any kind of job I could find. I happened to
get one teaching ESL to a class of six women from various parts of the world who
spoke no English. I had never heard of ESL before. The salary was poor and I didn't
know if I wanted to pursue a teaching career, therefore my approach was very
casual and low pressure. My method usually consisted of thinking up a topic to talk
about, introducing it, and encouraging each student to express her feelings.
In spite of my casual approach, the teaching job was extremely pleasant. I
had a deep empathy for anyone who was facing a language barrier because I had
just returned from a trip around the world alone as a monolingual.
They all started speaking English fairly well after the first two weeks of class.
I remember a woman from Columbia telling me that she hadn't spoken English
before because she was afraid of making mistakes. After being in class for a while,
she spoke English and made mistakes and didn't care. I didn't attach much
significance to the progress that the women made. I had no idea how long it took
people to learn a language.
Gradually I became quite career-oriented, and made a conscious decision to
try to be a top-notch ESL teacher. I had guilt feelings about the casual way in which I
had taught those first six women, and my teaching evolved into the traditional
authoritarian style with the textbook dominant. Over the years, it has gotten to where
I feel frustrated if a student takes class time to relate a personal anecdote.
I can look back on these four years and see a gradual decline in the
performance of my students. Until recently, I have been assuming that I needed to
be more attentive to their mistakes in order to speed their progress. My present style
of teaching bypasses the students; feelings and basic needs, and concentrates on
method. I never see successes like those first six ladies." (From Stevick, 1980, pp.
4-5).
54

15 "Intermediate" here means knowing enough English to be able to take at least a partial
academic load, but not being able to "pass out" of the required university English as a second
language requirement. The normal situation for the intermediate at the university is to be
enrolled in at least one ESL class in addition to one or more subject matter course.
16 The research cited here deals exclusively with the effect of instruction on the acquisition
of syntax and morphology. Until recently, little work had been done that examined the effect of
instruction on the acquisition of pronunciation. Purcell and Suter (1980) report that acquisition of
pronunciation of English as a second language was predicted by the following factors: (1) The
acquirer's first language (speakers of Arabic and Farsi were superior to speakers of Japanese
and Thai); (2) The amount of interaction with English speakers; (3) Performance on a test of
phonetic ability; and (4) The degree of concern the speaker had about his accent. Factor (2)
appears to be related to comprehensible input, while (3) and (4) may be related to learning. (1)
reflects the consequences of falling back on the first language. The amount of formal classroom
training in ESL, however, did not relate to pronunciation ability, even when courses were
specifically aimed at teaching pronunciation.
17 Some studies seem to show that age of arrival (AOA) predicts second language
attainment for children--that is, that the child who arrives at age six, for example, will attain
higher levels of proficiency than the child who arrives at age ten. While AOA does predict
ultimate attainment for children as a group as compared to adults as a group, closer
examination reveals that AOA per se is not a factor for children considered alone. In cases
where AOA seems to be a factor, it can be argued that LOR, and ultimately CI, is really
causative. Cummins (1980) has performed such a reanalysis of Ramsey and Wright's data on
1,200 immigrant children in Canada (Ramsey and Wright, 1974), and reaches this conclusion,
noting that when AOA is controlled in Ramsey and Wright's data, children with longer LOR's
perform better in a variety of tasks. Cummins also found that when LOR is controlled, however,
children with younger AOA's are not necessarily better--in many cases, the opposite is true.
Minoura (1979) can also be reinterpreted. She studied 44 Japanese children who had been in
the United States for a range of one to eight years. While LOR predicted attainment (r = 0.79),
so did AOA (r = -0.75)(a sentence imitation test was used). All the children in the sample had
arrived in the United States at about the same time, however, so LOR and AOA were highly
correlated (r = -0.95). It thus may be argued that LOR and thus comprehensible input, was the
true causative factor. (According to my calculations, the correlation between AOA and SLA
reduces to r = 0.005 when the effect of LOR is removed!) The Heidelberg project, discussed in
the text, also reports a relationship between AOA and SLA, this time among adults taken as a
group. This also seems to be a confound, since older subjects seemed to spend less time
speaking German (r = -0.32 between AOA and reported leisure time use of German). Partial
correlation partialling out the effects of interaction with German speakers reduces the reported
correlation of -0.57 between AOA and SLA to r = -0.49. This could (and should) go even lower
with a more reliable measure of the amount of comprehensible input subjects actually got.
18 Pidginization "occurs when speakers of different languages come into limited contact
and an auxiliary vehicle of communication develops to facilitate interaction among them."
(Schumann, 1978b, p. 40). Secondary hybridization is a form of pidginization that occurs if a
"standard form" of a target language is available. It persists only if speakers remain at social
and psychological distance from speakers of the norm. (From Whinnom, 1971, cited by
Schumann, 1978b).
55

Decreolization occurs when speakers of a creole (a pidgen that has become a native language
of a group) "gain varying degrees of contact with the group that speaks the base language of
the creole" (Schumann, p. 41). It is the process of moving toward the "standard form" of the
language. Creolists refer to several stages of decreolization, ranging from the creole itself, to
the basolect, which is close to the creole, the mesolect, the acrolect, and finally, the standard
form.
19 Psychological distance is determined by factors such as motivation, language and
culture shock, and other affective variables. Social distance results from social factors, such as
the relative dominance of the social group of the acquirer and speakers of the target language,
the cohesiveness of the groups, similarity in culture, etc. In Schumann's view factors causing
psychological and social distance "put the learner in a situation where he is largely cut off from
target language input and/or does not attend to it when it is available" (Schumann, 1977, pp.
266-267).
20 Also of interest is the fact that Alberto's grammatical morpheme difficulty order (one
cross-section) correlates significantly with the "natural order" proposed earlier (r = 0.73, p <
0.05; analysis in Krashen, 1977). The data was collected from his spontaneous speech.
21 This is not the only interpretation of this result, as Earl Stevick has pointed out to me.
Something else may have caused Paz' superior second language acquisition, and the low
psychological distance score may be a result of this and not a cause.
22 Or the "remote cause". See discussion in Schumann (1978b), p. 48.
56

Chapter III
Providing Input for Acquisition
In this chapter, we take the difficult step from theory to practice. Before we do this, let me
remind the reader of the main point of Chapter I: I consider theory to be only one of several
possible determinants of method and materials. These implications need to be confirmed by
further research (even though several implications do have empirical confirmation) and by the
experiences of teachers and students. The "ideal" state is a relationship whereby theoretical
and applied researchers and practitioners learn (and acquire) from each other.
We will cover one aspect of application in this chapter: how we can encourage
subconscious acquisition. This is an important question, since the major implication of second
language acquisition theory is that acquisition is central. It therefore follows that our major
pedagogical efforts need to be devoted to encouraging language acquisition.
This portion begins with a brief discussion of some of the implications of the input
hypothesis with respect to the role and potential of the second language classroom, as well
as its limitations, as compared with the informal environment. Following this, we discuss the
contribution that actual output can make. As explained in Chapter II, it is hypothesized that we
acquire via input, what we read and hear, and not via output, actual talking and writing.
Output does have an indirect role to play in encouraging acquisition, however.
The major portion of this chapter is concerned with characterizing what "good input" is,
listing the features that input should have if it is to encourage acquisition. In subsequent
chapters, we will discuss how conscious language learning fits into the pedagogical schema,
and in the final chapter we will examine some common language teaching methods and some
aspects of the informal environment, to see to what extent they provide the input discussed in
this section and the type of learning discussed in Chapter IV.
57

The goal of this exercise is to provide a framework that helps us see what materials
and methods actually do for the second language student. This will hopefully help uncover
gaps and provide us with ways to supplement and improve existing materials and techniques.
A. The Potential of the Second Language Classroom
We often hear that you have to "live in the country" in order to achieve any real
proficiency in a second language, and that the informal real world environment is always
superior to the classroom, or formal environment. As we saw in Chapter II, there are several
studies that appear to support this assertion. Other studies, however, suggested that the
classroom does help after all. I attempted to resolve this apparent conflict by hypothesizing
that what was really at issue was comprehensible input. The classroom is of benefit when it is
the major source of comprehensible input. When acquirers have rich sources of input outside
the class, and when they are proficient enough to take advantage of it (i.e. understand at least
some of it), the classroom does not make an important contribution.
Thus, the real advantage of the informal environment is that it supplies comprehensible
input. If, however, we fill our second language classrooms with input that is optimal for
acquisition, it is quite possible that we can actually do better than the informal environment, at
least up to the intermediate level. As we mentioned in Chapter II, the informal environment is
not always willing to supply comprehensible input to the older second language student. As
Hatch and her colleagues have pointed out, input to the adult is more complicated
grammatically, contains a wider range of vocabulary, deals with more complex topics, and is
generally harder to understand. This is simply a reflection of the fact that the adult world is
more complex than the world of the child, and our expectations for adult comprehension are
much higher.
In the case of the adult beginner, the classroom can do much better than the informal
environment. In the second language classroom, we have the potential of supplying a full
40-50 minutes per day of comprehensible input, input that will encourage language
acquisition. The true beginner in the informal environment, especially if he or she is not
58

adept at skills of conversational management and negotiation of meaning (see discussion
later in this chapter; also Scarcella and Higa, forthcoming), may require days or even weeks
before he or she can "pick out" that much comprehensible input from the barrage of language
heard. The beginning student will simply not understand most of the language around him. It
will be noise, unusable for acquisition.
The value of second language classes, then, lies not only in the grammar instruction,
but in the simpler "teacher talk", the comprehensible input. It can be an efficient place to
achieve at least the intermediate levels rapidly, as long as the focus of the class is on
providing input for acquisition.
B. Limitations of the Classroom
Despite my enthusiasm for the second language classroom, there are several ways in
which the outside world clearly excels (or some "modification" of the outside world, a
fascinating alternative that we shall discuss later), especially for the intermediate level second
language student. First, it is very clear that the outside world can supply more input. Living in
the country where the language is spoken can result in an all-day second language lesson!
As we mentioned earlier, however, for the informal environment to be of any use, the input
language has to be comprehensible. The informal environment will therefore be of more and
more use as the acquirer progresses and can understand more and more.
Second, as many scholars have pointed out, the range of discourse that the student
can be exposed to in a second language classroom is quite limited, no matter how "natural"
we make it. There is simply no way the classroom can match the variety of the outside world,
although we can certainly expand beyond our current limitations.
The classroom will probably never be able to completely overcome its limitations, nor
does it have to. Its goal is not to substitute for the outside world, but to bring students to the
point where they can begin to use the outside world for further acquisition, to where they can
begin to understand the language used on the outside., it does this in two ways: by supplying
input so that students progress in language acquisition, so that they understand "real"
language to at least some
59

extent, and by making the student conversationally competent, that is, by giving the student
tools to manage conversations despite a less than perfect competence in the second
language. We return to both of these important points in the discussion that follows.
C. The Role of Output
A second point that needs to be dealt with before describing the characteristics of
optimal input for acquisition is the role of output, most commonly, the role of speech, in
language acquisition.1 *
The Input Hypothesis makes a claim that may seem quite remarkable to some people--
we acquire spoken fluency not by practicing talking but by understanding input, by listening
and reading. It is, in fact, theoretically possible to acquire language without ever talking. This
has been demonstrated for first language acquisition by Lenneberg (1962), who described the
case of a boy with congenital dysarthria, a disorder of the peripheral speech organs, who was
never able to speak. When Lenneberg tested the boy, he found that the child was able to
understand spoken English perfectly. In other words, he had acquired "competence" without
ever producing. The child was tested at age eight, and there is no way to tell directly whether
his lack of output had slowed down his language acquisition. It is quite possible that if he had
been able to speak, he would have acquired language somewhat faster, due to the indirect
contribution speaking can make to acquisition.
Output has a contribution to make to language acquisition, but it is not a direct one:
Simply, the more you talk, the more people will talk to you! Actual speaking on the part of the
language acquirer will thus affect the quantity of input people direct at you.
It will also affect the quality of the input directed at the acquirer Conversational partners
often try to help you understand by modifying their speech ("foreigner talk"). They judge how
much to modify by seeing whether you understand what is said, and also by listening to you
talk. A second language speaker who makes lots of mistakes, has a poor accent, and is
hesitant, will most likely receive, in general, more modified input than a speaker who appears
competent and fluent.
Engaging in conversation is probably much more effective than
60

"eavesdropping" for language acquisition. In conversation, the second language acquirer has
some degree of control of the topic, can signal to the partner that there is a comprehension
problem, etc. In other words, he can manage and regulate the input, and make it more
comprehensible. There is no such control in eavesdropping! But in order to participate in
conversation, there must be at least some talk, some output, from each partner. Hence, the
indirect contribution of speech.
1. "CONVERSATION" AND LANGUAGE ACQUISITION
Some scholars have suggested that "participation in conversation" is responsible for
language acquisition. In the light of the above discussion, we can see that this is true, in a
sense. "Conversation", however, is not in itself the causative variable in second language
acquisition. It is one way, and a very good way, to obtain input. It is theoretically quite
possible to acquire without participating in conversation, however.2
Figure 3.1 illustrates the indirect, but often considerable, contribution output can make
to language acquisition.
Fig. 3.1. How output contributes to language acquisition indirectly.
Comprehensible input is responsible for progress in language acquisition.
Output is possible as a result of acquired competence.
When performers speak, they encourage input (people speak to them). This is
conversation.
2. OUTPUT AND LEARNING
As suggested in Chapter II, output can play a fairly direct role in helping language
learning, although even here it is not necessary. Output aids learning because it provides a
domain for error correction. When a second language user speaks or writes, he or she may
make an error. When this error is corrected, this supposedly helps the learner change his or
her conscious mental representation of the rule or alter the environment of rule application.
(See discussion of Hypothesis (1), Chapter II.)
We may thus compare an "output approach" to the input approach
61

promoted here. Could we teach language primarily by encouraging production, with little or no
input, and correcting all errors? Such a technique, in addition to being maddening, relies
entirely on the students' ability to learn grammar.
This is not to say that error correction is totally useless and that learning is of no value.
Learning has a role to play, and error correction may be of use in certain situations. We will
return later to the question of "putting learning in its place".
By now the reader has seen enough promises of "more on this topic later", and it is
time to turn to the major portion of this chapter, a description of the characteristics of optimal
input for second language acquisition, where hopefully the promises this introduction has
made will be kept.
D. Characteristics of Optimal input for Acquisition
I will attempt in this section to present a set of requirements that should be met by any
activity or set of materials aimed at subconscious language acquisition. The (testable)
prediction that this set of characteristics makes is that an activity that fits the characteristics
fully will encourage acquisition at the fastest possible rate. An activity that fits none of them
could result in zero acquisition, or very little acquisition. (The latter, "very little", is more likely.
The "language acquisition device" may be so powerful, even in the adult, that some minimal
acquisition may occur as a result of any exposure to language.)
The characteristics described below are not "weighted". There is no attempt to claim
that one is more important than another, although such claims should possibly be made. I will
leave this to future refinements. Also, there is no attempt here to "support" these conclusions
by empirical evidence. They derive from second language acquisition theory, the hypotheses
presented in Chapter II. It is these hypotheses that are supported by empirical evidence. In
other words, we are looking here only at implications of theory. This does not mean that the
characteristics cannot be treated as predictions and further tested; indeed, they should be
confirmed by both applied linguistics research as well as teacher and student intuition, as I
discussed in Chapter 1.
We discuss each characteristic separately, showing what predictions
62

each characteristic makes with respect to different aspects of method, materials, and informal
input. Following these descriptions, I will attempt to point out some new possibilities, and
underscore the importance of some neglected traditional sources of input (Chapter V).
1. OPTIMAL INPUT IS COMPREHENSIBLE
This is clearly the most important input characteristic. It amounts to the claim that when
the acquirer does not understand the message, there will be no acquisition. In other words,
incomprehensible input, or "noise", will not help.
Positing comprehensibility as a fundamental and necessary (but not sufficient)
requirement makes several predictions that appear to be correct. It explains why it is
practically impossible for someone to acquire a second or foreign language merely by
listening to the radio, unless the acquirer speaks a very closely related language. A
monolingual English speaker, for example, hearing Polish on the radio, would acquire nothing
because the input would be only "noise".3
This requirement also explains the apparent failure of educational TV programs to
teach foreign languages. The input is simply not comprehensible. My own children watched
programs such as Ville Allegre faithfully for years, and acquired about as much as I did: They
could count from one to ten in Spanish and recognize a few words such as casa and mesa.
The comprehensibility requirement predicts that TV would, in general, be somewhat more
successful than radio as a language teacher, but that even TV would be inadequate in
beginning stages. Ervin-Tripp (1973) has noted that hearing children of deaf parents do not
acquire language from TV or radio, an observation consistent with the requirement.4
This characteristic also explains why children sometimes fail to pick up family
languages. My own case is, I think, quite typical. My parents spoke Yiddish around the house
for years, occasionally to each other (to tell secrets), and constantly to my grandparents.
Nevertheless, my sister and I failed to acquire Yiddish, with the exception of a few phrases
and routines. On the other hand, in many families children do grow up speaking the family
language as well as the language of the community. What appears to be crucial is whether
the family language
63

is directed at the child, in other words, whether an attempt is made to make the language
comprehensible. What we heard via eavesdropping was not comprehensible. It dealt with
topics that were not easily identified and that were also often beyond our range of experience.
Language directed at us in Yiddish would have been simplified, and more relevant to us, and
hence more comprehensible.
Another prediction that the comprehensibility requirement makes is that "just talking",
or "free conversation", is not language teaching. In other words, simply being a native
speaker of a language does not in of itself qualify one as a teacher of that language.
Conscious and extensive knowledge of grammar does not make one a language teacher
either. Rather, the defining characteristic of a good teacher is someone who can make input
comprehensible to a non-native speaker, regardless of his or her level of competence in the
target language. This leads naturally to another topic, how teachers make input
comprehensible.
(a) How to aid comprehension
If we are correct in positing comprehensibility as a crucial requirement for optimal input
for acquisition, the question of how to aid comprehension is a very central one for second
language pedagogy. Indeed, the comprehension requirement suggests that the main function
of the second language teacher is to help make input comprehensible, to do for the adult what
the "outside world" cannot or will not do.
There are basically two ways in which the teacher can aid comprehension, linguistic
and non-linguistic. Studies have shown that there are many things speakers do linguistically
to make their speech more comprehensible to less competent speakers. Hatch (1979) has
summarized the linguistic aspect of simplified input which appear to promote comprehension.
Among these characteristics are:
(1) slower rate and clearer articulation, which helps acquirers to identify
word boundaries more easily, and allows more processing time;
(2) more use of high frequency vocabulary, less slang, fewer idioms;
(3) syntactic simplification, shorter sentences.
64

Such characteristics and others appear to be more or less common to different types of
simple codes, such as caretaker speech, foreigner-talk, and teacher-talk (see also Krashen,
1980), and clearly help make input language more comprehensible. There is considerable
empirical evidence that these codes are significantly "simpler" than native speaker-native
speaker language, and, as mentioned in Chapter II, there is evidence of some correlation
between the linguistic level of the acquirer and the complexity of the input language: more
advanced acquirers tend to get more complex input.
Does this mean that teachers should consciously try to simplify their speech when they
talk to students? Should they think about slowing down, using more common vocabulary,
using shorter sentences, less complex syntax with less embedding, etc.? Consciously
referring to these "rules" might be helpful on occasion, but it appears to be the case that we
make these adjustments automatically when we focus on trying to make ourselves
understood. Roger Brown, commenting on studies of caretaker speech in first language
acquisition, comes to a similar conclusion. He gives the following advice to parents wanting to
know how to "teach" their children language in the least amount of time:
Believe that your child can understand more than he or she can say, and seek, above all, to
communicate.... There is no set of rules of how to talk to a child that can even approach what
you unconsciously know. If you concentrate on communicating, everything else will follow.
(Brown, 1977, p. 26.)
As I have argued in several places (Krashen, 1980, 1981), the same situation may hold for
the language teacher. If we focus on comprehension and communication, we will meet the
syntactic requirements for optimal input.
While we free teachers of the responsibility to consciously control the grammar of their
speech, other responsibilities become more important. One is to make sure that the input is
indeed comprehensible. I have nothing startling to add to the literature on comprehension
checking, other than to underscore and emphasize its importance. Comprehension checking
can range from simply asking "Do you understand?" occasionally, to monitoring
comprehension via students' verbal and non-verbal responses.
65

Another main task of the teacher is to provide non-linguistic means of encouraging
comprehension. In my view, providing extra-linguistic support in the form of realia and
pictures for beginning classes is not a frill, but a very important part of the tools the teacher
has to encourage language acquisition. The use of objects and pictures in early second
language instruction corresponds to the caretaker's use of the "here and now" in encouraging
first language acquisition, in that they all help the acquirer understand messages containing
structures that are "a little beyond" them.
Good teachers also take advantage of the student's knowledge of the world in helping
comprehension by discussing topics that are familiar to the student. Certainly, discussing or
reading about a topic that is totally unknown will make the message harder to understand.
There is a danger, however, in making the input too "familiar". If the message is completely
known, it will be of no interest, and the student will probably not attend. We want the student
to focus on the message, and there must be some message, something that the student
really wants to hear or read about. This requirement is perhaps the hardest one to meet, and
we shall have more to say about it below, in our discussion of characteristic II.5
As pointed out just a moment ago, comprehension is a necessary condition for
language acquisition, but it is not sufficient. It is quite possible to understand input language,
and yet not acquire. This can happen in several different ways: First, it is quite possible that
the input simply does not contain i + 1, that it does not include structures that are "a bit
beyond" the student. Second, in many cases we do not utilize syntax in understanding--we
can often get the message with a combination of vocabulary, or lexical information, plus extra-
linguistic information. Finally, the "affective filter" may be "up", which can result in the acquirer
understanding input, even input with i + 1, but not utilizing it for further acquisition.
2. OPTIMAL INPUT IS INTERESTING AND/OR RELEVANT
Optimal input focusses the acquirer on the message and not on form. To go a step
further, the best input is so interesting and relevant that the acquirer may even "forget" that
the message is encoded in a foreign language.
66

Creating materials and providing input that meet this characteristic may appear to be
an easy and obvious task, but my view is that, in reality, this requirement is not easy to meet,
nor has the profession considered it obvious. It is very difficult to present and discuss topics of
interest to a class of people whose goals, interests, and backgrounds differ from the teacher's
and from each other's. I also claim that relevance and interest have not been widely
perceived as requirements for input, since so many materials fail to meet this requirement.
It is fairly easy to think up examples of input that, while comprehensible, are universally
perceived to be uninteresting and irrelevant. Among the most obvious examples are pattern
drill, and most dialogue type exercises. Experimental evidence suggests that students pay
little or no attention to meaning after the first few repetitions in pattern drill (Lee, McCune, and
Patton, 1970), and the same result is most likely true for dialogues that are memorized by
rote. Grammatical exercises also fail as input for acquisition on similar grounds. Granted, the
goals of these exercises are not "acquisition", and we will have occasion to examine whether
these input-types fill other needs in the second language program. Nevertheless, they fail this
requirement dismally.
Somewhat less obvious is the failure of "meaningful drill" to qualify as optimal input for
acquisition. "Meaningful drill" is distinguished from "mechanical drill", in that the former
requires that real meaning be involved (Paulston, 1972). Since meaningful drill is designed to
provide practice on particular grammatical structures, however, it is very difficult to also build
in the exchange of truly relevant or interesting information, as in:
What time does he get up in the morning?
What time do they get up in the morning?
At best, such information is of only mild interest to members of a language class. I believe
that it is an impossible task for teachers to embed truly interesting or relevant information into
the form of a meaningful drill on a daily basis.
Some other fairly widespread input types that fall short of the mark of true relevance
are the reading assignments that most foreign language students work through in introductory
courses. Generally, these selections bear very little resemblance to the kind of reading the
students would do in their first language on their own time.
67

Before the reader feels I am being overly critical and unfair, I must say that it seems to
me that the interest-relevance requirement is nearly impossible to satisfy in the standard
American foreign language course given in the high school or college, especially when such a
course is taken as a requirement. It is far easier to satisfy in ESL situations, where there is a
perceived need for the language. For example, in classes composed primarily of immigrants,
input will typically contain a great deal of information that is useful to the student for survival
"on the outside". University ESL courses for foreign students often include study skills,
English for academic purposes, introduction to university life, and even useful academic
skills.6 ESL teachers often serve officially or unofficially as friends and counselors, and
therefore provide a great deal of truly relevant input.7 8
3. OPIMAL INPUT IS NOT GRAMMATICALLY SEQUENCED
In acquisition-oriented materials, we should not be consciously concerned about
including i + 1 in the input. Part (3) of the Input Hypothesis claims that when input is
comprehensible, when meaning is successfully negotiated, i + 1 will be present automatically,
in most cases.9
This requirement could be stated in a weaker form. (3) could be rephrased as follows:
there is no need to deliberately include i + 1, since it will occur naturally. The strong form may
be called for instead: it may be better not to even attempt to include i + 1 The arguments
against a deliberate attempt to grammatically sequence were given briefly in Chapter II, and
will be expanded on here.
1. If we sequence, and each lesson, or group of lessons, focuses on one structure, this
assumes that everyone in the class has the same i + 1, that everyone is at the same
developmental stage in the second language. Because there are individual differences in the
rate of acquisition (due to the strength of the affective filter and the amount of comprehensible
input obtained), it is extremely unlikely that all the students in any class are at the same
stage. Unsequenced but natural input, it is hypothesized, will contain a rich variety of
structure--if it is comprehensible, there will be i + 1 for everyone as
68

long as there is enough input (we return to the quantity question below).
2. When we attempt to present a "finely-tuned" sequence, we generally present each
structure or rule once. (There is the "review" lesson and there are attempts at recycling, but
review does not usually work through the entire sequence of activities--its goal is generally to
"remind" and provide some additional practice for a rule that is supposedly already
"internalized".10) What happens to the student who misses the rule the first time around?
Traditional review, meant as a reminder, will often not help. In traditional foreign language
learning, as done in the United States, the student may even have to wait until next year,
when the rule is presented again. Unsequenced communicative input contains built-in review.
We don't have to worry if we miss the progressive tense today, it will be part of the input
again... and again. Comprehensible input thus guarantees us natural review and recycling,
assuming, as mentioned above, that there is enough of it.
Some readers may feel that I am setting up and attacking a straw man. It can be
argued that some grammatically-based courses, despite a lockstep structural orientation, do
provide input at i + 1 as well. While there may be a "structure of the day", not every utterance
contains the target structure. For example, if the lesson's focus is the progressive tense
marker, other tenses will be used as well in both classroom input and in the readings.
This may appear to be the case, but there is, nevertheless, a real problem with this
approach. With a grammatical focus, communication will always suffer, there will always be
less genuinely interesting input. The teacher's mind, and the materials writer's mind, is
focused on "contextualizing" a particular structure, and not on communicating ideas.
As my colleague Steven Sternfeld has pointed out to me, what is proposed here is
fundamentally different from "contextualization". Contextualization involves inventing a
realistic context for the presentation of a grammatical rule or vocabulary item. The goal in the
mind of the teacher is the learning or acquisition of the rule or word. What is proposed here is
that the goal, in the mind of both the teacher and the student, is the idea, the message.
69

This objection can be summarized as follows:
3. The very orientation of the grammatically-based syllabus reduces the quality of
comprehensible input and distorts the communicative focus. Teachers will be concerned with
how they are speaking, reading selections will be aimed at including x number of examples of
structure y along with a certain vocabulary sample, a sure guarantee of boring and wooden
language.
4. Still another problem is that the grammatical sequence attempts to guess the order
of acquisition. Several years ago, I suggested (Krashen et al., 1975) that an application of the
Natural Order Hypothesis was the construction of "natural syllabi" following the natural order.
My position has changed. As Fathman (1979) has pointed out, the practical implication of the
Natural Order Hypothesis may lie in what it has taught us about the underlying process of
language acquisition. It seems to me now that we should not attempt to teach according to an
order similar to that given in Table 2, Chapter II (or according to any other grammatical
sequence).
Comprehensible input, it is claimed, will automatically follow a natural order insofar as i
+ 1 will be provided (along with many other structures).
We now summarize the advantages of natural input (the well-balanced diet of
wholesome food) over the lockstep grammatical syllabus (single or even multiple vitamin
therapy).11
(a) The case against the grammatical syllabus
__________________________________________________________________
Grammatical syllabus (deliberate Communicative input ( i + 1 included
attempt to supply i + 1) naturally, given enough input)
_________________________________________________________________________
1. All students may not be at the 1. i + 1 will be provided for all
same stage. The structure of the students eventually
day may not be the i + 1 for many
of the students.
2. Each structure presented only 2. Natural and extensive review.
once. (See text for discussion of
"review".)
3. Grammatical focus may prevent 3. Conscious focus of both student
real and natural communication. and teacher is communication of ideas.
4. Assumes we know order of 4. Does not assume we know order of
acquisition. acquisition.
_________________________________________________________________________
70

4. OPTIMAL INPUT MUST BE IN SUFFICIENT QUANTITY
It is difficult to say just how much comprehensible/low filter input is necessary to
achieve a given level of proficiency in second language acquisition, due to a lack of data. We
know enough now, however, to be able to state with some confidence that the profession has
seriously underestimated the amount of comprehensible input necessary to achieve even
moderate, or "intermediate" levels of proficiency in second language acquisition.
Theoretical arguments for quantity derive from the immediately preceding discussion. I
hypothesized that natural communicative input could supply i + 1 for all students if two
conditions were met;
(1) The input was not artificially constrained (limited range of discourse
types)
(2) It was supplied in sufficient quantity.
Clearly, five minutes of talk, or a single paragraph of reading, has little chance of including a
given student's i + 1. Rather than take a more careful aim at that student's needs, rather than
"overindividualizing" instruction, it is far easier, I am suggesting, to increase the amount of
comprehensible input. Again, if there is enough, i + 1 will be provided, and will be provided
over and over.
As mentioned above, we do not have enough data to state, with confidence, how much
input is necessary to reach a given stage. The literature does provide us with enough to state
some initial hypothesis, however. Below, we briefly examine what the literature implies about
reaching the initial "readiness to speak" stage, and more advanced levels.
(a) Quantity requirements for initial readiness to speak
How much input is needed to end the "silent period"? How much input is necessary so
that second language acquirers can produce utterances using acquired competence?
Asher's work on Total Physical Response teaching, a method that requires students to
obey commands given in the second language, often with a "total physical response" (e.g.
standing up), gives us some idea as to how much input is necessary for initial speaking
readiness.
71

As we will see in Chapter V, the chief virtue of Total Physical Response may be its ability to
supply concentrated comprehensible input. Asher has noted in several papers (reviewed in
Chapter V) that TPR students are generally ready to start production in the target language
after about ten hours of Total Physical Response input.12
Informal language acquisition research presents what at first may seem to be a
different picture. The "silent period" seen in informal child second language acquisition may
last as long as six months! During this time, the child may produce very little in the second
language, other than routines and a few patterns. The greater length of the "natural" silent
period, as compared to Asher's observation that ten hours may suffice may be due to the fact
that a great deal of the input that the child in the natural environment receives may be
incomprehensible. As stated earlier in this chapter, the main advantage of "formal instruction"
may be its potential for providing comprehensible input in early stages, bringing the acquirer
to the point where he or she can begin to take advantage of the natural environment. The
long silent period in informal child second language acquisition may be further evidence that
the informal environment is inefficient in early stages.13
(b) Quantity requirements for higher levels of proficiency
We know even less about the amount of low filter/comprehensible input necessary for
progress to higher levels of competence. We can get some idea from the United States
Foreign Service Institute chart, an estimate of the amount of class time necessary to achieve
a FSI 2+ rating in different foreign languages (2+ is defined as "halfway between minimal
professional proficiency and working professional proficiency", Diller, 1978, p. 100) for adult
English speakers. According to the Foreign Service Institute estimates (reproduced in Diller,
1978), European languages such as German, French, and Italian require approximately 720
hours of classtime for the "average" student to attain the 2+ level, while more "exotic"
languages (such as Arabic, Korean, and Chinese) require 1950 hours of classtime.14
These figures may, however, represent an upper bound. They are based on
"classroom hours", which, if traditional methods are employed, may not entail optimal input. In
other words, we can do better.
72

"How much input?" remains an empirical question, one that can probably be
adequately answered by research. To be more precise, we would like to know: "How much
low filter/comprehensible input is necessary for students to acquire enough competence in the
second language, so that they can use the informal environment to continue improving?"
Despite our current paucity of data, what seems clear to me now is that we are not using
enough of the available instruction time for supplying comprehensible input, and that we will
be able to stimulate more rapid (and more comfortable) second language acquisition if we put
greater focus on input.
Before concluding this section, I should point out that what I am suggesting is not at all
new: along with Newmark (1971), I am suggesting that the "extensive" side of the extensive-
intensive reading debate is correct, that students profit more from reading for meaning, and
reading great quantities of material, than from what Newmark calls "cryptoanalytic decoding"
of difficult paragraphs, and that students gain more from participating in conversations, many
conversations, than from focused listening comprehension exercises.
We turn now to two other features programs should contain if they are to encourage
language acquisition.
E. Other Features that Encourage Acquisition
1. THE STUDENT SHOULD NOT BE PUT ON THE DEFENSIVE
The phrase "on the defensive" comes from Stevick's well known book, Memory,
Meaning, and Method. What it means to me is that methods and materials should not be a
test of the student's abilities or prior experiences, should not merely reveal weaknesses, but
should help the student acquire more.
More generally, we are talking about keeping the affective filter "low", making sure the
student is open to the input. It may be the case that if we use procedures that are "true" to the
input hypothesis, and that satisfy all the other characteristics of optimal input, the kind of input
that results, and the classroom procedures that evolve, will satisfy this requirement as well
and help keep the filter low. I will attempt, in this section, to outline a few general procedures
and practices that do this.
73

First, and I apologize for harping on this issue so much, if we concentrate on supplying
comprehensible input where the focus is on the message and not on the form, this will in of
itself contribute to a low filter. If the topic being discussed is at all interesting, and if it is
comprehensible, much of the "pressure" normally associated with a language class will be
"off", anxiety will be lowered, and acquisition will result. As mentioned earlier, I think a
desirable goal is that the student "forget", in a sense, that the message is actually encoded in
another language.
Second, we will be able to keep the filter low by not insisting on too-early production,
before the student is "ready". Language teachers (and students) associate progress in
second language acquisition with speaking fluency ("Do you speak French?"), and the logical
consequence of this is that we want our students to talk from the beginning. My personal view
is that forcing early production, before the student has built up enough competence through
comprehensible input, is perhaps the single most anxiety-provoking thing about language
classes! While some students may want to talk as soon as possible, others may feel less
secure until they have built up more competence. In other words, the length of the silent
period is variable (see Note 12); Asher's ten-hour estimate may be "average", but it is not
carved in stone. A safe procedure is simply not to force production and let the student decide
when to start talking.
Closely related to speaking readiness for production is the question of error and error
correction. Second language acquisition research tells us clearly that errors are inevitable,
and that they will be plentiful in early stages. To give the reader an estimate, in an experiment
we conducted at Queens College, we found approximately one error for every five words in
compositions written by ESL students in a placement examination for our extension course
(Krashen et al., 1978). The better students averaged about one error for every ten words, and
the least proficient about one error for every two words! A sure method of raising the filter is
attempting to correct errors, especially in beginning stages and especially in spoken
language! Error correction is, unfortunately, the profession's typical reaction to error, and in
my view it has been a serious mistake. There are several reasons why it is a mistake. We
focus here on what is probably the most serious flaw in error correction, its effect of the
affective filter.
74

Error correction has the immediate effect of putting the student on the defensive. It
encourages a strategy in which the student will try to avoid mistakes, avoid difficult
constructions, focus less on meaning and more on form. It may disrupt the entire
communicative focus on an exchange. This was brought home to me in a demonstration I
often employ to illustrate how the Input Hypothesis applies to classroom teaching. In the
demonstration, which I have borrowed from Steven Sternfeld, I tell the audience that I am
going to give them two lessons in a foreign language (I usually use German). For the first
lesson, I simply start talking, saying things like "I am now going to give you a German lesson,
but first of all let me tell you something about the German language, etc. etc." This is done
entirely in German, and is nearly completely incomprehensible to those in the audience who
have never been exposed to German. The second lesson is something like this:
This is my shoe. (Point to shoe)
This is my hand. (Point to hand)
This is my head. (Point to head)
This is a head. (Draw picture on board)
Here are two eyes. (Draw eyes, hold up two fingers)
Here is a mouth. (Draw in a mouth)
Here is a cigarette. (Draw in a cigarette)
Do you have a cigarette for me? (Walk up to class member,
make cigarette smoking motion, point to self.)
The point of lesson number two is that while it may not be very interesting, it is quite
comprehensible, thanks to the simple language, the extra-linguistic support, etc. There is also
an attempt to bring down the filter by drawing a funny head and asking for a cigarette. In the
discussion following this brief lesson, I explain these things and make the claim that if such
input is provide over a period of time, speech will emerge on its own. What is of interest to us
here is the reaction of the audience: it is one of relief. Several people have come up to me
after the lecture, and said something like: "When you said you were going to give us a
language lesson, I got very nervous. I was afraid you would call on me and I would have to
say something, and I would make a mistake." What this tells me is that language lessons
inspire fear even among professional language teachers, and one of the reasons for this
75

is our insistence on early speaking and our attitudes towards errors. Why make students
suffer from procedures that are unpleasant even to us?
There is more to say on the topic of error correction; it has some advantages, and
other disadvantages, and we will look at these later on when we discuss conscious learning in
the classroom What needs to be said here is only that error correction is not the basic
mechanism for improving second language performance; rather, we acquire via
comprehensible input, according to the theory. Since overuse of correction has such negative
effects for acquisition, and since error correction is not of direct benefit to language
acquisition (see Chapter II, discussion of hypothesis one), a safe procedure is simply to
eliminate error correction entirely in communicative-type activities, a procedure used with
great success in Terrell's Natural Approach. Improvement will come without error correction,
and may even come more rapidly, since the input will "get in", the filter will be lower, and
students will be off the defensive.
2. PROVIDE TOOLS TO HELP STUDENTS OBTAIN MORE INPUT
Our responsibility goes beyond the language classroom.15 Indeed, as I have stated
earlier, our task is to provide the students with the tools they need to continue improving
without us. We need to provide enough input so that they can gain the linguistic competence
necessary to begin to take advantage of the informal environment, the outside world. In other
words, they need to know enough of the second language so they can understand significant
portions of non-classroom language. Building their linguistic competence to this point,
however, is not enough.
Even if we do succeed in bringing our students to this stage, they will have problems in
using the language on the outside. They will still not understand a great deal of the input they
hear, even if it is modified. They will find themselves at a loss for words, and will make
mistakes at all levels. If we focus only on providing the input for purely "linguistic"
competence, we will have students who avoid contact with native speakers for fear they will
not understand much of what is said to them, and who will have real problems when they are
engaged in conversation, including painful silences while they search for words, confusion
and embarrassment due to misunderstanding, etc.
76

This is, I think, the typical situation in the foreign language teaching scene in the United
States. After two years of instruction, the student who is even willing to participate in a
conversation with a speaker of the language he or she has studied is rare! The solution to this
problem is to give our students the tools they need to overcome these difficulties, to make
them conversationally competent. By giving them the means of managing conversations, we
can help them to continue improving by allowing them to participate in conversation despite
their inadequacies. We can prepare them for the certainty that they will not be able to find the
right word, that they will not understand everything, and we can help insure that they will
continue to obtain comprehensible input.
What are the tools students need to manage conversation and thus continue to gain
input outside the classroom? In other word, how can we help our students to converse
despite less than perfect competence?
Scarcella (forthcoming) has stated that there are at least two ways conversational
competence can help the acquirer gain more comprehensible input: devices that help control
the quantity of input, and devices that help control the quality. The former will help the
acquirer get more input, the latter will help to make the input comprehensible
Components of conversational competence included under the quantity category
include ways of starting conversations (greetings) and ways of keeping conversations going
(e.g. politeness formulae). Scarcella's subject Miguel, a 21 year old speaker of English as a
second language, despite only modest "linguistic" competence, was quite adept at these tools
of conversational competence, as the following brief excerpt shows:
Miguel: Hi! How are ya?
NS: Okay.
Miguel: What's new?
NS: Not much. Had a test today.
Miguel: Oh that's too bad. What test?
Miguel, by using a few well-chosen routines, is able to initiate and maintain
conversations. Second language performers such as Miguel are not the rule, however, as
research has shown that second language acquirers often have surprising and serious gaps
when it comes to conversational competence (see over).
77

There are various techniques that are used to make input more comprehensible, to control
the quality of the input. Perhaps the most obvious is simply asking the native speaker for help,
"getting the native speaker to explain parts of the conversation... by using discourse devices"
(Scarcella, p. 5). These devices range from focussing on a single problem word by repeating
it, as in
NS: Salvador Dali also put out a cookbook because he is a
great expert on cuisine.
Miguel: (looking confused): Cookbook?
NS: (picking up a cookbook): Recipes from Maxime's, places
like that.
(Scarcella, p. 5)
to utterances such as "What?", or "I don't understand."
Scarcella also notes that the quality of input can be improved by the use of "back channel
cues", cues that provide the native speaker with evidence that the conversational partner is
indeed following the conversation. These include verbal cues such as "Uhuh", "Yeah", and
non-verbal cues such as head nodding at appropriate time and eye gaze behavior.
Finally, there are conversational strategies that avoid incomprehensible input, including
ways of changing the subject to something easier to understand or more familiar to the
acquirer. Scarcella's subject Miguel is quite good at this, as the following demonstrates:
NS: ... I like classical music too--Beethoven, Schubert--you
know that kinda stuff.
Miguel: You play the piano?
Joe: Yeah.
Miguel: Me too.
F. "Teaching" Conversational Competence
Knowledge of the components of conversational competence is one thing. Developing
conversational competence in students is another. The question that needs to be asked here
is whether conversational competence is learned or acquired.
There are good arguments, I think, against the hypothesis that all of conversational
competence is learnable (see also discussion in Scarcella,
78

forthcoming). First, it is simply too complex. As Scarcella points out:
"Most discourse rules and strategies are very complex, characterized by vocabulary,
pronunciation, and prosodic features, features of non-verbal communication, and, perhaps to a
lesser degree, syntactic features. Moreover, all of these features may vary according to the social
context. For instance, some greetings are appropriate in some situations, but not in others. They
are sometimes shouted, and sometimes spoken quite stiffly. In any given situation, an
appropriate greeting depends on a variety of factors. These include: the person being greeted,
the time of day, the location and the interaction, other people present, and the sort of interaction
which is expected (pleasant, scornful, etc.)" (p. 10).
Second, even if the student manages to learn some rules of conversational competence, they
will not always be available when they are needed: in Monitor-free situations.
Most likely, the non-universal aspects of conversational competence have to be
acquired. An initial hypothesis is that they are acquired the same way grammar is, via
comprehensible input, and that the requirements presented in this chapter need to be
satisfied for the acquisition of conversational competence as well, a very difficult task given
the time and discourse constraints of the classroom.
It is possible, however, that a small sub-set of conversational management tools can
be directly taught, either as rules or as memorized routines, as long as they are easy to learn
(see section on learning, to follow). These include routines for starting a conversation, some
pause filters, and expressions that ask for help (Scarcella, p. 11). Also, a host of in-class and
out-of-class activities have been introduced in recent years to encourage conversational
competence.
My main point in this section is that conversational competence gives students the
tools they need to manage conversation, and is thus an essential part of instruction, since it
helps to insure that language acquisition will take place outside of class, and after the
instructional program ends. Our responsibility does not end with the completion of the
semester: indeed, in my view, the purpose of language instruction is to provide students with
what they need so that they can progress without us.
79

Notes
1 As detailed in Chapter II, speech production can come from any of three different
sources. First, we can use our acquired competence as illustrated in the Monitor model for
production in Chapter II. According to the input hypothesis, this sort of production takes some
time to develop. Another way is via memorized patterns and routines (see Krashen and
Scarcella, 1978). A third way is by extensive use of first language structures, as explained n
Chapter II. The latter two methods of speech production are ways of "performing without
competence" (borrowing R. Clark's terminology). A second language performer can "learn to
speak" very quickly using these methods, and they are explicitly encouraged by some
techniques. They are severely limited modes, however. (See discussion in Chapter II, Krashen
and Scarcella, 1978, and Krashen 1981.)
2 This raises the interesting question of whether participation in conversation is even
practically necessary for truly successful second language acquisition. It probably is. In addition
to being an effective means of obtaining comprehensible input, conversation offers some other
real advantages that will become clearer as we proceed in this chapter. Scarcella (forthcoming)
points out that there are many aspects of "communicative competence" that are probably not
acquirable by observation and input alone (see discussion later in this chapter). Also, Scarcella
points out that real conversation entails "a high degree of personal involvement", what Stevick
(1976) terms "depth" and a lowered affective filter.
3 In a review of the science fiction literature, Hatch (1976) points out several examples in
which authors assume that it is possible to acquire human language by listening to radio
broadcasts. Even these authors seem to understand, however, that acquiring language by
listening to incomprehensible input is an ability possessed only by certain aliens with different,
and apparently superior "language acquisition devices".
4 There are anecdotal cases of people who have picked up second languages via
television. Larsen-Freeman (1979), for example, cited a case of a German speaker who
acquired Dutch via TV. This is not at all strange, as much input in Dutch would be
comprehensible to a speaker of such a closely related language. Note that I am not claiming
that it is impossible to acquire language from TV. I am only saying that comprehensible input is
necessary for acquisition and that television provides little comprehensible input for a beginner.
Intermediate level students may profit quite a bit from television and even radio.
5 Another way teachers help students understand messages containing structures that
are "beyond" them is by emphasizing vocabulary. Both Evelyn Hatch and I have stated the
argument for increased vocabulary work in recent years (Hatch, 1978a; Krashen, 1981), and
our argumentation is, I think, similar. While knowledge of vocabulary may not be sufficient for
understanding all messages, there is little doubt that an increased vocabulary helps the
acquirer understand more of what is heard or read (see e.g. Ulijn and Kempen, 1976; Macha,
1979, on the role of vocabulary in reading comprehension). Thus, more vocabulary should
mean more comprehension of input, and more acquisition of grammar. This "new view" is quite
different from earlier positions. Language teachers had been told to restrict introduction of new
vocabulary in order to focus on syntax. Now we are saying that vocabulary learning will actually
contribute to the acquisition of syntax.
The practical implications of this position are not clear to me, however. Should we
teach vocabulary in isolation in an effort to boost the amount of input that is comprehensible?
Unfortunately, there is little research that speaks directly to the question of how
80

vocabulary is best acquired, and, most important, retained. There is some agreement among
teachers that vocabulary should be taught in context, rather than by rote memorization of list
(see Celce-Murcia and Rosenzweig, 1979, for several techniques), but it may even be the case
that vocabulary should not be directly taught at all! It may be the case that if we supply enough
comprehensible input, vocabulary acquisition will in fact take care of itself.
Let me restate this suggestion in the form of an informal experiment: Given ten minutes
of study time (waiting for a bus, etc.), which activity would be more useful for the language
acquirer interested in long-term retention of vocabulary?
(1) Rote learning of a list, using flash cards or some equivalent technique.
(2) Reviewing a story that has "new words" carefully included (Contextualization).
(3) Reading for pleasure, trying only to understand the message and looking up
new words only when they seem to be essential to the meaning or when the acquirer
is curious as to their meaning.
Method (3) relies on comprehensible input to supply new vocabulary in enough frequency,
and to help the acquirer determine the meaning. In method (3) there is no conscious focus on
vocabulary, only on meaning. The prediction (hope?) is that really important words will reoccur
naturally and their meanings will be made increasingly obvious by the context. It does not exclude
the possibility that the acquirer may be helped by occasional glances at the dictionary or occasional
definitions by a teacher.
6 The American Language Institute at USC, for example, offers a course in typing along with
its offerings in English as a Second Language for foreign students.
7 There may be further opportunities for providing optimal input for second language
acquirers at the university level, which we will discuss in Chapter V.
8 For some Monitor users and linguists, explicit grammatical information is, oddly enough,
interesting and relevant, since such acquirers believe it will help their performance. In this case, the
medium is the message. If a course on the structure of the target language is taught in the target
language, and if the students are "analytic" types, the course will be a success. (See comments in
Krashen, 1980, and in Chapter V.)
9 There are exceptions, examples of comprehensible input in which i + 1 may not be present.
These include situations in which the discourse is limited, and in many instrumental uses of
language in which familiarity with a few routines and patterns may suffice for successful
communication (e.g. dealing with gas station attendants, clerks, etc.).
10 "Internalization", in my interpretation, seems to mean the acquisition of a rule that was first
learned, where learning is assumed to have caused the subsequent acquisition. According to the
theory of second language acquisition presented in Chapter II, this does not occur. I have discussed
this in several technical papers (Krashen, 1977) and will review this point in a later section.
11 Another analogy that comes to mind is "shotgun" versus single bullet. The former has a
better chance of hitting the target.
12 Varvel (1979) describes a silent period in formal instruction (Silent Way methodology) that
lasted considerably longer, indicating that there may be a fair amount of individual variation in the
duration of the silent period for adults in language classes:
"There was a woman from Taiwan who after several weeks was still conspicuously
silent in class. She never talked, and when called upon would only answer in a
whisper, saying only what was required. It was clear, however, that she was one of
81

the most attentive students in the class, had a clear understanding of what was
being done, and seemingly enjoyed the class. She also had a positive attitude
towards what and how she was learning. At no time was she coerced into
active participation.
"Then one day in the ninth week of school she sat in the front row and actively
participated throughout the whole hour. From that point on, she continued to
participate actively in a more limited way and at times helped others and was
helped by others..." (p. 491)
While there may have been other reasons for this student's silence, this example
suggests that the silent period should be respected, and that some students develop speaking
readiness later than others.
13 Given the same amount of comprehensible input, the child's silent period in second
language acquisition may turn out to be longer than the average adult silent period for other
reasons. What I am suggesting here is that the silent period in child second language
acquisition would not be as long if more of the input the child hears is comprehensible.
14 Note that if we assume that an acquirer in the natural environment receives about two
hours per day of comprehensible input, 720 hours translates into about one year "abroad". This
assumes that classtime = comprehensible input, which may not be true with the traditional
methods the FSI chart is based on. It is, however, in accord with the informally accepted idea
that a year abroad will result in a fair degree of fluency in the case of European languages.
15 The material contained in this section is simply my summary of what I have learned
from discussions with Steven Sternfeld, Robin Scarcella, and Batyia Elbaum. I thank them not
only for the information and intellectual stimulation, but also for their patience.
82

Chapter IV
The Role of Grammar, or Putting Grammar in its
Place
As should be apparent by now, the position taken in this book is that second language
teaching should focus on encouraging acquisition, on providing input that stimulates the
subconscious language acquisition potential all normal human beings have. This does not
mean to say, however, that there is no room at all for conscious learning. Conscious learning
does have a role, but it is no longer the lead actor in the play. The purpose of this section is to
discuss what that role is, how we can put conscious learning, or "grammar" in its proper place
in the second language program.
A. Learning Does Not Become Acquisition
Chapter II attempted to make clear what learning does and what it does not do in the
theoretical model of second language performance. According to the Monitor model for
performance, conscious learning acts as an editor, as a Monitor, "correcting" the errors, or
rather what the performer perceives to be errors, in the output of the acquired system. This
can happen before the sentence is spoken or written, or after. Conscious knowledge of rules
is therefore not responsible for our fluency, it does not initiate utterances.
A very important point that also needs to be stated is that leaning does not "turn into"
acquisition. The idea that we first learn a new rule, and eventually, through practice, acquire
it, is widespread and may seems to some people to be intuitively obvious. This model of the
acquisition process was first presented to me when I was a student of TESL, and seemed to
be very sensible at the time. It was, I thought, exactly the way I learned languages myself. I
accepted as penetrating insight Carroll's characterization of how language learning proceeds
83

from the point of view of the then new "cognitive-code" school of thought:
"Once the student has a proper degree of cognitive control over the structure of a language,
facility will develop automatically with the use of the language in meaningful situations" (Carroll,
1966, p. 102).
As mentioned in Note 10 of the previous section, this process of converting learned rules into
acquired rules was called "internalization".
Despite our feelings that internalization does occur, the theory predicts that it does not,
except in a trivial way. Language acquisition, according to the theory presented in Chapter II,
happens in one way, when the acquirer understands input containing a structure that the
acquirer is "due" to acquire, a structure at his or her "i + 1".
There is no necessity for previous conscious knowledge of a rule. (The trivial sense in
which a conscious rule might "help" language acquisition is if the performer used a rule as a
Monitor, and consistently applied it to his own output. Since we understand our own output,
part of that performer's comprehensible input would include utterances with that structure.
When the day came when that performer was "ready" to acquire this already learned rule, his
own performance of it would qualify as comprehensible input at "i + 1". In other words, self-
stimulation!)
In addition to the fact that the theory does not directly predict that learning needs to
precede acquisition, there are very good reasons for maintaining this position that emerge
from observing second language performers.
First, we often see acquisition in cases where learning never occurred. There are many
performers who can use complex structures in a second language who do not know the rule
consciously and never did. There have been several case histories in the second language
acquisition literature that illustrate this phenomenon, one which I think is quite common.
Evelyn Hatch's students, Cindy Stafford and Ginger Covitt, interviewed one such
second language performer, "V", an ESL student at UCLA, who exhibited considerable
competence in English, but who admitted that he had conscious control of very few, if any,
rules. The
84

following exchanges come from an interview with "V", which takes place while one of the
authors is reviewing his composition errors (from Stafford and Covitt, 1978; also quoted in
Krashen, 1978):
Interviewer: (When you write a composition)... do you think of grammar rules?
Do you think "Should I have used the present tense here or would the present
continuous be better..."
V: "I don't refer to the books and all that, you know. I just refer it to this, uh, my
judgment and... sensing if I'm writing it right or wrong. Because I really don't
know... what where exactly how... the grammatical rules work out.
Later in the interview, one investigator asks:
Interviewer: Do you think grammar rules are useful?
V: Useful? Yeah. When you want to write they are very very useful.
Interviewer: But you don't use them when you write.
V: Yeah, I know. I don't use them... I don't know how to use them.
Another good example of an "under-user" of the conscious grammar is Hung, studied
by Cohen and Robbins (1976), who stated:
"I never taught any grammar. I guess I just never learned the rules that well. I know that every
time I speak it's pretty correct, so I never think about grammars. I just write down whatever I
feel like it. Everytime I write something I just stop thinking. I don't know which (rule) to apply" (p.
59).
Not only is what Hung says revealing, but so is how he says it. There are, for sure,
errors in this passage, but there is also control of fairly complex syntax and a real ability for
self-expression. (Not all under-users succeed, of course; see, for example, Schumann's
description of Alberto in Schumann (1978a).) If conscious rules have to come first, how can
we explain cases such as V, Hung, and others? (For other case histories, see Krashen, 1978;
Stafford and Covitt, 1978; Kounin and Krashen 1978.) Unless all cases such as these can be
shown to be instances of the use of the first language or routines and patterns the existence
of such cases show that previous conscious learning is not necessary for language
acquisition.
85

Second, we also see learning that never seems to become acquisition. Many fine ESL
performers, while they have acquired a great deal of English, also know many conscious
rules. They nevertheless make what they consider to be "careless" errors on rules that are
linguistically quite straightforward. This occurs when the performer has learned a rule, but has
not acquired it. This happens typically with late-acquired items, such as the third person
singular ending on regular verbs in English ("He goes to work every day."). What is
particularly interesting is that these performers may have known the rule and have practiced it
for many years. Even after thousands of correct repetitions, and with a thorough
understanding of the rule, such performers still make "careless" mistakes on certain items.
What has prevented learning from "becoming" acquisition in these cases is the fact that the
learned rule is still beyond the acquirer's i + 1.
A case history that illustrates this situation very well is that of "P" (Krashen and Pon,
1975). P was an excellent Monitor user (an optimal user, as described in Chapter II), an adult
with a BA in Linguistics with honors, whose written English appeared nearly native-like. In
casual conversation, however, P made occasional "careless" errors on "easy" rules that she
had known consciously for twenty years. Thus, even well-learned, well-practiced rules may
not turn into acquisition.
An explanation of P's problem is that the items she missed in casual conversation were
those that are late-acquired, and her acquisition, while very advanced, had simple not gone
the final few steps in syntax and morphology. She had learned the rules well, however, and
was able to supply them under conditions where she could Monitor.
A third reason for doubting that acquisition requires previous learning is the fact that
even the best learners master only a small subset of the rules of a language. As discussed
earlier (Hypothesis 3, Chapter II), even professional linguists admit that their conscious
knowledge of even the best studied languages is imperfect, and discoveries of new rules are
reported with every issue of technical journals in linguistic theory. Linguists often succeed in
describing, after years of analysis, what many second language performers have already
acquired.
My explanation for these phenomena is that while learning may often precede
acquisition, it need not, and in fact may not even help directly. Rather, we acquire along a
fairly predictable natural order, and
86

this occurs when we receive comprehensible input. Occasionally, we learn certain rules
before we acquire them, and this gives us the illusion that the learning actually caused the
acquisition.
Professional language teachers, with their fascination for the structure of language,
and with the pleasure they derive from the mastery and use of conscious rules, are often not
even aware that acquisition without prior conscious learning is possible. This was my
unexamined assumption as well. The procedure described earlier seemed right and
reasonable to me at one time: language learning, in the general sense, occurred when one
first consciously grasped a rule, then practiced it again and again until it was "automatic".
(This is actually deductive learning; there is another possibility, namely, "inductive" learning;
see discussion below.) The great contribution of linguistics was to discover and describe
rules, which "applied linguists" could transmit to language teachers, who, in turn, could tell
students about them.
One experience that helped to change my thinking occurred when I was teaching
English as a second language to an "advanced" adult education class at Queens College. As
a member of a team, my responsibility was "structure". Since I was, at the time, the director of
the English Language Institute at Queens, I felt obliged to present an impressive series of
lessons that demonstrated my control of the subject. I therefore chose to concentrate on the
verb system, and presented a complete survey of all tenses.
The first lesson of the session was focussed on the present progressive tense. My
objective was to inform my students that the present progressive had three meanings: (1) a
current, on-going action that would soon be completed, (2), an action that began some time
ago in the past and may or may not be taking pace at the moment, and would end sometime
in the future, and (3) future tense. I illustrated this using the familiar time flow diagram
and by showing that sentences such as
87

John is playing the violin.
were three ways ambiguous:
(1) What is that noise from the other room? (John is playing the violin.)
(2) What's John doing this summer? (He is playing the violin for the local symphony.)
(3) What's John doing tomorrow? (He's playing the violin in the talent show.)
None of my advanced ESL students knew this rule consciously. In fact, very few
people do. I have presented this example several times at lectures to practicing ESL
teachers, and I often ask those who consciously "know" the rule that the progressive is three
ways ambiguous to raise their hands. Very few do, and those that do claim they know it have
usually just finished teaching it in class.
What was very interesting was that a significant number of students had a "Eureka"
experience. After I explained the rule, they would remark: "That's right... it is three ways
ambiguous... how about that!", or would make similar comments. My interpretation is that
these students had already subconsciously acquired the progressive tense and its three
meanings, and were confirming that their acquisition was correct. I had, in other words,
succeeded in providing learning where acquisition was already present.
I would like to point out several things about this phenomenon. First, my students had
apparently acquired the rule without having first learned it. (It could be argued that they knew
it once but had forgotten it, and that this temporary learning had been essential, or at least
useful, in acquiring the rule. This is possible, but unlikely, as all three functions are not usually
taught. Another unlikely possibility is transfer from the first language. Most of the first
languages of my students that semester did not have the progressive tense.) Second, those
who learned what they had already acquired thought they were gaining a great deal from the
class. This sort of knowledge is very satisfying to many people (including me). It is not,
however, language teaching, even though it is of some value. (We return to this topic, which I
refer to as "language appreciation", later in this chapter.)
Learning sometimes precedes acquisition in real time: A rule that is
88

eventually acquired may have been, at one time, learned only. As I have maintained
elsewhere (Krashen, 1977), this certainly does occur, but by no means establishes the
necessity of prior learning for acquisition. Just because event A preceded event B does not
demonstrate that A caused B. We see many cases of acquisition without learning, learning
(even very good learning that is well practiced) that does not become acquisition, and
acquired knowledge of rules preceding learning.
B. The Place of Grammar
"Grammar", a term I will use as a synonym for conscious learning, has two possible
roles in the second language teaching program. First, it can be used with some profit as a
Monitor. We will discuss this use in more detail in the section that follows. A second use for
grammar is as subject-matter, or for "language appreciation" (sometimes called "linguistics"),
and we will discuss this role later on. Neither role is essential, neither is the central part of the
pedagogical program, but both have their functions.
Several issues will be discussed in relation to teaching grammar for Monitor use: when
rules can be used, which rules should or can be learned, what the effects of Monitor use are,
and what we can expect in terms of Monitor efficiency.
1. GRAMMAR FOR MONITOR USE: WHEN THE MONITOR IS USED
As stated in Chapter II (Hypothesis 3), one of our goals in pedagogy is to encourage
optimal Monitor use. We would like our students to utilize conscious rules to raise their
grammatical accuracy when it does not interfere with communication. Stated differently, the
optimal Monitor user knows when to use conscious rules.
As mentioned earlier, one necessary condition for successful Monitor use is time. It
takes real processing time to remember and apply conscious rules. We should not expect
most students to successfully apply conscious rules to their output during oral conversation--
there is, obviously, little time. People who do attempt to think about and utilize conscious rules
during conversation run two risks. First, they tend to take too much time when it is their turn to
speak, and have a hesitant style that is often difficult to listen to. Other overusers of the
89

Monitor, in trying to avoid this, plan their next utterance while their conversational partner is
talking. Their output may be accurate, but they all too often do not pay enough attention to
what the other person is saying!
Some people are better than others at Monitor use, and may actually be able to
successfully use a fair number of conscious rules "on line". Most people run the risk of
seriously endangering the success of the conversation when they try to Monitor during casual
talking. (Success in Monitor use in free conversation also depends on other factors--one is
the difficulty or complexity of the rule, which we discuss below. A second is the topic: I find it
much easier to pay attention to the form of what I say in a second language when I am talking
about something I am very familiar with and have discussed before, e.g. second language
acquisition.)
The place for Monitor use is when the performer has time, as in writing and in prepared
speech. As stated earlier, simply giving performers time does not insure that they will use the
conscious Monitor; hence, condition 2 in Chapter II: The performer must be thinking about
correctness or focussed on form. When given time, and when focussed on form, some people
can use conscious grammar to great advantage. In the case of the second language
performer who has acquired nearly all of the grammar of the second language, but who still
has some gaps, the use of the conscious grammar can fill in many of the non-acquired items.
This can, in writing at least, occasionally result in native-like accuracy.
I have often referred to "P", discussed above, as a performer who was able to do this.
Despite her accent, and occasional morphological errors in free speech, P's writing (done in
class) was nearly flawless. I have known many professionals who also use conscious
grammar this way, colleagues in linguistics who speak with slight imperfections but whose
writing is nearly error-free. Some very interesting cases involve specialists in grammar, in
formal linguistics, scholars who certainly consciously know many of the rules they violate in
free conversation. Two cases I personally know have, in fact, published papers on the theory
of grammar that rely heavily on English, testifying to their deep and thorough grasp of English
syntax. Yet, in unmonitored free speech, third person singulars drop off, the possessive
marker is occasionally
90

missing, etc. Both scholars publish all of their current work in English and do not consult
anyone to review their papers for errors, nor is this necessary.
My own experience may be helpful to readers. I am, at the time of this writing, an
"intermediate" level speaker of French as a second language. (This means, according to my
definition, that I can converse comfortably with a monolingual speaker of French as long as
(s)he makes some compensation. I cannot eavesdrop very well and have some trouble with
radio and films. Also, my output is fairly fluent, but not error-free.) Many people at this level,
including myself, make errors on rules that are easy to describe, but that are apparently fairly
late-acquired. One rule like this I have noted is the simple contraction rule:
de + le = du.
I, and my classmates in intermediate conversational French at USC, occasionally miss this
one in free conversation. On the occasions when I write French, however, I get it right every
time. (My accuracy or difficulty order changes when I use my conscious knowledge of French
grammar. Correctly applying the de + le = du rule raises this item from a low position in the
difficulty order to one near the top. This is exactly what I attempted to say in Chapter I,
Hypothesis 3, in discussing distortions of the natural order in Monitored conditions. I differ
from the average subject in that I do not require a discrete-point grammar test to focus me on
form. Most readers of this book are probably like this as well.)
This kind of behavior is natural and normal. What is tragic, in my opinion, is that
teachers expect perfect performance of such simple, yet late-acquired items in unmonitored
performance. Even quite competent second language users, such as P, will "miss" such items
in conversation. We often see, however, beginners, students who can barely converse in the
target language, struggling to make correct subject-verb agreement in what are termed
"communicative" exercises, fearful of the teacher's shattering corrections. The cause of this
torture is, first of all, a confusion between linguistic simplicity and order of acquisition--it is not
at all the case that the more linguistically simple an item is, the earlier it is acquired. Some
very "simple" rules may be among the last to be acquired. Second, the cause is also a failure
to distinguish
91

between acquisition and learning, a failure to realize that conscious knowledge of an item
bears no relationship to a performer's ability to use it in unmonitored speech. This ability
comes from acquisition, and acquisition come from comprehensible input, not from error
correction. The result of such treatment is, at best, overuse of the Monitor. At worst, it results
in the establishment of such a strong Affective Filter that acquisition is impossible.
2. WHAT CAN BE MONITORED
Condition three for Monitor use (Chapter II, Hypothesis 3) is relevant to discussing this
point. In order for performers to Monitor successfully, they must know the rule they are
applying. To expand on a point made in Chapter II, let me attempt to illustrate just how
drastically this requirement limits Monitor use. Let this circle represent all the rules of a well-
described language, such as English:
Let us now consider all the rules of English that the best linguists "know", or have
succeeded in describing. How many rules did Jespersen (ever) know, how much of English
have scholars such as Noam Chomsky described? While Chomsky often says that he and his
colleagues have only described "fragments" of English, we will give the formal linguists the
benefit of the doubt, and represent their accomplishments as a proper subset of the first circle
Now let us consider the rules that "applied linguists" know, where applied linguists here
refers to the scholar whose task is to study the
92

work of the formal, theoretical linguist, and present it to the language teacher, and perhaps
also to the language student. Let the additional smaller circle in the next figure represent what
the applied linguist knows. This will have to be a proper subset of what the formal linguist
knows, since the full-time job of the theoretician is to seek out new rules, while the applied
linguist spends a great deal of time explaining this work:
The next circle represents all the rules that the most knowledgeable language teachers
know. This will be a proper subset of the circle introduced in the last figure. Teachers, after
all, have a great deal to do besides study the work of applied linguistics:
Still another circle represents the number of grammar rules that the best teachers
actually teach. This is, in turn, a proper subset of the set of circles they know, since teachers
will undoubtedly present to their students only a part of their knowledge:
We draw next still another circle, which represents all the rules that the best students
actually succeed in learning. We should even put in
93

one last circle, all the rules that students can carry around in their heads as mental baggage
and actually use in performance:
By now, we are down to a very small circle, even giving every group discussed the benefit of
the doubt. Even our best students will be able to learn and utilize a small part of the grammar
of a language as a conscious Monitor.
We can draw an even smaller circle for some people. As we saw in the discussion of
individual variation in Chapter II, some performers are either less willing or less able to utilize
conscious rules. At the opposite extreme from the professional linguist or language teacher
(see, for example, Yorio, 1978), we have the Monitor under-user, the performer who does all
self-correction by "feel" and has no control of conscious grammar. Perhaps even more
extreme is the incompetent Monitor user, the performer who thinks (s)he knows the rules but
has them (or at least many of them) wrong. This may merely be a problem of nomenclature
(e.g. Stafford and Covitt's subject who kept referring to "dead objects" instead of direct
objects), but may be more serious. We should be aware that confusions may exist even for
rules that appear to us to be very simple, and for rules that the performer may have already
acquired and can utilize in an unmonitored situation. Such cases illustrate vividly the contrast
between acquisition and learning.
(a) Incompetent Monitor use
Seliger (1979) reported a simple, yet interesting experiment which confirms the
existence of incompetent Monitor users. The task was naming: Subjects were shown pictures
and asked to say what the object pictured was in English (e.g. It's a pen). Seliger noted
whether the subjects applied the "a/an" rule and whether they correctly used an when the
following noun began with a vowel. The subjects were then asked, after completing the task, if
they had noticed that sometimes a was
94

called for and sometimes an was called for. If they said that they did notice, they were asked
to give their reasons for the distinction. (In all cases, either a or an was required. There were
no cases where the zero allomorph was appropriate.) Seliger's subjects included 29
monolingual English speaking children, ages 3 to 10.8, 11 "bilingual" children, ages 4 to 10,
and 15 adult ESL students at Queens College in New York.
In my interpretation, this study contrasts acquisition and learning.1 * The subject's focus
in the picture naming task was on supplying vocabulary. They were not told in advance that
grammatical accuracy was an issue and certainly the a/an rule was not presented or
discussed in advance. The task, then, encouraged use of the acquired system; it was
relatively "unmonitored". This interpretation is consistent with the evidence reviewed in
Chapter II, which concludes that for most subjects, one needs to deliberately focus subjects
on form using a device such as a discrete-point grammar test in order to bring out extensive
use of the conscious grammar. Of course, since the task was an "experiment", it is quite
possible that some subjects may have been more careful than they normally would be. The
results of the direct question about a and an, however, show that it is unlikely that subjects
were accessing much conscious knowledge while identifying pictures.
Seliger reports "no relationship" between performance on picture identification and
whether the subjects could state a rule! Many subjects did not "do what they say they do". If
their responses to the post-task question represent conscious learning, this result confirms
just how limited learning is for some people. Let us examine the results.
As we would expect from the discussion of age in Chapter II, none of the bilingual
children produced correct conscious rules for a/an. This is consistent with the claim that pre-
formal operations children have less extensive meta-awareness of grammar. The potential for
extensive Monitor use is hypothesized to emerge with formal operations, at around puberty.
Among the adults, three of the four who "knew" the rule (could verbalize it after the
test) "produced no instances on the picture test to show they understood how the rule was to
be used" (p. 364). These subjects, in other words, had learned the a/an distinction but had not
95

acquired it. They were unable, moreover, to apply this conscious knowledge to the picture
identification task, since the necessary conditions for successful Monitor use were not met
(condition three = know the rule, was met, but one = time, and two = focus on form, were not).
This case is exactly analogous to the de + le = du case described above. These three
students, I would predict, would perform well on this item under different conditions, i.e. if
given a discrete-point grammar test that focussed them on form, containing items such as:
Finally, and what is of most interest here, two children and one adult performed well on
the picture identification test but produced incorrect rules (e.g. "You use an for something
that's alive"). The child subjects are reminiscent of other cases in the literature and may
simply reflect the inability of children to induce or learn correct conscious rules (e.g. a child in
one study, acquiring French as a second language, decided that feminine gender was for
"everything that was good and beautiful" (Kenyeres and Kenyeres, cited in Hatch, 1978b).
The adult who performed perfectly on the test may be classified as an "incompetent" Monitor
user. This subject had acquired the a/an rule, but had not learned it correctly. The fact that he
did not apply his conscious rule to performance worked to his benefit! I would predict that
such a subject would perform worse on a test that focussed him on form. (I do not wish to
imply that some learners get all rules wrong while others get them all right. Clearly, many
learners have learned some rules correctly and some incorrectly.)
What is remarkable here is that this subject had failed to learn what most teachers
would consider to be an amazingly simple rule, yet he had apparently acquired it. This
illustrates the independence of acquisition and learning, as well as just how limited learning
can be for some performers.2
(b) Rule learnability
We see fairly wide individual variation in the ability to use the conscious Monitor. The
range goes from the professional linguist, who
96

may be able to consciously learn many rules of great complexity and even apply them while
performing in a second language, to Monitor under-users and incompetent wrong-rule users.
Despite this variation, we can begin to characterize the kinds of rules that are learnable for
most adults, recognizing that even for super Monitor users (see e.g. Yorio, 1978), this set will
be a small subset of the total number of rules in a language.
The professional literature supports what I think is the most reasonable hypothesis:
"Learnability" is related to linguistic simplicity, both formal and functional. The rules we can
learn and carry around in our heads for use as a Monitor are not those that are earliest
acquired, nor are they those that are important for communication. Rather, they are the
simple rules, rules that are easiest to describe and remember.
I have pointed out elsewhere in other publications (first discussed in Krashen et al.,
1978) that simplicity can be defined in at least two ways, and both definitions are relevant
here. First, a rule can be formally simple. Examples of relatively simple rules include our old
friends the third person singular ending on regular verbs in English, and de + le = du. These
rules require only the addition of a bound morpheme (an inflection), or contraction operations.
Simple deletion is also probably not difficult for the conscious Monitor.
Other syntactic operations appear to be more difficult for the Monitor. Permutations,
and movements of constituents from one part of a sentence to another are quite difficult to do
"in your head" while in the middle of a conversation or even when writing for content. It is
probably the case that rules requiring a great deal of movement and order change are either
acquired or are never done well by most people. This applies to rules such as formation of
wh- questions in English, which might involve the following separate operations: (1) placing
the wh- word first; (2) performing subject-auxiliary inversion, unless there is a helping verb; (3)
performing "do-support"; (4) inflecting "do" correctly for tense and number. This is a lot to
remember, especially when the learner has other things on his mind, including remembering
other parts of grammar (he might also be Monitoring pronunciation as well as syntax) and
trying to keep up a conversation with a native speaker.
(The reader may argue that (s)he has no problem doing all these things at the same
time, and with a little practice and good teaching
97

everyone else can as well. If this is what is going through your mind, you are probably a
Monitor super-user. This sort of interest and ability may be what brought you into language
science in the first place, and got you interested in books such as this one. You are not
typical. Other readers may argue that the way to make rules such as question formation
automatic is to learn and drill the components one at a time until they become automatic. This
is exactly the "learning becomes acquisition" argument reviewed at the beginning of this
section. I maintain that in cases where this seems to work, one of two things is happening: (1)
acquisition is occurring separately and catches up to the student's learning level; the learning
that preceded the acquisition did not play any direct role, moreover, in helping acquisition
develop. (2) The successful learner was a super Monitor user and very atypical.)
Simplicity also needs to be defined in terms of meaning. Rules that are formally simple
will not be easily learnable if their meanings are subtle and hard to explain. Both the form and
meaning of the third person singular ending and de + le = du are straightforward. On the other
hand, while the form of the definite and indefinite article in English is very simple, many of the
uses of a and the are enormously complex. We certainly cannot expect ESL learners to
understand, remember, and consciously apply descriptions such as that contained in Hawkins
(1978), a full volume devoted to the article in English. We can also find examples in
punctuation. Rules such as "capitalize the first letter of every sentence" are formally and
functionally easy. Some of the uses of the comma and semi-colon, however, are difficult to
describe and probably need to be acquired for effective use.
(c) Some evidence
There are no studies I know of that directly probe which structures are learnable by
different student populations and which are not. Several papers, however, present evidence
that is quite consistent with the claim that only "easy" rules are learnable by most people.
One sort of evidence is provided by studies and case histories that tell us what sorts of
"careless" errors second language students make, errors that involve rules that the students
had formally studied and that
98

they could self-correct, given time and when focussed on form. In our terms, these are rules
that have been learned but have not been acquired. They are, in all cases, what appear to be
late-acquired and formally simple rules, involving mostly bound morphology. P, the optimal
Monitor user we discussed earlier, made many errors on such easy items as the third person
singular ending on regular verbs, the use of "much" and "many" with count and mass nouns,
and the irregular past, among other errors. Two optimal Monitor users described in Cohen
and Robbins (1976) also made what they themselves called "careless" errors on such items.
Both Ue-Lin and Eva, Chinese speaking ESL students at UCLA, had problems with the
late-acquired third person singular /s/. Ue-Lin explained this omission "as a careless mistake
since she reported knowing the rule" (Cohen and Robbins, 1976, p. 55). Similarly, "when Eva
was shown sentences containing s deletion, she was actually able to identify the error and
supply the s immediately. When asked to explain why she omitted the s she replied: 'Probably
just careless.'" (p. 58). Eva had a similar explanation for omitting the regular past /ed/: When
presented with one of her errors on this form, also known to be late-acquired (Hypothesis 3,
Chapter II), she was able to supply the correct form. After correcting one sentence. "Eva
remarked that she wrote down the sentence the way she would say it: "For one thing,
sometimes I would write something the way that I speak. We say a word more or less in a
careless way. But if I take my time, sometimes go over it, that would be much easier...'." (p.
58). My interpretation is that given time, Eva was able to access her conscious knowledge of
English, or Monitor, a procedure that can be effective for such late-acquired, simple rules.
Eva had had a fair amount of exposure to English and was considered to be advanced
by Cohen and Robbins. She had lived in Australia for two and a half years and had studied
English since grade 5 (at the time of Cohen and Robbins' study she was a junior in college).
She also considered herself a "good language learner". Even Eva, however, had problems
with what seem to language teachers to be simple rules. In explaining her error ("I have talk
to Sylvia already") she attributed the error to being unclear about the rule. She remarked:
"Yeah, I learned that. It's just something I'm not good at. I think the main
99

problem is that I just learn the rule--one or two years, the whole time I was going to school... It
was never drill enough to me" (Cohen and Robbins, p. 58). This confirms a point made
earlier, and shows that while Monitor use may be limited to non-acquired, simple rules, even
"good" learners may be able to use and recall only a small part of the rules we present, even
those that seem transparent to us.3
A study by Duskova (1969) also confirms that the syntactic domain of the conscious
Monitor, for many people, consists of relatively simple but late-acquired items. Duskova
investigated written errors in 50 Czech university level students studying English (EFL).
Duskova noted that "... many of the recurrent errors... reflect no real deficit in knowledge,
since most learners know the pertinent rule and can readily apply it, but the mechanical
operation does not yet work automatically" (p. 16). This generalization applies in particular,
Duskova notes, to morphological errors. Examples include the omission of plurals on nouns
(relatively early acquired among grammatical morphemes, I must admit). Duskova notes that
for plurals "... the learner is aware of it when it is pointed out to him and is able to correct it
himself" (p.20). Another example is errors in subject-verb agreement. Again, for this error,
"when the learner's attention is drawn to the fact that he has made a mistake, he is usually
able to correct it" (p. 20). Other error types of this sort include confusion of past participle and
infinitive, errors on irregular verbs, and adjective-noun agreement in number (e.g. this
workers). In our terms, the errors reflect a failure to apply conscious rules, a failure to Monitor
effectively. The students, Duskova tells us, "can certainly formulate the rule" for these error
types.
The morpheme studies described in Chapter II also contribute to this point. As you may
recall from Chapter II, changes or disturbances in the "natural order" were interpreted as
intrusions of the conscious grammar. It is interesting to note just how the order was affected.
In Larsen-Freeman's study (Larsen-Freeman, 1975), morpheme orders were presented for
both monitored and unmonitored conditions (a discrete-point pencil and paper grammar test,
and the Bilingual Syntax Measure, respectively). In the Monitor-free condition, Larsen-
Freeman obtained the following order (Table 4.1) which is quite "natural".
100

Table 4.1
Morpheme order obtained in monitor-free condition (Larsen-Freeman, 1975)
ing
copula
article
auxiliary
short plural
regular past
third person singular
irregular past
long plural
possessive
Compare this to the unnatural order found in the Monitored condition (Table 4.2). (We use the
writing task as an example; Larsen-Freeman's "reading" task gives similar results.)
Table 4.2
Morpheme order obtained in monitored condition (Larsen-Freeman, 1975; writing)
copula
auxiliary
third person singular
ing
regular past
irregular past
article
long plural
short plural
possessive
These orders differ largely due to the increase in relative rank of two morphemes, regular past
and the third person singular marker, both late-acquired, or low in relative order of accuracy in
the Monitor-free natural order. This interpretation is consistent with the claim that when
performers focus on form they can increase accuracy in unacquired but learned parts of
grammar.4
Still more evidence comes from our composition study (Krashen, Butler, Birnbaum, and
Robertson, 1978). We asked ESL students at USC to write compositions under two
conditions--"free" (instructions were to write as much as possible in five minutes) and "edited"
(instructions were to pay careful attention to grammar and spelling and to "take your time").
Both conditions yielded natural orders for grammatical morphemes, which we interpreted as
indicating little intervention
101

of the conscious Monitor. This was due to the fact, we hypothesized, that our subjects
focussed primarily on communication in both conditions, despite our instructions to the
contrary in the second condition.
Closer analysis of our data does show some rise in the third person singular in the
edited condition, however (we did not analyze regular past due to too few obligatory
occasions). This rise was not enough to disturb the natural order, but enough to suggest
some Monitor use. Again, we see the differences in the late-acquired, easy item. (To inject a
more theoretical point, perhaps the correct interpretation of morpheme natural and unnatural
orders is that unnatural orders, as in Larsen-Freeman (1975) reflect heavy Monitor use.
Increases in certain items without changes in rank, as in our composition study, may reflect
light Monitor use.) Table 4.3 shows this small improvement in the third person singular
morpheme in the edited condition.5 6
Table 4.3
Accuracy differences in free and edited conditions for grammatical morphemes
____________________________________________________________________
Morpheme Free I Edited I Free II Edited II
____________________________________________________________________
ing 0.87 0.85 0.88 0.82
copula 0.79 0.95 0.86 0.85
plural 0.82 0.82 0.77 0.78
article 0.86 0.85 0.76 0.83
auxiliary 0.82 0.79 0.77 0.76
irregular past 0.69 0.81 0.82 0.77
third person singular 0.54 0.61 0.32 0.65
____________________________________________________________________
Free: "write as much as you can" in five minutes.
Edited: "pay careful attention to grammar and spelling and take your time".
I: same subjects (n = 58) preformed both conditions.
II: different subjects for each condition.
Each morpheme was represented by at least 100 obligatory occasions.
(d) Consequences of teaching "hard" rules
Felix (1980) shows us what happens when students are asked to learn rules that are
too difficult for them, rules that are not only difficult to learn but that are also not yet acquired.
Not only were such students asked to learn difficult rules, they were also asked to use them in
unmonitored situations. Felix observed an EFL class for ten and eleven
102

year old students in Germany. Among his many interesting observations was this one:
Teachers taught and demanded correct use of elliptic sentences (as in exchanges of the type:
Is it a dog? Yes, it is). Despite the fact that this type of question-answer dialogue "was
intensively drilled every day" (p. 8), Felix reports that correct elliptic sentences were only
randomly supplied for a period of almost three months (i.e. It is a dog? Yes it isn't)!
This result is quite predictable: the rule was simply too hard to learn and was not yet
acquired. Felix notes that according to the research literature elliptic sentences "do not
appear until relatively late" (p. 9). Even with input containing sentences of this sort (assuming
the input was comprehensible, interesting, etc.; see Chapter III), such structures were far
beyond the i + 1 of these students.
Felix also reports that teachers valiantly tried to teach do-support and the English
negation rules with little success. These are also quite difficult. Students, Felix found, would
produce sentences like these in class:
(1) It's no my cow.
(2) Doesn't she eat apples.
Both of these sentences are interpretable as reliance on what has been acquired without the
contribution of the conscious grammar. To fully appreciate the significance of these errors, we
first need to briefly review what is know about the acquisition of negation in informal language
acquisition (see also Chapter II). The following stages are found in child L1, child L2, and
adult L2 acquisition (what follows is a simplification; see Dulay, Burt, and Krashen, in press,
for details):
I. The negative marker goes outside the sentence, as in:
no wipe finger
wear mitten no (examples from Klima and Bellugi, 1966)
II. The negative marker is placed between the subject and verb, as in:
He no bite you
He not little, he big
103

III. Post auxiliary negation is acquired; the marker now appears after the auxiliary verb,
as in:
That was not me
I didn't caught it
Felix's example (1) appears to be a stage II type transitional form. This "error" is a typical
intermediate stage all acquirers (or nearly all) go through before fully acquiring the correct
form. The appearance of such an error type is thus consistent with the hypothesis that these
children, even though they are in a classroom, are undergoing normal language acquisition to
at least some extent, and are relying on acquired language in classroom speech (note that
German negation is always post verbal and post auxiliary).
Sentence (2), according to Felix, is not a yes/no question! Felix maintains that it is,
instead, a negative declaration ("She doesn't eat apples"). Thus, as is the case with sentence
(1), Felix interprets this error as a transitional form, this one being an example of stage I with
doesn't acting as a monomorphemic negation marker. (It is quite common for don't to perform
the same function in stage II in natural first and second language acquisition, e.g. sentences
such as "I don't can explain" where "don't" acts as the negative marker; see, for example,
Cancino, Rosansky and Schumann, 1974). The child's selection of doesn't (instead of no) is
due to the particular kind of input presented in the classroom, the grammatical exercises in
which doesn't appears in very high frequencies.
Such interpretations not only point to the reality and strength of subconscious
acquisition, but they also confirm that conscious learning is quite limited, and that, except for
certain conditions, acquisition is responsible for most second language performance.
C. The Effects of Learning: Accuracy of Self-correction
Previous sections of this chapter have discussed when performers Monitor and which
rules are usable for Monitoring. We turn now to the question of how effective Monitoring is:
How much can the second language performer improve accuracy by consulting the conscious
grammar?
104

We can get some approximation of the efficiency of the conscious grammar by looking
at how good performers are at self-correction of their own linguistic output. Noel Houck has
pointed out to me that self-correction (as opposed to "other-correction", or correcting
someone else's output, an activity that includes detecting errors on test), is the most valid
object of study in investigating Monitor strength, since this is what one's Monitor actually does
in real performance.
Several studies have examined how effective self-correction is, but before surveying
the data and drawing conclusions, we need to briefly look at some of the factors that cause
accuracy of self-correction to vary.
1. FACTORS AFFECTING SELF-CORRECTION ACCURACY
First, as we can infer from the discussion in Chapter II, there is individual variation with
respect to self-correction efficiency. To the extent that self-correction involves the conscious
Monitor, if there is individual variation in degree of and ability for Monitor use, this will be
reflected in self-correction efficiency. We might expect much better performance from a
professional linguist who is an optimal Monitor user (e.g. "P", from Krashen and Pon, 1975),
than from other performers, all other conditions (see below) held constant.
Second, we might expect variation depending on which aspects of output the performer
attempts to correct. As we discussed above, the Monitor appears to work best for simple
morphology, may be less efficient for complex syntax, and may have even more trouble with
other parts of the grammar (there is, unfortunately, not even enough data to speculate about
the learnability of much of the grammar; see Chapter III for a very brief discussion of the
learnability of aspects of conversational competence).
Self-correction efficiency will also vary according to the conditions under which it is
done. Houck, Robertson and Krashen (1978b) distinguished the following conditions. First,
there is "free speech", or natural conversation. (In one sense, "free writing" belongs in this
category, in another sense it does not, as some would argue that the written modality
automatically entails a greater focus on form.) In "free speech", self-correction is up to the
performer, and there is no special focus on
105

form. Rather, the focus, in most cases, is on communication. We would expect natural
difficulty orders when looking at errors in grammatical structures in this condition.
A second condition, moving in the direction of more focus on form, can be termed
"careful" speaking or writing. This is roughly equivalent to the edited condition in Krashen et
al. (1978), described earlier, and occurs when speakers or writers are attempting to speak or
write "correctly". (We must subdivide this condition into two sub-conditions, one for careful
speaking and one for careful writing, predicting more self-correction for writing.)
Conditions (1) and (2) cover most situations in real world informal communication. We
can, however, specify other conditions typically used in language instruction that focus the
performer still more on form. In condition (3), the student is informed that an error exists, but
does not know where the error is or what rule has been broken. This is roughly equivalent to
composition correction in which students are simply told that there are some errors in their
paper and that they should be corrected.
A condition still more in the direction of focussing on form indicates to students where
the error is, in addition to informing them that an error exists. This condition, condition (4),
corresponds to composition correction in which the teacher underlines the errors. Still more
focussed, according to Houck et al., is condition (5) in which existence, location, and
description of the violated rule are provided, as in feedback of this sort:
The more we move toward condition (5), the more effect of the conscious Monitor is
predicted, and the greater the likelihood of "unnatural" order for errors. According to research
summarized in Chapter II and discussed again in this chapter, we see natural orders for
conditions (1) (free speech, BSM, free composition) and (2) (edited writing), but might see
some effect of the Monitor in condition (2)(i.e. rise in accuracy in third person singular in
Krashen et al., 1978). Larsen-Freeman's unnatural order was produced under conditions
similar to condition (4) (but see Note 4, this chapter).
Table 4.4 summarizes the five conditions.
106

Table 4.4 Self-correction conditions in second language performance
___________________________________________________________________________________
Instructions: (1) (2) (3) (4) (5)
None Rewrite Correct Correct Correct this error
the error this error use this rule
___________________________________________________________________________________
Includes error:
Existence No No Yes Yes Yes
Location No No No Yes Yes
Rule broken No No No No Yes
___________________________________________________________________________________
(1) Free speech or writing.
(2) Careful speech or writing
From: Houck, Robertson and Krashen (1978b).
107

There are some studies available that give us an idea of the efficiency of self-correction
for some of the conditions described here, that tell us what percentage of performers' errors
are actually self-corrected. They thus tell us something about Monitor efficiency, since they
report to what extent a performer's self-corrections improve output accuracy. In one sense,
however, they may not truly show the effectiveness of the Monitor. They underestimate
Monitor use, since they do not indicate covert self-correction, the correction that went on
before the utterance was spoke or written (Recall, in figure one, Chapter II, that there are two
possible arrows leading from the Monitor to the output of the acquired system, one affecting
output before and one affecting output after production.) On the other hand, studies that
report the percentage of successful self-correction also overestimate the amount of actual
conscious Monitor use, since self-correction can also be done using the acquired system
alone, with one's "feel" for correctness. This is what performers do in their first language when
correcting slips of the tongue.
Still another problem of interpretation of such studies is that we do not really know
whether subjects had indeed had the chance to learn all the rules necessary for successful
self-correction. Are we studying the efficiency of learning and/or the ability of performers to
apply what they consciously know?
Self-correction studies do not provide us, therefore, with an exact picture, but the
results are quite useful to the teacher interested in the overall efficiency of self-correction, and
they probably give us an approximation of the efficiency of conscious learning and Monitoring.
THE DATA
Table 4.5 and Fig 4.1 summarize the literature available to me on self-correction. With
two exceptions, all deal with university level ESL students who, we expect, have been
exposed to a fair amount of formal instruction in English grammar. The subject in one study is
our old friend "P", a linguist. Fathman's subjects (Fathman, 1980) are described as 20 adults
"learning English as a second language in the United States, primarily in an informal setting"
and 20 adults "learning English in a formal setting, primarily in Mexico" (p. 3, manuscript).
108

Table 4.5 Accuracy of self-correction in adult performance in English as a second
language
___________________________________________________________________________________
Study Condition1 Error type analyzed Results
(% of errors self-corrected)
___________________________________________________________________________________
1. Schlue (1977) Stream All syntax, 7.2% (99/1101)
of speech morphology
(1)
2. Fathman (1980) SLOPE test, Morphology2 a. "Informal" adults
oral (see text) = 20%
interview, (13/65)
Picture b. "Formal adults"
description = 32% (46/144)
(1)
3. Schlue (1977) Listen to All syntax, 31%
tape of own morphology
speech (2)
4. Houck et al. Inspect Nine morphemes 17.5% (36.5/236)
(1978a) transcription
of own speech3
(2)
5. White (1977) Inspect a. Morphology a. 52% (53/102)
transcript of b. Syntax b. 27% (6/22)
responses to c. "Omissions" c. 53% (23/43)
BSM4 (4) d. Lexical d. 9% (1/11)
_____________
47% (83/178)
6. Krashen and Inspect Morphology, 95% (76/80)
Pon (1975) transcriptions5 syntax
(4)
___________________________________________________________________________________
1 Number in parenthesis refers to conditions in Table 4.4.
2 "Almost all the uncorrected errors were related to verbs, such
as: omission of the copula and omission of incorrect use of
inflections".
3 Subjects transcribed tapes themselves.
4 E transcribed tapes ("...(S's) were presented with some of their
errors").
5 E = Subject transcribed tape.
109

Fig. 4.1. Self-correction accuracy.
1: Schlue (1977).
2a, 2b: Fathman (1980).
3: Schlue (1977).
4: Houck et al. (1978a).
5: White (1977).
6: Krashen and Pon (1975).
(see Table 4.5)
As for the domain of language analyzed, one study (Houck et al., 1978a) focusses only
on nine grammatical morphemes, while the others cover morphology and syntax in general.
It is hard to say whether any of the studies actually meet the description of condition
(1), since in all cases the subjects knew they were being tested and that the focus of the
investigation was the quality and accuracy of their speech. Thus, Fathman (1980), and Schlue
(1977) may be overestimates of self-communication accuracy in "free speech" and might
really belong in condition (2).
Figure 4.1 attempts to illustrate how conditions, and differences in subjects, affect self-
correction accuracy, and gives us a picture of what we can expect, at least in the domain of
syntax and morphology. It suggests, first of all, that training and type of student do make a
difference:
110

Fathman's "formal" students correct a higher percentage of their own errors than her informal
students do, and our subject, "P", outperforms everyone. It is also consistent with the
hypothesis that accuracy increases as we focus more on form. Further studies could easily be
performed to fill in the holes in the figure; they would also hopefully control for proficiency
level, since there may be a relationship between the sheer number of errors committed and
self-correction accuracy. It would also be desirable to control for first language and some
aspects of personality, due to the observed relationship between personality and avoidance
behavior (Kleinman, 1977).
Possibly the most important result to emerge from these studies is the point that self-
correction is never perfect, never reaches what some teachers would consider acceptable
performance except in the case of one very good learner who was presented with her own
errors! The fact is that many teachers assume self-correction should be 100%, that students
should be able to apply all they have learned at all times.7
If second language performers do not focus heavily on form in self-correction, what do
they do? Several studies, all classified as falling under condition (2), show that revisions are
typically aimed at greater communicative effectiveness and not merely on form. Hassan (cited
in Hatch, 1979) noted what changes ESL students made on second and third drafts of
compositions. Hassan reported that the students "concentrated mainly on vocabulary choice,
added minor details, and made fewer changes which resulted in overall grammar
improvement" (Hatch, 1979, p. 136). Schlue (1977) came to similar conclusions, noting that
"her subjects seemed to monitor their speech quite carefully, but not for grammatical
correctness. Their speech awareness was for the most part focused on their success or
failure in conveying their message. Thus, they were very concerned with such things as the
appropriateness of their lexical choices... even in the self-analysis activity, it was often hard to
make the subjects focus on form rather than on lexicon and pronunciation..." (p. 343). Houck,
Robertson and Krashen (1978a) also noted that many of the corrections made by subjects
were "obviously attempts at improved intelligibility, rather than grammatical form" (p. 337).
To summarize thus far: Our description of when we can Monitor, what can he
Monitored, and the linguistic effect of Monitoring all
111

reach similar conclusions. The use of conscious grammar is limited. Not everyone Monitors.
Those who do only Monitor some of the time, and use the Monitor for only a sub-part of the
grammar. As we have just seen, the effects of self-correction on accuracy is modest. Second
language performers can typically self-correct only a small percentage of their errors, even
when deliberately focussed on form (conditions 2 to 4), and even when we only consider the
easiest aspects of the grammar.
D. Other Effects of Conscious Rules
Use of the conscious grammar, we have maintained, is limited to easily learned, late-
acquired rules, simple morphological additions that do not make an overwhelming contribution
to communicating the speaker or writer's message. For most people, only "local" rules can be
learned and used (Burt and Kiparsky, 1972). Certainly, speakers of English understand
sentences with missing third person singular markers and dropped regular past endings fairly
well, thanks to the presence of other markers of tense and pragmatic knowledge.
There is, nevertheless, some real value in applying these rules when time permits,
when rule use does not interfere with communication. Providing these local items, even
though they may make a small contribution to communication, makes writing and speech
more polished, it adds a cosmetic effect that may be very important for many second
language students.
Indeed, in the advanced second language class, providing such polish may become
the main goal, one that is quite justified for many students. "Advanced" second language
acquirers, especially those who have been in the country where the target language is spoken
for a few years, may have acquired a great deal, but not all, of the second language, enough
to meet communicative need, but still short of the native speaker standard. Their chief need
may be conscious rules to use as a supplement to their acquired competence, to enable them
to appear as educated in their second language as they are in their first.
I do not object to this sort of grammar teaching. What is unfair is to emphasize
accuracy on communicatively unessential, late acquired items in beginning language classes,
with students who are unable to understand the simplest message in the second language.
112

E. Presentation of Rules
A fair amount has been written about how grammar rules should be presented. One
issue is whether rules should be given "directly" (deductive), or whether students should be
asked to figure out the rules for themselves (inductive). Another issue is sequence--which
rules should be presented first, and/or emphasized more. I will restrict my comments on these
issues to the implications second language acquisition theory make for these questions.
1. THE DEDUCTIVE-INDUCTIVE ISSUE
This issue was one of some concern in the second language acquisition pedagogical
literature for many years. For many scholars and teachers, deductive teaching seemed much
more reasonable--why make students guess the rule? Present a clear explanation and have
them practice until the rule is "internalized". Cognitive-code teaching, as well as grammar-
translation, are examples of the "rule-first" deductive approach.
Proponents of inductive teaching argued that the best way to insure learning was for
the student to work out the rule himself. Inductive teaching is very much like rule-writing in
linguistics. The learner is given a corpus and has to discover the regularities.
Before proceeding to some of the research bearing on this issue, it is important to
clarify one major point: both inductive and deductive learning are learning. Neither have
anything directly to do with subconscious language acquisition. Inductive learning bears a
superficial resemblance to acquisition, and has occasionally been confused with acquisition in
the literature. As Table 4.6 indicates, both inductive
Table 4.6 Acquisition and inductive learning:
similarities and differences
_________________________________________________________________
Acquisition Inductive Learning
_________________________________________________________________
Data first, rule follows Data first, rule follows
Rule is subconscious Rule is conscious
Focus on meaning Focus on form
Slow progress May occur quickly
Requires large amounts of data May occur after exposure to
small amount of data
_________________________________________________________________
113

learning and acquisition share the features of data, or input, first, with the "rule" coming
second. There are deep and fundamental differences, however. When the goal is inductive
learning, the focus is on form, and the learner attempts to analyze formal aspects of the data
presented. When the goal is acquisition, the acquirer attempts to understand the message
contained in the input. Also, the "rule" developed by the two processes is different. An
inductively-learned rule is a conscious mental representation of a linguistic generalization--an
acquired rule is not conscious (we can, however, certainly learn later what we have acquired;
see below), but is manifested by a "feel" for correctness. Also, inductive learning, since it is
conscious problem-solving, may occur very quickly--an adept student may "see" the regularity
after only a few examples. Acquisition, however, always takes time and requires a substantial
quantity of input data. As discussed in Chapter II, it takes more than a single paragraph and a
few exercises to acquire a rule.
Thus, from the point of view of second language acquisition theory, the deductive-
inductive controversy is not a central one for second language pedagogy, since it focusses
only on which learning style is best. The issue has some significance, however, and there
have been several suggestions and experimental results relating to this controversy that are
of interest.
It has been suggested (Hammerly, 1975) that certain structures "are most amenable to
a deductive approach while others... can be learned very well by an inductive approach" (p.
17). Seliger (1975) presents data suggesting that retention over time is better with a deductive
approach. Hartnett's data support the hypothesis that students who are successful in
deductive foreign language classes employ different neurological mechanisms than learners
successful in more inductive classes, deductive learners being more left-brained, analytic
thinkers, and inductive learners being more right-brained, analogic thinkers (Hartnett, 1974;
Krashen, Seliger and Hartnett, 1974).
If there are individual differences in preference of rule presentation, if some people
prefer rules first and others prefer to figure things out for themselves, insistence on the
"wrong" approach for the grammar portion of the language teaching program may raise
anxieties and strengthen the affective filter.8
114

The theory of second language acquisition presented in Chapter II makes only indirect
contributions to this question. The most important contribution is its insistence that both
deductive and inductive approaches are learning-oriented. The "practice" used for rule
practice (deductive) or rule-searching (inductive) will not be optimal input for acquisition, since
the students' focus will be primarily on form rather than on the message.
2. SEQUENCING AND LEARNING
I argued, in Chapter III, that grammatical sequencing was undesirable when the goal is
acquisition. It seems reasonable that we should present rules one at a time in some order
when the goal is conscious learning, however ("rule isolation"; Krashen and Seliger; 1975).
Several rationale for sequencing have been suggested. We (Krashen, Madden and Bailey,
1975) once suggested the natural order itself, which I no longer think is the correct basis for
sequencing for acquisition or learning. Other proposals include frequency of occurrence,
grammatical simplicity, and "utility" (see, for example, Larsen 1975). (My impression is that
despite the existence of these options, and the fairly widespread discussion of them in the
professional literature, the vast majority of texts utilize some version of linguistic simplicity,
going from formally less complex to more complex structure.)
Second language acquisition theory, as presented here, does not yet make predictions
as to the exact learning sequence. It does predict, however, something about the set of rules
that can be learned. First, if the goal of grammar teaching is in fact to provide students with a
Monitor, as we discussed earlier in this chapter, simplicity will play a large role. We can only
teach what is learnable, and, restricting the set even more, what is portable, what can be
carried around in the students' heads. (These two requirements need to be distinguished--
learning a rule does not always mean being able to use it in performance, even when
conditions are favorable for Monitor use.) As we have seen above, in discussing cases of
under-users and incompetent Monitor users, we have, as a profession, overestimated what
most people can learn, and what they can retain and use in performance. Even optimal users,
"good language learners" have limits that are far below many teachers' expectations.
115

Second, unless our goal is language appreciation (see below), we don't have to teach
rules that our students have already acquired. How, then, do we know which items to teach?
We could, conceivably, perform a detailed error analysis on each student, compare the
results of tests that tap learning and acquisition, and determine those items that have been
acquired, but have not been learned, and focus on just this set. This is possible, but probably
unnecessary. The "natural order" studies can provide us with at least some of the information
we need. While some individual variation exists among second language acquirers, we have
a good idea of what is acquired "early" and what is acquired "late" for some structures. We
can be fairly certain that beginners in ESL will not have acquired the third person singular /s/
or the possessive /s/, for example. I think that a very worthy goal of applied linguistics is to
attempt to describe this set of what are typically late-acquired, but learnable rules, beyond the
few morphemes and structures we know about now.
Rules to be learned should thus meet these three requirements:
1. Learnable
2. Portable
3. Not yet acquired
The sequencing issue then becomes, or reduces to, determining which of the rules
meeting all three of these requirements should be presented first. This thus still remains an
issue, but one we have contributed to by limiting the set of items that must be sequenced.
F. Notes on Error Correction
Another controversy related to conscious learning is the issue of error correction.
Henrickson (1978) lists the "five fundamental questions" and reviews the literature that
addresses them:
1. Should errors be corrected?
2. If so, when should errors be corrected?
3. Which learner errors should be corrected?
4. How should learner errors be corrected?
5. Who should correct learner errors?
116

Second language acquisition theory has "answers" to four of these questions, answers
that are, as are all other implications in this book, themselves hypotheses. In this case, I am
predicting that if error correction is done according to the principles described below, it will be
effective.
1. Should errors be corrected?
According to the second language acquisition theory presented here, when error
correction "works", it does so by helping the learner change his or her conscious mental
representation of a rule. In other words, it affects learned competence by informing the
learner that his or her current version of a conscious rule is wrong. Thus, second language
acquisition theory implies that when the goal is learning, errors should indeed be corrected
(but not at all times; see below; and not all rules, even if the goal is learning). The theory
maintains however, that error correction is not of use for acquisition. Acquisition occurs,
according to the input hypothesis, when acquirers understand input for its meaning, not when
they produce output and focus on form.
2. When should errors be corrected?
Hendrickson, following Birckbichler (1977), suggests that in general error correction be
limited to "manipulative grammar practice"--more errors may be tolerated during
"communicative practice".
The implications of second language acquisition theory are similar. If error correction
aims at learning, it is logical to suppose that the conditions for error correction should be
identical to the conditions for utilizing learning--we should focus our students on form, and
correct their errors, only when they have time and when such diversion of attention does not
interfere with communication. This implies no error correction in free conversation, but allows
for error correction on written work and grammar exercises. This is precisely Terrell's
procedure in the Natural Approach (described in Chapter V).
3. Which errors should be corrected?
Hendrickson reviews three hypotheses and accepts them all as plausible.
117

(1) We should correct "global" errors, errors that interfere with
communication or impede the intelligibility of a message (Burt and Kiparsky,
1972). Such errors deserve top priority in correction.
(2) Errors that are the most stigmatized, that cause the most unfavorable
reactions, are the most important to correct.
(3) Errors that occur most frequently should be given top priority.
In the previous section, the linguistic domain of the Monitor was described. I
recommended that we restrict the conscious learning of rules for Monitor use according to
these characteristics: the rules to be learned should be (1) learnable, (2) portable, and (3) not
yet acquired. These characteristics might also describe which errors should be corrected, if it
is indeed the case that error correction affects only the conscious grammar. Perhaps we
should only correct mistakes that reflect rules that can be used as part of the conscious
Monitor.
This may appear to be a modest contribution to the issue of which errors are to be
corrected. Many teachers, however, try to point out or correct all errors. This suggestion
reduces the size of the task considerably. Within the small set defined by the three
characteristics of learnable, portable, and not yet acquired, we still have to make decisions,
and here considerations such as frequency, contributions to communication, and irritability
may be relevant. The overall task, however, is reduced enormously.
4. How should errors be corrected?
Hendrickson reviews several methods of error correction, including the two most widely
used:
(1) providing the correct form ("direct" correction).
(2) the discovery (inductive) approach.
He notes that little research is available that establishes the superiority of one method.
Some research shows that direct correction is not particularly effective; students who have
had direct correction of their oral and written output in instructional programs did not produce
fewer errors (Hendrickson, 1976, 1977b, cited in Hendrickson, 1978; Cohen and Robbins,
1976). This may, notes Hendrickson, be due to
118

the lack of consistent and systematic correction (Allwright, 1975; Cohen and Robbins, 1976).
Second language acquisition theory predicts that error correction will show positive
results only if the following conditions are met:
(1) Errors corrected are limited to learnable and portable rules.
(2) Errors are corrected under conditions that allow Monitor use. This will
give the learner time to reconsider the rule that was violated.
(3) Measures evaluating the efficacy of error correction are administered
under conditions that allow Monitor use, to allow the learner time to refer to his
or her conscious knowledge.
(4) Subjects are "Monitor-users" (i.e. they are not under-users of the
Monitor).
Error correction that is not done under these conditions, I predict, will not "work"; I am
also not optimistic about the efficacy of error correction even when all the above conditions
are met. As is the case with conditions for Monitor use, they are necessary but not sufficient--
even under the "best" conditions, correcting the simplest rules, with the most learning-
oriented students, teacher corrections will not produce results that will live up to the
expectations of many instructors.
B. Grammar as Subject Matter
As mentioned earlier (p. 88), "grammar" has another place in the pedagogical program,
a place that is not always clearly distinguished from its use as a conscious Monitor. This is
grammar as subject matter.
Many students (probably fewer than most of us think) are interested in the study of the
structure of language per se. They may also be interested in language change, dialects, etc.
Especially satisfying, for some students, is learning what has already been acquired, the
Eureka phenomenon described earlier in this section (p. 88). My students who recognized
that they had already acquired the three uses of the present progressive tense in English
were very satisfied and pleased to have conscious knowledge corresponding to their
subconscious knowledge. They also thought that I was an outstanding language teacher for
providing them with this kind of insight!
119

Providing learning that corresponds with previous acquisition has its advantages, but I
do not think it is language teaching--it is not input for acquisition (although the language of
classroom discussion may be; see below), and it also does not provide useful learning that
can be utilized as a supplement to acquisition, as a Monitor. It may serve one purpose,
however: it can demonstrate to the language student that acquisition is real, and that it can be
trusted. Pointing out what has been acquired may thus stimulate more faith in the acquisition
process, and lower the affective filter. It may thus be a partial cure for over-use of the Monitor.
The study of the structure of language, how it varies over time (historical linguistics)
and in society, has many general educational advantages and values that high school and
university level language programs may want to include in a program. It should be clear,
however, that teaching complex facts about the second language is not language teaching,
but rather is "language appreciation" or linguistics.
Teaching grammar as subject-matter can result in language acquisition in one
instance, however: when the target language is used as a medium of instruction. Acquisition
occurs in these classes when students are interested in the subject matter, "grammar". Very
often, when this occurs, both teachers and students are convinced that the study of formal
grammar is essential for second language acquisition, and the teacher is skilled at presenting
explanations in the target language so that the students understand. In other words, the
teacher talk, in such cases, meets the requirements for input for acquisition, as presented in
Chapter III: the input is comprehensible and considered to be relevant. The filter is low in
regard to the language of explanation, as the students' conscious efforts are usually on the
subject matter, what is being talked about, and not the medium.
This is a subtle point. In effect, both teachers and students are deceiving themselves.
They believe that it is the subject matter itself, the study of grammar, that is responsible for
the students' progress in second language acquisition, but in reality their progress is coming
from the medium and not the message. Any subject matter that held their interest would do
just as well, so far as second language acquisition is concerned, as long as it required
extensive use of the target language.
This may underlie and explain the success of many grammar-based
120

approaches. They are taught in the target language, and this provides comprehensible input
for acquisition, input that is relevant and interesting as long as the student believes that
conscious grammar is good for him. (For further discussion of such a class, see Krashen,
1980.)
Notes
1 This is not, I should point out, Seliger's interpretation. See Note 2.
2 Seliger interprets his results as being counter to the theory of second language
acquisition presented in Chapter II. His interpretation of the test, and the theory, are both
different from mine. He considers the test situation to be "formal", and "not a sample of
language within a natural context" (p. 362). There is, I think, some truth to this analysis, as
mentioned in the text. Subjects' performance, however, is consistent with the hypothesis that the
test tapped primarily acquisition--this is supported by the data and is consistent with the
hypothesis that Monitor use occurs only when several necessary conditions are met, as stated
in Chapter II and repeated in this chapter. More strange is his interpretation of the acquisition-
learning distinction and the Monitor hypothesis: his results are counter to "Monitor Theory", he
claims, since Monitor Theory maintains that "learners do what they say they do", and his data
shows this is not so. His data does indeed confirm that performers do not always do what they
say they do, but "Monitor Theory" does not, and never has, made the claim that people do what
they say they do.
Seliger outlines his own position in the same paper. Pedagogical rules, he asserts,
"most likely serve as mechanisms to facilitate the learner's focussing on those criterial attributes
of the real language concept that must be induced" (p. 368). They serve as "acquisition
facilitators" and "make the inductive hypothesis testing process more efficient" (p. 368). Seliger
provides, unfortunately, very little more than this by way of description of his hypothesis, which
he presents as an alternative to Monitor Theory. He also presents nothing in the way of
empirical support for his position. There is, moreover, a serious problem with this hypothesis: If
rule learning is so often wrong (a point we agree on), how can it be useful as an acquisition
focussing device? Also, as we have seen earlier in this section, acquisition need not be
preceded by conscious learning. Rather, the available evidence supports the hypothesis that
acquisition occurs only when the acquirer's attention is on the message, not on the form of the
input. According to the Input Hypothesis, conscious rules do not facilitate acquisition. Acquisition
occurs via a completely different route. An alternative hypothesis must deal with the evidence
supporting the Input Hypothesis, and the arguments that acquisition does not require previous
learning.
3 Before we conclude that Eva and Ue-lin simply need more drill and learning, consider
the possibility that they are among the better learners. Cohen and Robbins' subject Hung, an
"under-user" of the Monitor, also made errors on the third person singular /s/ and /-ed/,
consistent with the hypothesis that such items are typically late-acquired. In contract to Ue-lin
and Eva, Hung could not self-correct by rule, however. When confronted with a third person
singular /s/ deletion he had made, he remarked: "I guess I just never learned the rule that well,
so I just write down whatever I feel like it." (p. 52). Also, "When confronted with a sentence he
had written where an ed deletion error occurred ('He got discourage'), Hung supplied ed, but he
commented: 'I don't see
121

why'." (p. 53). Hung also noted that it was very hard for him to detect errors in his own output.
Hung is quoted many times as saying he does not pay attention to form: "I don't care the
grammar (p. 50)... I just never learned the rules that well.... I just write down what I feel like it (p.
59)... I get kind of bored when I study English" (p. 51). Again, many people, despite exposure in
class, have practically no idea of rules that seem straightforward to us.
4 In a recent study, J. Brown (1980) administered a grammar-type test whose format was
quite similar to that of Larsen-Freeman. Subjects only had to supply one morpheme, as in:
I __________ (talk) to John yesterday.
The test was administered with no time limit to 66 ESL students with a variety of first
languages at Marymount Palos Verdes College. Here is the difficulty order Brown reported:
Auxiliary 96% correct
Copula 94.2%
Regular past 92%
Plural 91.8%
The (def art) 88.2%
Irregular past 88%
a (indef art) 86.6%
Ø (art) 85.8%
Possessive 80.2%
ing 80.2%
Third person sing 77%
This order, Brown reports, correlates significantly with other second language
morpheme orders (rho = 0.73), compared to Andersen, 1978). It is analyzed somewhat
differently from other studies in that the allomorphs of article are presented separately; they are
very close in rank order, however.
Brown's order is difficult to interpret due to the closely bunched scores. The order
appears to be similar to other L2 orders in the literature with two exceptions: ing is unusually
low, and regular past is unusually high (see Chapter II, Hypothesis 2). The high rank of regular
past is consistent with my hypothesis that such formats encourage Monitor use, which results in
a jump in accuracy of the rank of late-acquired but easy to learn morphemes. I have no handy
explanation for ing's relatively poor showing, nor can I account for the third person singular's
low rank in this Monitored test. Brown's high correlation with other studies is counter to some of
my claims, but the rise in regular past is not.
5 It is very interesting to note that accuracy for the third person singular in other Monitor-
free studies is very similar to the accuracy found in the composition study for the "free"
condition. In Bailey, Madden, and Krashen (1974), using the BSM, third person singular
accuracy was 0.41, while in Krashen Houck, Giunchi, Bode, Birnbaum, and Strei (1977), using
free speech, accuracy for this morpheme was 0.36. Compare to Table 4.3, where accuracy in
the two free conditions is 0.54 and 0.32, going up to 0.61 and 0.65 in the edited condition,
respectively. This similarity is consistent with the hypothesis that the edited condition involved
light Monitor use, and that late-acquired, easy items are most apt to be affected.
6 In focussing on the regular past and third person singular, I by no means wish to imply
that these are the only points of grammar that can be consciously Monitored. They are,
122

rather, typical of what can be Monitored, and are convenient to follow through several studies
since they are mentioned and analyzed so often.
7 Several other studies also pertain to Monitoring ability but do not focus on self-
correction. As described earlier, Krashen, Butler, Birnbaum and Robertson (1978) asked ESL
students at USC to write "free" and "edited" compositions in English (conditions 1 and 2). In
both cases, natural orders were found, with a slight increase in the third person singular
morpheme in the edited condition. There also was a 6% overall increase for the edited
condition for the six morphemes analyzed, for the group as a whole with some individual
variation according to first language, Farsi speakers being the most efficient, showing a 16%
gain in accuracy in the edited condition. This is a different measure than that described in the
text, since subjects wrote completely new and different essays. Tucker and Sarofin (1979)
presented 18 "advanced intermediate" Arabic speaking students at the American University at
Cairo with 14 deviant sentences. Students were asked to "draw a line underneath the error and
correct it if you can" (p. 32). This corresponds to condition (3). The range of the proportion of
errors corrected was from 33% to 83%, depending on the error, with errors of "number" being
easiest to correct (as in * So I took the advices of my parents).
Lightbown, Spada and Wallace (1980) also contributes to our knowledge of Monitor
efficiency. They gave their subjects, grade 6, 8, and 10 students of EFL in Quebec, a test of
grammaticality judgments in English. Subjects were asked to circle the errors in a sentence and
write the correct form. The study focussed on these structures:
Plural /s/
Possessive /s/
Third person singular /s/
Contractable copula /s/
Contractable auxiliary /s/
Be, used for expressing age (e.g. I am six years old. This is considered a
problem structure for French speakers.)
Prepositions of location (They are going to school.)
The test was given three times, the first two administrations being only two weeks
apart, the third coming five months later, after summer vacation. In between administrations I
and II, the rules used on the test were reviewed in class. Lightbown et al. report some
improvement from time I to time II--the review in class resulted in a modest but noticeable 11%
improvement for grades 8 and 10, compared to 3% for control students who simple retook the
test without review, and a 7% increase for the 6th graders (no controls were run for the 6th
grade). In the third administration, five months later, scores fell back to a level between
administration I and II.
The results of Lightbown et al. are consistent with those reported in the text, even
though the task is not self-correction but is correction of errors presented to the student, as in
Tucker and Sarafin. The students were only able to correct approximately 1/4 to 1/3 of these
errors, despite two to six years of formal study and despite the fact that the structures involved
were fairly straightforward. The task corresponds to condition (3) in Table 4.4.
Review of the rules in class also had a modest effect, much of which was lost after
summer vacation. I concur with Lightbown et al.'s interpretation that "improvements on the
second administration were based on the application of knowledge temporarily retained at a
conscious level, but not fully acquired". The results of administration III show just how
temporary learned knowledge is.
Lightbown et al. also provide an analysis of results for individual structures. They note
123

that subjects made significant ("dramatic") improvement from time I to time II on the be/have
rule and on the third person singular. This supports, they note, my hypothesis that simpler rules
are easier to consciously learn, since the description of both of these rules is relatively
straightforward. There was also a significant improvement of a much less transparent rule, the
use of locative prepositions, and the plural, which appears to be "easy", did not, however, show
large gains.
Difficulty orders for the /s/ morphemes conformed to the natural order presented in
Chapter II, confirming both the reliability of the natural order itself, and the claim that it takes
more than condition (3) to disturb the natural order significantly (i.e. condition (3) does not focus
on form strongly enough). (See Lightbown, in press, for a discussion of the effect of classroom
input on morpheme orders.)
8 In an earlier paper (Krashen, Seliger and Hartnett, 1974), we suggest a compromise:
teach rule-first, which will satisfy the deductive students. The inductive students can simple
ignore the rule presentation. "Practice" can then serve as practice in rule application
(Monitoring) for the deductive students, and as rule-searching for the inductive students. The
rule can be (re)stated after the practice, a review for deductive students and confirmation for
the inductive students' hypothesis.
124

Chapter V
Approaches to Language Teaching
Chapters III and IV were devoted to a discussion of the general implications of second
language acquisition theory. Chapter III described the characteristics of optimal input for
acquisition, hypothesizing that language acquisition takes place best when input is provided
that is:
(1) Comprehensible
(2) Interesting and/or relevant to the acquirer.
(3) Not grammatically sequenced.
(4) Provided in sufficient quantity.
The presentation of this input, moreover, should be done in a way that does not put the
acquirer "on the defensive"; it should not raise or strengthen the affective filter. In addition,
acquirers need to be provided with tools to help them obtain more input from the outside
world.
Chapter IV tried to "put learning in its place". Conscious rules should be used only
when they do not interfere with communication. In addition, only a small part of the grammar
is both learnable and "portable" for most people. Rules that seem very transparent to
professional linguists and language teachers may be quite opaque even to "good language
learners". We also concluded that the effects of learning are quite modest in terms of
syntactic accuracy, but that the application of conscious rules may provide a cosmetic effect
that is important for some language students. Chapter IV also discussed the fact that
conscious grammar can be taught as subject matter; acquisition results if such a course is
taught in the target language. This "language appreciation" function, however, needs to be
distinguished from the Monitor function for grammar.
The goal of the first part of this chapter is to analyze some current approaches
125

to language teaching in terms of the conclusions of Chapters III and IV. The results of this
analysis will then be compared with the results of what applied linguistics research has been
done in the area of "method comparisons". My interpretation will be that in this case, current
second language acquisition theory and applied linguistics research come to very similar
conclusions.
The next section examines some alternatives to the traditional classroom, alternatives
that seem to have the advantage of satisfying input requirement #2 (the "interesting/relevant"
requirement) far better than any traditional classroom approach. Next, there is a brief
discussion of the implications these ideas have for second language testing. I will suggest
that we need to carefully consider what effects our achievement tests have on student and
teacher behavior. Our goal in testing is this: when students "study for the test", they should be
doing things that encourage or cause second language acquisition. The final sections of this
chapter deal with what I perceive to be some gaps in materials, and some of the practical
problems in implementing the suggestions made here.
A. Present-day Teaching Methods
The conclusions of Chapters III and IV can be summarized as the matrix in Fig. 5.1.
We can simply ask, for each approach to classroom teaching, to what extent it satisfies the
requirements for optimal input and to what extent it puts learning in its proper place. We will
review what are surely the most widely used methods, grammar-translation, audio-lingualism,
cognitive-code teaching, and one version of the direct method. We will then cover some new
approaches, Asher's Total Physical Response method, Terrell's Natural Approach and
Lozanov's Suggestopedia. (Several very interesting methods are not included, such as
Gattegno's Silent Way and Curren's Counseling-Learning method. This is due to several
factors, including my own lack of familiarity with these methods, the lack of empirical data
comparing these methods to others, and the availability of Stevick's excellent analysis
(Stevick, 1980).) The brief description supplied at the beginning of each analysis is not
intended to be a full and adequate description of each method, but is intended to serve only to
inform the reader
126

Fig. 5.1. Evaluation schema for methods and materials
Requirements for optimal input
1. Comprehensible
2. Interesting/relevant
3. Not grammatically sequenced
4. Quantity
5. Filter level ("off the defensive")
6. Provides tools for conversational management
Learning
Restricted to:
1. Certain rules; those that are
a. learnable
b. portable
c. not yet acquired
2. Certain people ("Monitor users")
3. Certain situations
a. time
b. focus on form
what my understanding of each method is. It should also be pointed out that this analysis
assumes that the methods are used in their pure forms, a situation which, I am sure, does not
occur in every classroom.
1. GRAMMAR-TRANSLATION
While there is some variation, grammar-translation usually consists of the following
activities:
(1) Explanation of a grammar rule, with example sentences.
(2) Vocabulary, presented in the form of a bilingual list.
(3) A reading selection, emphasizing the rule presented in (1) above
and the vocabulary presented in (2).
(4) Exercises designed to provide practice on the grammar and
vocabulary of the lesson. These exercises emphasize the conscious
control of structure ("focus on", in the sense of Krashen
and Seliger, 1975) and include translation in both directions,
from L1 to L2 and L2 to L1.
Most grammar-translation classes are designed for foreign language instruction and
are taught in the student's first language. We turn now to an analysis of grammar-translation
in terms of the matrix in Fig. 5.1.
127

(a) Requirements for optimal input
(i) Comprehensible. It can only be claimed that grammar-translation provides scraps of
comprehensible input. The model sentences are usually understandable, but the focus is
entirely on form, and not meaning. The reading selection is the primary source, but the
selections provided are nearly always much too difficult, often requiring what Newmark (1966)
calls "crytoanalytic decoding". Students are forced to read word by word, and consequently
rarely focus completely on the message. The sentences used in the exercises may be
comprehensible, but here again, as in the model sentences, they are designed to focus the
students on form.
(ii) Interesting/relevant. There is usually an attempt, especially in recent years, to
provide topics of interest in the reading selection, but the usual topics fall far short of the
Forgetting Principle (Chapter III). They clearly do not seize the students' attention to such an
extent that they forget that it is written in another language--reports of a trip to France, even if
it includes the Louvre, generally do not provide information that most high school and college
students in the United States are eager to obtain.
(iii) Not grammatically sequenced. Grammar-translation is, of course, grammatically
sequenced, the majority of texts attempting to proceed from what the author considers easy
rules to more complex rules. Each lesson introduces certain rules, and these rules dominate
the lesson.
(iv) Quantity. As discussed above, grammar-translation fails to provide a great deal of
comprehensible input. The small amount of comprehensible input in the model sentences, the
readings, and exercises is, moreover, rarely supplemented by teacher talk in the target
language.
(v) Affective filter level. In Chapter III, it was hypothesized that one way to encourage a
low filter was to be "true" to the Input Hypothesis.
128

Grammar-translation violates nearly every component of the Input Hypothesis, and it is
therefore predicted that this method will have the effect of putting the student "on the
defensive". Students are expected to be able to produce immediately, and are expected to be
fully accurate. Anxiety level, it has been pointed out, is also raised for some students who are
less inclined toward grammar study (under-users), as pointed out by Rivers, 1968.
(vi) Tools for conversational management. Grammar-translation makes no attempt,
explicitly or implicitly, to help students manage conversations with native speakers.
(b) Learning
Grammar-translation implicitly assumes that conscious control of grammar is
necessary for mastery. In other words, learning needs to precede acquisition. This
assumption necessitates that all target structures be introduced and explained. There is,
therefore, no limitation of the set of rules to be learned to those that are learnable, portable,
and not yet acquired, as suggested in Chapter IV. There is no attempt to account for
individual variation in Monitor use, nor is there any attempt to specify when rules are to be
used, the implicit assumption being that all students will be able to use all the rules all the
time!
(c) Summary
Grammar-translation, if the above analysis is correct, should result in very low amounts
of acquired competence; what comprehensible input is available faces a high affective filter,
and learning is vastly overemphasized.
2. AUDIO-LINGUALISM
Here are the common features of audio-lingual language teaching. Again, there may be
substantial variation in practice. The lesson typically begins with a dialogue, which contains
the structures and vocabulary of the lesson. The student is expected to mimic the dialogue
and
129

eventually memorize it (termed "mim-mem"). Often, the class practices the dialogue as a
group, and then in smaller groups. The dialogue is followed by pattern drill on the structures
introduced in the dialogue. The aim of the drill is to "strengthen habits", to make the pattern
"automatic".
Lado (1964) notes that audio-lingual pattern drills focus the students' attention away
from the new structure. For example, the student may think he is learning vocabulary in an
exercise such as:
That's a __________. (key, knife, pencil, etc.)
(cued by pictures, as in Lado and Fries, 1958)
but in reality, according to audio-lingual theory, the student is making the pattern automatic.
There are four basic drill types: simple repetition, substitution (as in the example
above), transformation (e.g. changing and affirmative sentence into a negative sentence), and
translation.
Following drill, some audio-lingual classes provide explanation. According to
proponents of audio-lingualism, the explanation is a description of what was practiced, not a
prescription of what to say. The "rules" presented are therefore not to be considered
instructions on how to perform. The explanation section is considered optional, since, in our
terms, it is "language appreciation".
(i) Comprehensible. It can be maintained that audio-lingual methodology does provide
comprehensible input. The dialogues and pattern practice are certainly understandable by
most students, although some theorists have said that in early parts of a lesson actual
comprehension is not necessary, that purely mechanical drill is useful.
(ii) Interesting/relevant. While Lado (1964) advises that the dialogue contain "useful"
language, that it be age-appropriate and natural, most dialogues fall far short of the mark of
true interest and relevance. Most pattern practice, of course, makes no attempt to meet this
requirement.
130

(iii) Not grammatically sequenced. There is a clear sequence in audio-lingual teaching,
based usually on linguistic simplicity, but also influenced by frequency and predictions of
difficulty by contrastive analysis. As is the case with grammar-translation, the entire lesson is
dominated by the "structure of the day".
(iv) Quantity. While audio-lingual teaching is capable of filling an entire class hour with
aural-oral language, it is quite possible to argue that audio-lingualism does not meet this
requirement as well as other methods (see below). While the presentation of a dialogue, for
example, may take up a full period, students spend very little of this time focussing on the
message, which is presented over and over. The goal is the memorization of the dialogue, not
the comprehension of a message. Pattern practice may also be comprehensible in theory, but
students probably do not attend to meaning after the first few repetitions (Lee, McCune and
Patton, 1970). Indeed, according to some practitioners, the idea behind pattern practice is to
avoid meaning altogether. For both dialogues and pattern practice, the entire hour might be
spent with just a few sentences or patterns, as compared to the wide variety real
communication gives.
(v) Affective filter level. Audio-lingual teaching violates several aspects of the Input
Hypothesis: production is expected immediately, and is expected to be error-free. Over-use of
drill and repetition, procedures such as not allowing students access to the written word in
early stages may also add to anxiety (see, for example, Schumann and Schumann (1978) pp.
5-6).
(vi) Tools for conversational management. Audio-lingualism does a slightly better job in
this category than does grammar-translation, as the dialogues do contain material that can be
used to invite input and to control its quality. The applicability of dialogues to free
conversation and to genuine conversational management may be limited, however. Most
dialogues are actually scripts, and are not designed to be used to negotiate meaning.
131

(b) Learning
Theoretically, conscious learning is not an explicit goal of audio-lingualism. The goal,
rather, is to have the student over-learn a variety of patterns to be used directly in
performance. In practice, however, audio-lingual teaching often results in inductive learning,
the student attempting to work out a conscious rule on the basis of the dialogue and pattern
practice, with the explanation section serving to confirm or disconfirm his guess. There is thus
no explicit attempt to restrict learning to rules that are learnable, portable and not yet
acquired, nor is there any attempt to encourage rule use only in certain situations. Despite the
fact that pattern practice attempt to focus students off rules, the requirement of complete
correctness probably encourages Monitor use at all times.
(c) Summary
Some acquisition should result from the use of the audio-lingual method, but nowhere
near what is obtainable with other methods that provide a larger amount of comprehensible
and interesting/relevant input with a low filter. The diet of dialogues and patterns will
occasionally be understood and be at i + 1, and may thus cause some acquisition. If learned
according to plan, students will end up with a stock of sentences and patterns that will be of
occasional use in conversation, and also serve the conversational management goal, to some
extent. Inductive learning is implicitly encouraged (which may raise the filter for some
deductive learners; see Chapter V), but no attempt is made to limit which rules are to be
learned or when they are to be applied.
3. COGNITIVE-CODE
Cognitive-code bears some similarity to grammar-translation, but also differs in some
ways. While the goal of grammar-translation is basically to help students read literature in the
target language, cognitive code attempts to help the student in all four skills, speaking and
listening in addition to reading and writing. The assumptions are similar, however, insofar as
cognitive code posits that "competence precedes
132

performance". In this case, "competence" is not the tacit knowledge of the native speaker, as
originally defined by Chomsky (1965), but is conscious knowledge. Cognitive code assumes,
as mentioned in Chapter III, that "once the student has a proper degree of cognitive control
over the structures of a language, facility will develop automatically with the use of language
in meaningful situations" (Carroll, 1966, p. 102). In other words, learning becomes acquisition.
As in grammar-translation, the lesson begins with an explanation of the rule, and this is
often done, in foreign language situations, in the students' first language. Exercises follow,
and these are meant to help the student practice the rule consciously. In other words, Monitor
use is actively promoted. Exercises are followed by activities labelled "communicative
competence". This term has been used in the literature in several ways; in cognitive-code
literature it appears to be synonymous with "fluency". These activities provide the practice in
meaningful situations referred to in the quote from Carroll above, and include dialogues,
games, role playing activities, etc.
(i) Comprehensible. The explanation and exercise section, as is the case with
grammar-translation, will provide very little comprehensible input, as the focus, at all times, is
on form and not meaning. The "communicative competence" section of cognitive-code
promises to provide greater amounts of comprehensible input, but this potential is diminished
if activities are limited by the desire to contextualize the "rule of the day". This practice, as
claimed in Chapter III, limits the structures used (which may deny the student the i + 1 he
needs), limits what can be discussed, and disturbs the naturalness of the communication.
(ii) Interesting/relevant. This depends, of course, on the activities chosen for the
communicative competence section. Regardless of what is chosen, however, the goal
remains the learning of a specific structure, and because of this it is nearly impossible to
satisfy the Forgetting Principle.
133

(iii) Not grammatically sequenced. Cognitive-code, like grammar-translation, is
sequenced, and the structure of the day dominates all parts of the lesson.
(iv) Quantity. Thanks to the communicative competence section, there is greater
quantity of comprehensible input in cognitive-code, as compared to grammar-translation. It
does not, however, live up to the ideal of a class full of comprehensible input with total focus
on the message, since the communicative competence section is only a part of the program
and even here, the focus is on form.
(v) Affective filter level. Error correction on all output is part of most cognitive-code
classrooms, students are expected to produce right away, and it is expected that this
production will be accurate. This predicts a high filter for many students.
(vi) Tools for conversational management. There is no announced attempt to provide
this, but it is quite possible that some activities in the communicative competence section will
provide some of these tools.
(b) Learning
As is the case with grammar-translation, the assumption of cognitive-code is that
conscious learning can be accomplished by everyone, that all rules are learnable, and that
conscious knowledge should be available at all times. We can only conclude that cognitive-
code encourages over-use of the Monitor, unless all rules "fade away" as soon as the
structures become automatic.
(c) Summary
Cognitive-code should provide greater quantities of comprehensible input than
grammar-translation does, and hence more acquisition, but does not come near to fulfilling
the potential of the classroom. As in grammar-translation, learning is overemphasized.
134

4. THE DIRECT METHOD
The term "direct method" has been used to refer to many different approaches to
second language teaching. I will use it here to refer specifically to de Sauzé's method and its
present day versions, namely Pucciani and Hamel's method for French (see Langue et
Langage), and similar versions for Spanish developed by Barcia.
Here are the characteristics of the direct method, as I understand it. First, all
discussion, all classroom language, is the target language. This includes the language of the
exercises and teacher talk used for classroom management. The method focusses on
inductive teaching of grammar. The goal of the instruction is for the students to guess, or work
out, the rules of the language. To aid in induction, the teacher asks questions that are
hopefully interesting and meaningful, and the students' response is then used to provide an
example of the target structure. If this is well done, it can give a direct method session the
mood of a conversation class. Let me repeat my favorite example from an earlier paper
(Krashen, 1980), one that one of my teachers used in a direct method French class. The goal
of this exercise was to teach the conjunction "bien que", and the fact that its presence
requires the following verb to be subjunctive:
Teacher: Fait-il beau aujour'dhui?
Student: Non, Il ne fait pas beau aujourd'hui.
Teacher: Irez-vous cependent à la plage pendant le week-end?
Student: Oui, j'irai cependent à la plage pendant le week-end.
Teacher: Irez-vous à la plage bien qu'il ne fasse pas beau?
Student: Oui, j'irai à la plage bien qu'il ne ...
My teacher used this particular example on a determined beach-goer, and generally tried to
tailor questions to students' interests.
The direct method insists on accuracy and errors are corrected in class. After several
exchanges of the sort given above, when the teacher considers that enough examples have
been given, the rule is discussed and explained in the target language.
(i) Comprehensible. The direct method, with its insistence on the use
135

of the target language at all times, provides a great deal of comprehensible input. As is the
case with the Natural Approach, the entire period is filled with target language use with a
variety of topics and structures utilized.
(ii) Interesting/relevant. As mentioned above, there is an attempt to make the language
use in the classroom of some interest to the students. The goal of the lesson, however, is
grammar teaching, and as discussed earlier, this puts heavy constraints on what can be
discussed. Discussion is always meaningful, but is rarely genuinely communicative.
According to Pucciani and Hamel's manual, sentences such as:
Est-ce que votre pantalon est vieux ou neuf? (198)
Mangez-vous des carottes? (236)
Qui prepare le diner dans votre famille? (237)
Est-ce que vous vous rasez tous les matins? (297)
are recommended to help the student induce various points of grammar. As with other
methods that rely on contextualization (see e.g. discussion of the Silent way), the requirement
that all discussion embed a grammar point makes this requirement hard to meet.
(iii) Not grammatically sequenced. The direct method is strictly sequenced, which
distorts efforts at real communication.
(iv) Quantity. As mentioned above, the direct method meets this requirement as well as
any classroom method can, filling the entire hour with comprehensible input.
(v) Affective filter level. The insistence on grammatical accuracy at very early stages,
the use of error correction, and the grammatical focus of the course may cause anxiety and a
high filter for all but the most dedicated Monitor user.
(vi) Tools for conversational management. Students are given the tools for interaction
in the classroom in the target language--they are soon able to initiate discussion with the
teacher and ask questions
136

about grammar. Some of this conversational, or better, "classroom competence" will be useful
on the outside, but some will not. There is no explicit goal of providing tools for conversation
with a more competent native speaker.
(b) Learning
The direct method presumes that conscious control is necessary for acquisition, that
conscious knowledge of grammar can be accessed at all times, and by all students. It
demands full control of late-acquired structures in oral production from the very beginning
(e.g. gender), and may thus encourage over-use of the grammar.
(c) Summary
The direct method provides greater amounts of comprehensible input than many of its
competitors. It remains, however, grammar-based, and this constrains its ability to provide
truly interesting messages, and leads to over-use of the Monitor. The direct method,
according to informal reports, has been very successful with certain populations, among
students who have intrinsic motivation for language study and who believe that the study of
conscious grammar is essential. For these students, the inductive study of grammar is in itself
interesting, and provides all the interest necessary. In other words, grammar is subject matter.
Acquisition, SLA theory predicts, comes from the teacher talk used to present the grammar.
(See Chapter IV for discussion, and Krashen, 1980.)
5. THE NATURAL APPROACH
The Natural Approach was developed by Tracy Terrell at the University of California at
Irvine for foreign language instruction at the university and high school levels. While originally
developed independently of "Monitor Theory", its later development and articulation have
been influenced by the second language acquisition theory presented in this volume. The
method can be described by the following principles:
137

1. Classtime is devoted primarily to providing input for acquisition.
2. The teacher speaks only the target language in the classroom.
Students may use either the first or second language. If they
choose to respond in the second language, their errors are not
corrected unless communication is seriously impaired.
3. Homework may include formal grammar work. Error correction
is employed in correcting homework.
4. The goals of the course are "semantic"; activities may involve the
use of a certain structure, but the goals are to enable students to
talk about ideas, perform tasks, and solve problems.
(i) Comprehensible. The entire goal of classroom practice in the Natural Approach is to
provide comprehensible input. Natural Approach teachers utilize realia, pictures, and
students' previous knowledge to make their speech comprehensible from the first day.
(ii) Interesting/relevant. This is a serious problem for a foreign language class. Natural
Approach attempts to capture students' interest by using what Terrell terms "Affective
Acquisition Activities", adapted from Christensen, that encourage discussion of topics of
personal interest to the students (e.g. "Suppose you are a famous person, and there is a
newspaper article about you. Tell at least one thing about yourself which is mentioned in the
article..."). In the early stages of the Natural Approach, classroom discussion focusses on
personal information, the goal being to establish a group feeling. Later, students discuss their
past histories, and eventually they are able to talk about their hopes and plans for the future.
(iii) Not grammatically sequenced. The focus of the class is not on the presentation of
grammar. There is a tendency for certain structures to be used more often in certain stages,
but there is no deliberate sequencing.
(iv) Quantity. Since the entire class period is filled with comprehensible
138

input, the Natural Approach meets this requirement as well as any foreign language teaching
method can.
(v) Affective filter level. Since the Natural Approach attempt to remain "true" to the
Input Hypothesis, many sources of anxiety are reduced or eliminated. Students do not have to
produce in the second language until they feel they are ready. Error correction for form is not
done in the classroom. Also, an attempt is made to discuss topics that are interesting to
students. This predicts lower filter strength than most other methods.
(vi) Tools for conversational management. Some tools for conversational management
are provided in the form of very short dialogues, designed to help students converse with
native speakers on predictable and frequent topics. Also, students are introduced, right from
the beginning, to phrases and expressions that will help them control the teacher's input (e.g.
"I don't understand", "What does _________ mean?", etc.).
(b) Learning
The Natural Approach is designed to be consistent with what is known of Monitor
functioning. The absence of error correction in the classroom is a recognition that there are
constraints on when the conscious grammar is used: students are expected to utilize the
Monitor only at home, when they have time, when they are focussed on form, and when they
know, or are learning, a rule. At the university level, grammar homework is assigned to
everyone, but it is conceivable that the Natural Approach can be adapted for variations in
Monitor use, with varying amounts of homework, or different type homework assignments for
under, or optimal users. While little experimentation has been done with children, SLA theory
predicts that younger children would not profit from grammar homework, while older children
and adolescents might be able to handle limited amounts. (For more detail, see Terrell, 1977.)
139

(c) Summary
The Natural Approach makes a deliberate effort to fit all requirements for both Learning
and Acquisition. Its only weakness, according to SLA theory, is that it remains a classroom
method, and for some students this prohibits the communication of interesting and relevant
topics (see discussion below).
6. TOTAL PHYSICAL RESPONSE
This unique method was developed by James Asher, and is described in many of his
journal papers and his book (Asher, 1977a). Total Physical Response, or TPR, consists
basically of obeying commands given by the instructor that involve an overt physical
response. The instructor, for example, says "stand up" and the class stands up. The
commands become more complex as the class progresses, and Asher claims that it is quite
possible to embed vast amounts of syntax into the form of a command. Students speak only
when they are "ready", which usually occurs at around 10 hours of instruction, and consists of
student commands. In the typical TPR class (as described by Asher, Kusudo, and de la Torre,
1974), the first few months (45 hours in this case) would consist of 70% listening
comprehension (obeying commands), 20% speaking, and 10% reading and writing. Asher
(1977b) lists the three principles of the TPR system:
(i) Delay speech from students until understanding of spoken language "has been
extensively internalized" (p. 1041).
(ii) "Achieve understanding of spoken language through utterances by the instructor in
the imperative" (p. 1041).
(iii) "Expect that, at some point in the understanding of spoken language, students will
indicate a 'readiness' to talk" (p. 1041).1 *
(i) Comprehensible. TPR meets this requirement. The total physical response required
of the student is, in effect, a manifestation of his comprehension of the teacher's utterance. It
can, in fact, be argued that a TPR is not necessary for comprehension or for progress in
second
140

language acquisition, but merely shows that the input has been understood. Asher's own
research supports the view that the use of the TPR is not essential. A series of studies using
children (Asher, 1966; Asher and Price, 1967) and adults (Kunihira and Asher, 1965; Asher,
1965, 1969) shows that students who merely observe a TPR do as well as those who perform
TPR's on tests that demand a TPR. Both groups, those who observed TPR's and those who
performed them, outperformed students who wrote their answers on tests. This suggests that
Asher's second principle may not be necessary, but may be simply an effective device to
focus students on the input and to keep them actively involved.
(ii) Interesting/relevant. The novelty and freshness of the TPR technique probably does
a great deal to make the class experience interesting. It may be difficult to remain interesting
if one holds to the requirement of producing imperatives 100% of the time, however (Asher
nowhere recommends this).
(iii) Not grammatically sequenced. According to Asher's description, each lesson does
have a grammatical focus in TPR. In other words, commands contextualize various points of
grammar. As discussed earlier, this can hinder efforts to meet requirement 2 above. There is
nothing inherent in the TPR approach that demands a grammatical focus, however.
(iv) Quantity. TPR can fill an entire class period with comprehensible input in the form
of commands. It thus has the potential of meeting this requirement fully.
(v) Affective filter level. TPR makes one very important contribution to lowering student
anxiety: students are not asked to produce in the second language until they themselves
decide they are ready. They are, in other words, allowed a silent period. Asher does not state
explicitly whether error correction on early student output is required in TPR; this may vary
from teacher to teacher. It has been pointed out,
141

however, that the necessity of producing overt physical responses right away may provoke
anxiety in some students.
(vi) Tools for conversational management. This is no explicit mention of this in Asher's
papers.
(b) Learning
The assumption of TPR is that grammar will be learned inductively, that is, students will
work out the correct form of the rule during the class activity. In terms of the theory presented
in this book, this can be interpreted as claiming that much of the grammar will be acquired
and/or inductively learned in the technical sense of inductive learning. (See Chapter IV for
discussion of the difference between inductive learning and acquisition.) The emphasis on
listening comprehension and the delay of speech will, in itself, prevent much misuse of
conscious learning: students will tend not to monitor their output for form in inappropriate
circumstances and they will not use rules unsuited for Monitor use if there is less demand for
production.
(c) Summary
Second Language Acquisition theory predicts that TPR should result in substantial
language acquisition, and should not encourage overuse of the conscious Monitor. The use of
TPR insures the active participation of students, helps the teacher know when utterances are
understood, and also provides contexts to help students understand the language they hear.
It may fail to completely satisfy the interesting/relevant requirement, first, since it is a
classroom method, and second, because of constraints imposed by the continuous use of
imperatives and the grammatical focus of lessons. It should, however, do far better than
methods such as audio-lingual and grammar-translation.
7. SUGGESTOPEDIA
From what I have read in the sources available to me, the "classic" Suggestopedia
class, as conducted in Lozanov's Institute of Suggestology in Sofia, Bulgaria, consists of the
following. Courses are given to
142

small groups, around 12 students at a time, and are intensive, meeting for four hours per day
for one month. Each four-hour class, according to Bancroft (1978), consists of three parts:
1. Review, done via traditional conversations, games, plays, etc. It
may include some exercises and error correction, but does not include
the use of a language lab or pattern drill.
2. Presentation of new material. New material is introduced in the
form of dialogues based on situations familiar to the students.
Bancroft notes that "new material is presented in a somewhat
traditional way, with the necessary grammar and translation" (p.
170). The dialogues are very long. According to Bushman and
Madsen (1976), they run from 10 to 14 pages.
3. This portion is the "truly original feature" of Suggestopedia
(Bancroft, p. 170), and is itself divided into two parts. In the first
part, the active seance, the dialogue is read by the teacher, while
students follow the text and engage in deep and rhythmic Yoga
breathing. These activities are co-ordinated: "In accordance with
the students' breathing, the teacher reads the language materials
in the following order and with the following timing: Bulgarian
(L1) translation (two seconds); foreign language phrase (four
seconds); pause (two seconds). While the foreign language
phrase is being read, the students retain their breath for four seconds,
look at the appropriate part of the text, and mentally repeat
to themselves the given phrase or word-group in the FL.
Concentration is greatly promoted by the retention or suspension
of breath" (Bancroft, p. 171).
The second part, labelled the passive or convert part of the seance, involves music.
The central activity is the teacher's reading of the dialogue "with an emotional intonation"
(Bancroft, p. 171). The students, "with eyes closed, meditate on the text" while baroque music
is played. The musical selections are specifically chosen to contribute to a "state of relaxation
and meditation... that is necessary for unconscious absorption of the language materials"
(Bancroft, p. 172).
In discussing adaptions of the Sofia method, Bancroft notes that "three elements of the
Lozanov Method are considered essential for the system to work effectively: (1) an attractive
classroom (with soft
143

lighting) and a pleasant classroom atmosphere; (2) a teacher with a dynamic personality who
is able to act out the materials and motivate the students to learn; (3) a state of relaxed
alertness in the students..." (p. 172).
In Suggestopedia, each member of the class is given a new name and role to play, "to
overcome inhibitions" (p. 170). Other Suggestopedia techniques and attitudes will be
discussed below, as we work through the analysis according to input requirements for
acquisition.
(i) Comprehensible. Several Suggestopedia procedures are specifically designed to aid
comprehensibility of input. Initial dialogues are based on situations familiar to the student, and
the use of the students' first language in Part One is partially justified on the ground that it
helps the student confirm that he has indeed understood the text presented in the target
language (Racle, 1979, p. 100).
(ii) Interesting/relevant. The topics of the dialogues are designed not only to be of
inherent interest, but also to be of some practical value and relevant to students' needs. In a
Suggestopedia course designed to teach French to Anglophone public servants in Canada, at
the Public Service Commission in Ottawa, the aim was to take into account both student
interest and their communicative needs in the office situation (Public Service Commission,
1975). Also, Novakov, cited (and translated into French) by Racle, 1979, notes that "Les
situations présentées sont typiques, réelles, contiennent un message et sont proches de
l'expérience des élèves, ce qui facilite leur activité" (p. 99).
(iii) Filter level. While Suggestopedia attempts to meet the other goals discussed both
above and below, its primary focus and greatest apparent success is here. Practically every
feature of Suggestopedia is aimed at relaxing the student, reducing anxieties, removing
mental blocks, and building confidence. Here are just a few more examples:
The design of the classroom is meant to produce "a pleasant and warm environment"
(Public Service Commission, 1975, p. 29). Students are seated on comfortable chairs in a
circle to "encourage informal contact and free natural communication" (Bushman and
Madsen,
144

1976, p. 32). The traditional classroom, it is felt, "calls to mind the frustration, failure, and
artificiality of many previous learning efforts" (Bushman and Madsen, p. 32).
The special breathing exercises have as their goal both increased mental alertness
and reduction of tension. Bancroft reports that American adaptions of Suggestopedia also
utilize physical exercises (stretching and bending), and "mind-calming exercises", in addition
to Yogic breathing to help students achieve the desired state of relaxed alertness.
Music is also used as a means of lowering anxiety and diminishing tension, and
inducing the state of relaxed alertness considered optimal for second language acquisition
(see Racle, 1980, pp. 73-74).
Another key Suggestopedic idea aimed at lowering the filter is the behavior of the
teacher. Suggestopedia considers the "authority" of the teacher to be very important ("an
integral part of the method and not just a desirable characteristic of the teacher"; Stevick,
1980, p. 238). The teacher's behavior is meant to build the students' confidence both in their
own potential for second language acquisition and in the method itself; the teacher should be
confident, but not tyrannical, exercise firm over-all control but also encourage student initiative
(for excellent discussion, see Stevick, 1980, Chapters 2 and 18).
(iv) Not grammatically sequenced. There is a deliberate attempt to include a certain
amount of grammar during the first one month intensive course (Racle, 1978, p. 95 lists the
structures covered for French). It does not appear to be the case, however, that a rigid
sequence is followed. All writers on Suggestopedia I have read emphasize that the focus,
from the very beginning, is on communication, and the dialogues do not seem to focus on
specific points of grammar. According to Bushman and Madsen, "Dialogues are rambling
conversations loosely aggregated around common themes, which cover a great deal of
territory with considerable built-in redundancy" (p. 33). In our terms, Suggestopedia seems to
depend on the net of grammatical structures provided by successful communication.
(v) Quantity. Suggestopedia seems to meet this requirement as well. While there is
some explanation in the first language, the long and varied dialogue dominates the session,
both as pure input and as a basis for communicative use of the L2.
145

(vi) Tools for conversational management. This is not mentioned explicitly, but may be
covered, since the dialogues attempt to be realistic. Texts used in the Public Service
Commission course in Canada were apparently designed to allow and promote conversation
in Public Service offices as well as elsewhere. There is no explicit mention, however, of giving
students the tools they need to converse with more competent speakers.
(b) Learning
According to Bushman and Madsen (1976), "Content precedes form. Accurate
pronunciation and grammar are to come in due course" (p. 32). While there is error correction
and grammar explanation in part one of each lesson, grammar use in Suggestopedia
apparently does not interfere with communication.
(c) Summary
While I have attempted to fit the Suggestopedia system, as I understand it, into my
schema, and have omitted mention of several aspects of Suggestopedia philosophy that its
practitioners would undoubtedly consider to be very important, it appears that Suggestopedia
comes very close to completely matching the requirements for optimal input. Elements that
Lozanov might consider to invoke hyper- or super-memory, or that "desuggest" limitations,
are, in our terms, conditions that lower the affective filter and that allow the subconscious
language acquisition system to operate at full, or near full capacity and efficiency.
Suggestopedia also seems to put grammar in its proper place.
B. Applied Linguistics Research
We turn now to attempts to empirically test teaching methods via "applied linguistics
research". I defined applied linguistics research in Chapter I as research aimed at solving a
practical problem, with or
146

without reference to an underlying theory. A portion of applied linguistics research has
consisted of empirical comparisons of language teaching methods, and the purpose of this
section is to review the major findings of these studies in order to make the following points:
1. When older methods such as grammar-translation, cognitive-code,
and audio-lingual are compared with each other, we see
small differences, or no differences in terms of efficacy. Cognitive-code,
in some studies, shows a very slight superiority for
adult students when compared to audio-lingual, and no differences
are seen when adolescents are compared.
2. Data are not as plentiful as we would like them to be for newer
methods, but the results we do have are quite consistent with our
theoretical analysis of the previous section. Newer approaches,
such as Total Physical Response, produce significantly better
results than older approaches.
We will conclude that we see little difference between older methods since they all fail
many of the requirements for optimal input and overemphasize conscious learning. The
newer methods put to the method comparison test satisfy the requirements better, and are
also shown to outperform their rivals.
1. REVIEW OF METHOD COMPARISON STUDIES
Before proceeding directly to the studies, it should be pointed out that classroom
research, while it often produces valuable and interesting data, does not produce "definitive"
data. This is because of the many "confounding variables" that prevent us, in nearly all cases,
from concluding that it must have been a particular treatment or method that was responsible
for the results obtained. It may be useful to list some of these potential confounds here.
If students in approach A did better in achievement tests than students in approach B,
assuming they were equal to start with, it may be the teacher rather than the actual method
that was responsible for the difference. Even if the same teacher taught both classes, the
teacher may have preferred one approach to the other, or may have even liked the students
in one class better! Class A might have been taught early in the morning, and class B right
after lunch. Thus, students in class A
147

Table 5.1. American studies comparing foreign language teaching methods
___________________________________________________________________________________
Study Methods TL n Tests: Speaking LC Reading Write Attitude
toward
method
___________________________________________________________________________________
Scherer & GT, AL German 130, 150 Year 1: AL AL GT GT AL
Wertheimer Year 2: nd AL nd GT AL
Chastain & CC, AL Spanish 51, 48 Year 1: AL nd CC CC
Woerdehoff1 35, 31 Year 2: AL nd nd nd
Mueller CC, AL French not CC CC CC CC
given (fewer
dropouts)
___________________________________________________________________________________
AL = audio-lingual
GT = grammar-translation
CC = Cognitive code
nd = no difference
1 Includes both Chastain & Woerdehoff (1968) and Chastain (1970).
148

might have been more alert. Class B might have been located near the athletic field, causing
more distractions. Texts may have made a difference. There might also have been a selection
bias on the part of the students; some may have deliberately enrolled in class A because they
knew it was "special". The teacher can certainly add other potential confounds. (For more
technical discussion, see Campbell and Stanley, 1963.)
Many of the methodological problems can be reduced. If approach A consistently does
better in many studies, involving different classrooms with many students in different schools,
that is, if A is reliably superior in a variety of conditions using a variety of measures, the
results of classroom experiments are at least worth considering, especially if they are
consistent with conclusions derived from other sources, e.g. second language acquisition
theory.
(a) American studies of AL, GT, and CC
Table 5.1 summarizes several comparisons of teaching methods all of which lasted
one or two years. These studies were all concerned with foreign language teaching in the
United States, comparing the audio-lingual system with either grammar-translation (GT) or
cognitive-code (CC).
Scherer and Wertheimer (1964) found some differences between audio-lingual (AL)
and grammar-translation (GT) after year one, differences that appeared to reflect the modality
each method emphasized. These differences were attenuated after the second year, and
combined scores for sub-tests showed no significant differences between the two methods. It
was concluded that students tend to do well in those areas emphasized in the teaching
method.
Chastain and Woerdehoff (1968) and Chastain (1970) found similar results after
comparing audio-lingual and cognitive-code teaching, finding some differences after year one,
differences that could plausibly be traced to those skills emphasized in the method used, but
no differences after year two. Chastain (1970) also noted that males tended to do better with
AL, while females did better in CC sections. We return to these interesting findings later.
Mueller (1971) limited his study to one year, comparing AL and CC
149

teaching. For those skills tested, CC was superior, while AL classes scored at national (MLA)
norms. The results of previous studies force us to ask whether this advantage would have
been maintained in the second year.
Table 5.2 gives us some idea as to the degree of superiority shown by one method
over another. What is obvious is that both methods result in some progress; students do
better at the end of the course than at the beginning. While differences are occasionally
significant, they are certainly not huge.
Table 5.2
Degree of superiority shown in comparative method studies (American series)
____________________________________________________________________________
Listening
MLA Cooperative Tests: Reading1 Writing1 comp. Speaking2
____________________________________________________________________________
AL 26 59 25 51
CC 30 64 26 49
____________________________________________________________________________
1: Significant difference in favor of CC.
2: Significant difference in favor of AL.
From: Chastain and Woerdehoff (1968)
Tests administered after one year of university level study of Spanish.
(b) The GUME project
The first group of studies looked at language teaching efficacy over one or two years,
using proficiency tests. Another group of studies focussed rather on specific structures over a
shorter time span. These studies are the result of the GUME project, which dealt with English
as a foreign language in Sweden. The GUME project studies are summarized in Table 5.3.
The GUME project aimed to compare AL type teaching with "cognitive" methods, the
latter being quite similar to the cognitive-code system. I will not present their results study-by-
study, but will attempt instead to summarize the overall results; the interested reader can refer
to Table 5.3 for details, or to the studies themselves (see especially von Elek and Oskarsson,
1975, for a complete review of the adult studies).
150

Stated very simply, the GUME project found no overall differences between what they termed
"implicit" methods (similar to AL) and "explicit" methods (similar to CC for adolescent
subjects. For adult subjects, explicit methods were found to be somewhat better. The
difference for adults was statistically significant, but not very large.
To go into slightly more detail for the adolescents, despite the overall findings of no
differences, some sub-groups did better using explicit methods: (1) an "accelerated" class in
Levin's study, (2) females, in von Elek and Oskarsson, a finding similar to that of Chastain
(1970). One class in von Elek and Oskarsson's study, described as being lower than the norm
in "verbal intelligence" (von Elek and Oskarsson, 1975, p. 29) was reported to have had more
trouble than other classes with the explicit method.
In addition to simple comparisons of explicit and implicit methods, von Elek and
Oskarsson also compared various combinations of these methods. They found that IMEX
(see Table 5.3) was superior to IM alone; in other words, adding some grammatical
explanation to a method based totally on pattern drills was helpful (see footnote two on Table
5.3). However, EXIM was not superior to EX: adding pattern drills to a cognitive approach did
not help.
Table 5.4 is included to give the reader an idea of the degree of superiority the explicit
methods showed with adult subjects in the GUME studies. As is the case with American
studies described in the previous section, the differences are not large. Clearly, both groups
make progress.
2. SOME PRELIMINARY CONCLUSIONS TO METHOD COMPARISON
STUDIES
Taken as a whole, American and Swedish studies show only small differences, if at all,
between the methods they investigated. Students make at least some progress no matter
what method is used, a result that had two different kinds of reactions in the field of language
teaching. Stevick (1976) noted the implicit contradiction, which he stated in the form of a
riddle:
"In the field of language teaching, Method A is the logical contradiction of Method B: if
the assumptions from which A claims to be derived are correct, then B cannot work, and vice-
versa. yet one
151

Table 5.3. GUME project research comparing teaching methods
___________________________________________________________________________________
Study Method Students Materials Results
___________________________________________________________________________________
Olsson, 1969 Implicit1 Age 14 One structure No differences
EX Swedish (passive)
EX English
Levin, 1972 Implicit Ages 14-15 No overall difference;
EX English "advanced" group excels in
EX Swedish EX Swedish
Levin, 1972 Implicit Age 13 No overall difference;
EX Swedish more "able" students do well
EX English with EX Swedish,
but less able do worse
Von Elek & IM2 Adults Ten lessons EXPLICIT significantly better
Oskarsson, EX n = 125
1975
Von Elek & IM Adults As above EXPLICIT significantly better
Oskarsson, ex N = 91
1975
Von Elek & IM Age 12 As above No difference, due to low
Oskarsson, EX performance of one
1975 EXPLICIT class
___________________________________________________________________________________
152

Table 5.3.--Continued
___________________________________________________________________________________
Study Method Students Materials Results
___________________________________________________________________________________
Von Elek & EX, IM, Adults 4 lessons on EX superior to IM;
Oskarsson, EXIM, IMEX3 n = 277 2 structures IMEX better than IM,
1975 but not significant;
EX superior to EXIM
(not predicted)
Von Elek & EX, IM, Age 12 4 lessons on Girls tend to conform
Oskarsson, EXIM, IXEM n = 335 2 structures to the adult pattern
1975 (see above) but boys
do not
___________________________________________________________________________________
1: IM = "implicit" (pattern drills only). EX = "explicit" (pattern drills in combination with
explanation). EX Swedish = explanation in Swedish.
EX English = explanation in English.
2: IM = "structured and graded pattern drills, performed on the basis of situational pictures
projected on a screen in front of the class... no explicit explanations, comparisons with the
source language, or translation exercises " (von Elek and Oskarsson, 1975, p. 16). EX =
"students were given explicit information about the syntactic characteristics of the structures
being practiced... comparisons were made with the corresponding structures in Swedish...
grammar was taught deductively... explanations and directions were given before main practice
with the structure under study... exercises were mostly of the fill-in type or translation... no
pattern drills were performed" (von Elek and Oskarsson, 1975, p. 16-17).
3: IMEX = identical to IM with the addition of explanation. EXIM = identical to EX with
addition of oral pattern drills.
153

TABLE 5.4
The degree of superiority shown in comparative
method studies (GUME project)
_________________________________________________________________
Group Test Pre-test SD Post-test SD Progress
_________________________________________________________________
IM A 26.94 8.61 33.00 9.31 6.06
B 23.75 7.64 27.53 7.79 3.78
C 5.86 3.40 9.40 4.16 3.54
EX A 25.71 6.61 36.59 9.17 10.88
B 21.82 5.19 29.18 8.14 7.36
C 5.65 3.28 11.84 4.39 6.19
_________________________________________________________________
Description of tests:
A: 60 items: Students listen to oral conversation. They choose
one of three alternatives to fill in missing part of last
exchange (no more than two words).
B: 50 items: described as an "ordinary multiple choice test"
(p. 66)
C: 20 items: written production test; students "fill in the
crucial element in incomplete English sentences. The
meaning of each sentence was clarified either by the
complete Swedish equivalent, or by a cure word" (p. 66).
From: Von Elek and Oskarsson (1972).
colleague is getting excellent results with A and another is getting excellent results with B.
How is this possible?" (p. 104).
To apply this riddle to the results of comparative method research, we can ask how the
cognitive approach, which assumes that learning becomes acquisition, can give results
comparable to audio-lingual teaching, which is based on the hypothesis that we learn
language by conditioning and habit-strengthening.
Before turning to a possible answer, it should be noted that there was a different
reaction: not everyone saw the contradiction Stevick saw. Many methodologists and teachers
simply assumed that the solution was simply to be eclectic, to choose parts of each system in
the belief that the answer must be somewhere in the middle. As fair minded as this sounds, it
often resulted, in my opinion, in teachers choosing the worst from each, the parts least likely
to encourage language acquisition: pattern drill from the audio-lingual system, and rule
explanation from the cognitive and grammar-translation approach!
In my interpretation, the results of method comparison studies using audio-lingual,
grammar-translation, and cognitive code are quite consistent with the theoretical analysis of
these methods presented in the previous section: according to this analysis, none of these
methods does a particularly effective job in encouraging subconscious language acquisition,
although each will provide at least some, and the cognitive
154

methods will allow somewhat more learning. This predicts the close similarly in effectiveness,
and the slight superiority cognitive systems show for older subjects and the more "verbal"
adolescents. It also predicts that other methods should do much, much better. Unfortunately,
we do not have detailed method comparison data on all the newer methods, but some is
available, and the results are quite consistent with this prediction.
3. MORE RECENT METHOD COMPARISON STUDIES
We turn now to studies that involve the newer methods, methods with better report
cards, according to second language acquisition theory, than grammar-translation, audio-
lingual, or cognitive-code. We do not have detailed reports on every method compared to
every other, and some of the new approaches have never been tested. The studies that have
been performed, however, indicate that those methods that provide more of the input
necessary for acquisition, and that "put grammar in its place", are superior to older
approaches.
(a) The TPR series
Asher has done a thorough job in putting his method to the empirical test. He has
compared TPR to other methods using foreign language classes and second language
classes, using children and using adults. Here is a brief survey.
The TPR series with adults begins with Asher (1972), which compared students in a
TPR German course with controls in a "standard" college course. Asher reported that after
only 32 hours of TPR instruction, TPR students outperformed controls, who had had 150
hours of classtime, in a test of listening comprehension, and equaled controls in tests of
reading and writing. Asher's students progressed nearly five times faster! This is in contrast to
the very small differences seen in older comparative method experiments comparing audio-
lingual, cognitive-code, and grammar-translation.
Asher, Kusudo and de la Torre (1974) compared TPR students studying Spanish at the
first year university level with AL controls. After 45 hours of TPR instruction, students
outperformed controls who had had 150 hours in listening comprehension, and equaled
controls' performance on a reading test (Pimsleur Spanish Proficiency Test).
155

After 45 additional hours of instruction, TPR students performed beyond the 50th percentile
on a Spanish proficiency test designed for students with 150 hours on all skills
Asher (1977a) compared 30 ESL students using TPR to controls using audio-lingual
instruction, and reported that TPR students outperformed controls who had had the same
amount of training (120 hours) but who had started at a higher level class.
TPR studies have also been done using children as subjects. Asher (1977b) is really
three experiments in one, all involving Spanish as a foreign language in grades five through
nine. In Experiment I, TPR classes in grade six, and a class consisting of seventh and eighth
graders were compared to grade nine controls. The controls covered similar material, but their
instruction focussed on repetition, and formal instruction in reading and writing, "emphasizing
Spanish grammar". All groups had a total of 40 hours of classtime. All TPR classes (seven
different classes in all)exceeded the controls on a test of written production (subjects were
asked to write a short story based on a cartoon, and were graded on the number of
meaningful expressions produced).
In Experiment II, nine elementary school TPR classes, from grades five through eight,
and an adult education TPR class, were compared with two control classes from grades
seven through nine. This time, TPR classes had only 20 hours of instruction while controls
had 200 hours of instruction similar to that described in Experiment I. The test used was the
"Spanish Picture Test for Listening", which asked students to judge whether a given sentence
was true or false in relation to a picture. All TPR classes, with the exception of grade five,
outperformed controls after 100 hours, and the adult class, after only 20 hours, outperformed
controls after 200 hours. Similar results were obtained using a reading test.
In Experiment III, fifth and sixth grade TPR and control classes were compared on
tests that measured fluency (e.g. "Write as many Spanish orders or sentences as you can
recall..."). Both groups had equal classtime. TPR students did significantly better than controls
on both fluency tasks.
The TPR results are clear and consistent, and the magnitude of superiority of TPR is
quite striking. Even the one sub-group that did not turn out to be superior (grade five in
Experiment II above) can be explained: the TPR advantage was outweighed by the fact that
the controls
156

were older, and, as mentioned in Chapter II, older children are known to be faster acquirers
(Krashen, Long and Scarcella, 1979).
(b) Other input methods compared
A variety of studies have been done examining the efficacy of methods that, like TPR,
focus on providing comprehensible input and do not force early production. None of these
methods has been analyzed in the previous section, since they are not "standard" or widely
used, but they strengthen both the case for TPR and the hypothesis that methods allowing a
silent period will do better than methods that do not, even when "speaking skills" are tested
directly.
Gary (1975) examined children studying Spanish as a foreign language over a period
of five months. Her experimental group did not speak at all for the first 14 weeks but, instead,
had to produce "active responses" that demonstrated comprehension. Also, they were not
forced to speak for much of the next seven weeks. The experimental group was shown to be
superior to the control group in listening comprehension and equal in speaking, despite the
fact that the controls had more "practice" in speaking.
Postovsky (1974) used students at the Defence Language Institute, studying Russian
in an intensive 12 week course, six hours per day, in a fairly standard audio-lingual course.
The "experimental" group did not speak for the first four weeks, but wrote their responses.
The two groups were combined after four weeks. At mid-terms, the experimental group
excelled in reading, writing, and speaking tests (especially with respect to "control of
grammar" and "reading aloud"), and after 12 weeks, they were significantly better in listening
comprehension.
Swaffer and Woodruff (1978) examined the effects of a first year college German
course taught at the University of Texas. As is the case with the studies just cited, their
approach was not exactly any of the standard ones described in the first part of this chapter,
but it fits the requirement for providing optimal input for acquisition and for putting learning in
its place very well. The first four weeks of the course were TPR based, with the emphasis
switching to reading "for global meaning" (p. 28). Students were not required to speak at all in
German for the first two weeks of the class, and "thereafter students were encouraged to
speak on a voluntary basis" (p. 28). Also, "overt corrections of
157

beginning students' production errors (was) kept at a minimum" (p. 28). Low filter strength
was further encouraged by the use of relaxation exercises and yoga breathing. Also, "except
for a brief (five-minute) question and answer period at the close of each hour, German was
the exclusive language of instruction" (p. 28). No drill was used, and the only grammar taught
was those features "considered essential for listening and reading comprehension" (p. 30).
Swaffer and Woodruff's method thus appears to supply comprehensible input in quantity,
using techniques that encourage a lower affective filter, and does not encourage the over-use
of the Monitor.
The Swaffer and Woodruff program was evaluated in several ways, and all indicated
clearly that the method was a huge improvement over other approaches. First, as compared
to previous years, more students continued on to second semester German. Second, German
courses taught the new way received much better evaluations from the students. Third,
students completing the course performed well above the national norms on the Modern
Language Association reading and listening tests (70th and 69th percentiles), and last,
student self-report of their own abilities was, in my opinion, amazing: 78% of the students
finishing the first year "expressed confidence that they could read German and grasp main
ideas at least most of the time" (p. 32); 48% said they could understand spoken German at
least most of the time. I do not know of control data for this last question, but from experience,
these responses are quite unusual.2
(c) Suggestopedia research
While there have been reports of students learning 1000 words per day using
Suggestopedia, in the normal one month intensive course, students cover about 2000 words.
Lozanov is quoted as saying that "after completing the course, the students can express
themselves freely within the framework of their lexical capacity, and can read newspapers
and books." (Interview published in Pravda, reprinted in Ostrander and Schroeder, 1976, p.
74) These are excellent results, but are not superhuman--the month's course, as noted
earlier, is quite intensive, meeting four hours per day, six days a week, for a total of nearly
100 hours. In terms of classhours alone, this is equivalent to more than one year of study at
the university level. If students can indeed
158

"get by" in conversation in the target language and read many things in it as well, Lozanov's
approach may be just about as successful as other "input methods", such as the method used
by Swaffer and Woodruff, who report similar results.
Bushman and Madsen (1976) put Suggestopedia to the experimental test in a small
scale study done at Brigham Young University. (Lozanov has carried out extensive
experimentation which reportedly demonstrate the superiority of Suggestopedia over AL-type
methods. Details of these studies are not available to me. For a very critical review, see
Scovel, 1979.) Six different classes at BYU, teaching Finnish as a foreign language, with an
average of seven students in each class were used. Two control classes were taught using
the "full" Suggestopedia treatment and two with a modified treatment. The modified
Suggestopedia classes followed all aspects of Suggestopedia but lacked music, the easy
chairs, and the "living room environment". They were held instead in ordinary classrooms.
Each class received 10 hours of instruction and covered similar linguistic material. To control
for teacher effect, two instructors taught all three treatments.
Suggestopedia students in both full and modified classes clearly outperformed controls
in a vocabulary test and were "vastly superior" in a test of "communication". (In this test,
students were rated on their success in conveying a message to a native speaker.) There
were no significant differences between Suggestopedia classes and controls on a grammar
test or in a pronunciation test; this result supports the hypothesis that Suggestopedia was
superior to the control group, since control classes had far more work on pronunciation and
grammar in the form of pattern drills and repetition exercises.
Bushman and Madsen also probed student's personal reactions to the different
treatments, and reported no differences between groups: there was no difference in
measured affect between Suggestopedic and control groups. This conflicts, to some extent,
with reports from the Canadian Public Service Commission, in their report of a full one-month
French course. They reported changed attitudes toward language learning ("learning" used
here in the general sense), and even "a real and total change in the person himself" (p. 33).
Just as Lozanov maintains happens in Suggestopedia, Canadian researchers report
159

"the student discovered new capabilities in himself, became aware of what he was able to do,
realized the extent of his creativity and his potential; he 'found himself', which gave him more
self-confidence and self-assurance" (p. 33). In our terms, they became aware of the reality of
their own second language acquisition capacity and the fact that it remains very powerful in
the adult.
C. Alternatives to Methods
The previous section attempted to show several things. First, that we can analyze all
commonly used approaches to classroom second language teaching in terms of the
requirements for optimal input presented in Chapter III and the criteria for teaching conscious
grammar rules, as presented in Chapter IV. Second, it was seen that certain methods
satisfied these requirements and criteria better than others. Third, it was claimed that the
available applied linguistics research reveals that those methods that are shown to be
superior in method comparison research come closer to satisfying the criteria that derive from
second language acquisition theory.
What we can conclude from this survey and review is that there is no one way to teach,
no one method that is clearly the best. Some methods are clearly more effective than others,
however, and the claim made here is that the same underlying principles will hold for any
successful second language teaching program, the principles outlined in Chapters III and IV.
The purpose of this section is to explore ways of helping people acquire second
languages that go beyond classroom methods. In the sections that follow, I will review what I
consider the essential function of the classroom to be, and some limitations inherent in all
classroom methods. Following this, I will discuss some possibilities in language teaching that
are consistent with my views on the role of the classroom, and which, at the same time,
bypass or avoid some problems that arise with classroom methods.
1. FUNCTION OF THE CLASSROOM
Quite simply, the role of the second or foreign language classroom is to bring a student
to a point where he can begin to use the outside
160

world for further second language acquisition. As expressed in Chapter II this means we have
to provide students with enough comprehensible input to bring their second language
competence to the point where they can begin to understand language heard "on the
outside", read, and participate in conversations. Since they will be less than fully competent,
we also need to provide them with tools for encouraging and regulating input.
In other words, all second language classes are transitional, and no second language
class can be expected to do the entire job. As discussed in Chapter III, second language
classes are best thought of as places to gain comprehensible input in early stages, when the
acquirer does not yet have the competence to understand the input provided on the outside.
2. THE SECOND LANGUAGE CLASSROOM AND REQUIREMENT #2
As we have seen, many of the newer methods make valiant attempts to meet
requirement #2 of Chapter III, to provide input that is genuinely interesting and relevant. The
Natural Approach attempts to do this by focussing on personal topics, Community Language
Learning by having the students generate their own input. The literature contains many other
useful and interesting suggestions as to how to solve the problem of what to talk about:
Stevick (1980) has an excellent discussion of the possibility of using poetry for second
language students, and Winn-Bell Olsen (1977) has numerous other suggestions.
There are two fundamental problems with any attempt to meet requirement #2 in the
second language classroom, however. The first is that what is of interest to some people may
not be of interest to others. Stevick notes this in relation to his poetry experiment: one teacher
who tried poetry noted that for her students, "poetry just isn't their thing; they prefer politics"
(p. 225). Stevick also notes that some students may object to humanistic approaches, such
as Community Language Learning, that promote personal growth along with second language
acquisition: "Some (students)... will eagerly accept a 'humanistic' language course as an
arena, or as a medium, in which to find new adventures in discovering themselves and other
people, and in which they can go on to become more than they had been before. Others of
161

them, however, may decide that the language class is not a place where they choose to
confront the issues of alienation, or of personal values... they may just want to be taught
well.... We must respect this decision" (p. 293).
What is perhaps a more fundamental problem is that the second language classroom
is seen, by many students and teachers, as an artificial linguistic environment regardless of
attempts to promote "real" communication. The fact that it is a classroom, and the fact that the
class is called "Spanish" or "English", of itself may subvert any effort to meet requirement two,
and may prevent students from fully focussing on the meaning of what is said. In other words,
the filter may always be "up", to some extent, and many students will never get so interested
in what is being said that they forget it is in a second language.
There are other limitations of the classroom that are not related to its failure to fully
satisfy requirement two. As mentioned in Chapter III, there is really no way the classroom can
provide the variety of second language use necessary for real competence in a second
language, no matter how varied the presentation, no matter how many different situations are
used in role playing activities. There is also no way the classroom can provide the quantity of
input required for truly advanced competence in a second language. These are not real
problems, when we consider what the classroom is for. If the student can make the transition
to the real world, if the student can begin to use the outside for comprehensible input, both
quantity and variety will be provided.
3. THE ALTERNATIVES
We will examine a number of possible alternatives and supplements in the sections
that follow, and, as we did with language teaching methods earlier, analyze them according to
the predictions made by second language acquisition theory and survey what empirical
evidence there is that confirms that these approaches are effective. We will first look at some
very obvious supplementary activities to the second language classroom, conversation (the
real thing, with native speakers of the target language) and pleasure reading, then move to
some ideas and programs that have met with real success in some contexts and that could be
extended to other contexts.
162

(a) Conversation
Before making the prediction that "conversation with native speakers" is good for
second language acquisition, I need to define conversation in a limited way: conversation
here refers only to interaction with a native speaker who is motivated to try to help the second
language acquirer understand, and who is genuinely interested in the acquirer as a person. In
other words, conversation with "foreigner talk", if it is necessary, and with a real or potential
friend, business associate, etc.
There will be no attempt to demonstrate that this sort of conversation has any effect on
conscious learning. It only could if the conversational partner were a language teacher and/or
the acquirer were an extremely gifted inductive learner. It does appear to be the case,
however, that conversation defined in this way has the maximum impact on subconscious
acquisition. The following analysis demonstrates what to most lay people is completely
obvious, that conversation with someone who is interested in interacting with you, and who is
trying to help you understand what he is saying, is good for second language acquisition.
(i) Comprehensible. If meaning is successfully negotiated, if the conversational partner
is able to adjust his speech, use extra-linguistic information and context, and if the acquirer
has enough linguistic competence and can regulate the quality of input, the input provide in
conversation will be comprehensible.
(ii) Interesting/relevant. Conversation has the best chance of meeting this requirement
of all the methods we have considered. It has the best chance of achieving total focus on the
message and of bringing the acquirer to the point of forgetting that the input is in another
language.
(iii) Not grammatically sequenced. This requirement is clearly satisfied.
(iv) Quantity. Conversation certainly has the potential for satisfying this requirement,
depending on the personal circumstances of the acquirer.
163

(v) Filter strength. In free conversation with a sympathetic native speaker, filter strength
should be low. In general, there is little or no error correction for form and most people do not
demand perfect accuracy or complete utterances, as do language teachers. The topic of
conversation is of course unpredictable but is generally of far greater interest than anything
that goes on in a classroom, and this also will contribute to a lower level of anxiety and a low
filter. A possible tension-raiser in free conversation is the chance of the acquirer "getting in
over his head", and not understanding what is said to him. If he is prepared, if he has tools for
conversational management and is willing to use them, this is less of a problem.
(vi) Tools for conversational management. Conversation will give the acquirer a chance
to practice the tools he has learned and give him perhaps the best opportunity to acquire new
ones.
(b) Pleasure reading
As was the case with conversation, covered in the previous section, I will define
"reading" in a special way. I do not mean intensive reading, analysis of written prose, reading
and then answering questions of content, or reading as preparation for discussion or writing
assignments. The sort of reading to be analyzed here is extensive, and concerns subject
matter that the student would read in his first language for pleasure. It is completely voluntary.
In doing pleasure reading, readers have the option of skipping whole sections they find either
too difficult or less interesting (e.g. detailed descriptions in fiction). They even have the option
of putting the book or story down and selecting another after reading a few pages. They can
skip words they do not understand, if they think they are following the main point, and they
have the option, of course, of looking up every word, if that is their style.
In other words, we are considering pure pleasure reading. What is read depends on
the student and what is available to him. For some people, it may be mystery novels, for
others, science fiction, and for others, comic books. The only requirement is that the story or
main idea be comprehensible and that the topic be something the student is genuinely
interested in, that he would read in his first language.
164

I will not try to show that pleasure reading has any effect on learning. The analysis, as
done with conversation in the previous section, will be restricted to the effects of pleasure
reading on acquisition.
(i) Comprehensible. We have defined pleasure reading as reading that is
comprehensible, so there is no problem here. I would like to note, however, that pleasure
reading is made comprehensible by the reader's own selection of passages and texts, and by
the rejection of reading material that is too difficult. The success of pleasure reading thus
depends on the reader's willingness to find material at his level and reject material that is
beyond him.
(ii) Interesting/relevant. Reading as defined here is by definition interesting and
relevant, since the student has the option (which must be exercised) of only reading things
that are of personal interest.
(iii) Not grammatically sequenced. This requirement is met, unless the student insists
on reading specially-prepared pedagogical materials.
(iv) Quantity. Reading certainly has the potential for satisfying this requirement. The
only problems are practical: the availability of materials, their cost, and the students' time.
(v) Filter level. If the student is able to find materials that are comprehensible and that
are interesting, this requirement is easily met. There is no frustration caused by
incomprehensible messages, no early demands for output, no demands for premature
grammatical accuracy. The pleasure reader should be completely off the defensive.
(vi) Tools for conversational management. Pleasure reading might even made a
contribution toward meeting this requirement, if the texts read include some dialogue.
165

At this point I would like to include a personal observation about pleasure reading. I
have been attempting, over the last few years, to improve my French, largely via pleasure
reading, an attempt that has been successful. Mostly through input, I have increased my
competence from "advanced beginner" to "high intermediate". I define the intermediate level
in the following way: Requiring only some "downshifting" on the part of a native speaker to be
able to converse easily, and being able to read most texts without a dictionary, without
necessarily knowing every word. I can now read a great deal of French without a dictionary,
and even derive real pleasure from it. Being a Monitor user and someone with an intrinsic
interest in the structure of language, I occasionally look at grammar books (the ones that gave
me so much trouble in high school). I have noticed, to my surprise, that the reading passages
at the end of the elementary grammar book still give me trouble! I find them more difficult than
"raw", unedited French, French written for native speakers. The reason "pedagogical"
passages are more difficult for the intermediate is that they are packed full of subjunctives,
conditionnel passé, futur anterieur, and all manner of infrequent vocabulary! in reading
through these passages, I found them difficult to understand, and extremely frustrating: the
topics were not even of mild interest, and I felt my affective filter going up, as I encountered
word after word I did not know. My frustration was further aggravated by the fact that I
realized that I was having trouble with a text designed for second year students!
What this experience suggests is that our intermediate students may find real texts,
read for interest and pleasure, easier than our pedagogical materials. Moreover, if the above
analysis is correct, it may be that free pleasure reading will result in more acquisition of the
language.
For those who object on the grounds that reading in language courses should be
restricted to the classics, to serious literature, I can only say that the ability to read "literature"
will be facilitated by the development of a high level of competence in the second language. I
personally agree with those who feel that a major goal of language instruction in the university
is the study of literature written in the second language. I do not think, however, that we need
to start out with serious literature immediately. Devoting several months to free reading of
easier material might be the fastest way to bring students to the point
166

where they can read great literature in a second language without a serious language barrier.
Summary
Both conversation and pleasure reading have the potential of meeting the requirements
for optimal input for acquisition very well. We have reached the conclusion that an interesting
conversation in a second language, and reading something for pleasure, are excellent
language lessons. This comes as no surprise to the millions of people who have acquired
language using only these "methods", and have acquired them very well.
(c) Using subject matter for language teaching
Another class of alternatives to classroom teaching involves the use of subject matter
in the second language classroom, using the second language as a vehicle, as a language of
presentation and explanation. I do not mean by subject matter teaching what is known as
submersion, mixing second language students in with native speakers. I do mean special
classes for second language students, classes in which no native speakers participate as
students, in which teachers make some linguistic and cultural adjustments in order to help
their students understand.
In this section, we will first put subject matter teaching through the familiar analysis
according to the predictions made by second language acquisition theory. As was the case
with conversation and pleasure reading, there will be no attempt to claim that subject matter
teaching helps conscious learning in any way. We will then turn to several concrete
manifestations of subject matter teaching: the successful immersion programs underway in
Canada and the United States, and some untried possibilities for the use of subject matter in
second language situations.
Requirements of optimal input
(i) Comprehensible. Subject matter teaching will be of use for acquisition only to the
extent it is comprehensible. What this means is that different subjects may be of more use to
students at different
167

levels. Cazden (1979) points out that one could make a case that mathematics is ideal for
teaching in an imperfectly acquired L2. There is a limited vocabulary, less interactional
demand than in some other subjects, and considerable extra-linguistic support to aid
comprehension. (She points out, however, that complex "story problems" might be an
obstacle for beginning level students.) Students with more second language proficiency could
handle subject matter that is more displaced in time and space, that supply fewer concrete
referents, such as history and literature. The point is not simply that second language
students can survive in subject matter classes, but also that they will receive comprehensible
input that will help them improve more in the second language.
The comprehensibility requirement argues against submersion, against mixing second
language acquirers in with native speakers before the second language acquirers reach
higher levels of proficiency: the presence of native speakers insures that a good proportion of
the language heard by the intermediate acquirer will not be comprehensible.
(ii) Interesting/relevant. Subject matter may not always be interesting, but it is relevant.
When students are focussed on the subject matter, there is a very good chance they will be
focussed off the form of the language it is presented in. Subject matter affords a good chance
of meeting the "forgetting principle", of the student being so focussed on what is said that he
is not aware of how it is said.
(iii) Not grammatically sequenced. This requirement is also clearly met. In fact, it is
hard to image subject matter teaching not meeting it. This would require contextualizing
beyond our wildest dreams.
(iv) Quantity. Clearly, there is the potential of supplying great quantities of input this
way. Subject matter teaching in the second language automatically reaches the pedagogical
ideal of filling the entire class hour with comprehensible input.
(v) Filter strength. Subject matter teaching may involve, and in fact
168

require, some minimum amount of anxiety. This anxiety, however, is not directed at the
language it is presented in, if the message is comprehensible. Subject matter teachers can
keep the language portion relatively anxiety-free and the filter down by:
(1) insuring comprehensibility of the message;
(2) not demanding premature production;
(3) not demanding full grammatical accuracy from students.
Subject matter second language teachers might consider testing procedures that require less
linguistic production (short answers instead of long essays), and class discussion procedures
that take students' linguistic capacities into consideration (not correcting errors on form or
even allowing use of the L1 where practical, as in the Natural Approach). The point to
remember is that further language acquisition comes with more comprehensible input, from
teacher talk and reading, and not from demands for production.
(vi) Tools for conversational management. Subject matter teaching may not provide the
tools necessary to maintain conversations on the outside, but it can lead to the learning and
acquisition of academic communicative competence in another culture. In a class composed
entirely of immigrants and foreign students, teachers can be aware of cultural differences in
academic behavior and teach classroom behavior, either via learning, for obvious aspects of
classroom behavior (standing or not standing when the teacher enters the room; what sort of
paper to hand in homework on, etc.) or acquisition, for more subtle aspects.
Summary
Subject matter teaching has, thus, the full potential for encouraging language
acquisition. This may be a good place to point out that by subject matter teaching, I do not
mean "English for Special Purposes" or for "Academic Purposes". ESP and EAP are, to my
understanding, standard language teaching classes whose syllabi are based on an analysis
of the task students will face and the language they will need (see, for example, Robinson,
1980). Subject matter teaching appears
169

to me to be fundamentally different, although it may meet many of the goals ESP is designed
for. While ESP requires a detailed analysis of the syntax, vocabulary, and discourse of a
subfield, to be developed into a syllabus and presented bit by bit, subject matter teaching
focusses only on the topic, the information or skill to be learned, the assumption being that
much of the syntax, vocabulary, and discourse style will be acquired along with the subject
matter. (This idea is not entirely foreign to ESP; several ESP courses emphasize "authentic
activities". See, for example, Robinson, p. 39; Widdowson, cited in Robinson, p. 23.)
(d) Evidence for subject matter teaching: the immersion programs
Immersion bilingual programs have demonstrated what is possible in second language
acquisition using subject matter. In immersion programs, initially monolingual majority children
are schooled in a minority language (French in Anglophone Canada; Spanish in the United
States). They are taught their academic subjects totally in the second language. In what is
known as "total early immersion", input in the second language begins in kindergarten. Late
immersion programs may begin later, after the children have had at least a year of instruction
in the second language.
The immersion programs appear to be successful in many ways. The many reports
that have been published confirm over and over that immersion students acquire high levels
of competency in the second language (while they may not reach native-like levels, they
outperform peers who have had standard foreign language classes), they make normal
progress in school, doing as well in subject-matter as monolinguals, and they do not fall
behind peers in first language development (for reviews, see Lambert and Tucker, 1972;
Swain, 1974).
Cohen and Swain (1976) discuss these successes in light of the lack of success of
many other types of bilingual programs. Among the differences between immersion and other
programs, these characteristics of immersion may help to explain its success. Cohen and
Swain point out that in early immersion "all kindergarten pupils are unilingual in L1. In
essence, the successful program starts out as a segregated one linguistically" (p. 47). As
mentioned above, this raises the students' chances of
170

getting comprehensible input, since teachers cannot gauge their speech only to native
speakers, leaving second language acquirers behind.
Cohen and Swain point out several other factors that, in our terms, lead to a lower
affective filter in immersion programs. The linguistic segregation "eliminates the kind of
ridicule that students exert on less proficient performers" (p. 47), teachers have positive
expectations, and the program is voluntary. Also, "in kindergarten, the children are permitted
to speak in the L1 until they are ready to speak in the L2" (p. 48). Thus, a Silent Period is
allowed.
The immersion experience, it needs to be emphasized, does not bring these students
to native speaker levels, and immersion students' second language competence may have
gaps, especially when it comes to interaction abilities in casual conversation. (See Conners,
Menard and Singh, 1978, who report problems immersion students have in this area; on the
other hand, see Bruck, Lambert and Tucker, 1974, for a report on what immersion children
can do in this area.) It is thought that these gaps exist only because the second language
input does not include input from peers. Immersion children hear the second language only
from the teacher and only in class. Considering this limitation, their achievements are
remarkable.
The immersion programs show us what is possible linguistically from subject matter
teaching, when social and psychological problems are eliminated or reduced. They provide
strong empirical evidence that subject matter teaching can not only teach subject matter but
the language it is taught in as well, as long as the input is made comprehensible.
(e) Other possibilities in subject matter teaching
There is no reason that subject matter teaching cannot be extended to other second
language acquisition domains, and utilized to at least supplement the second language
classroom and provide some help in the difficult transition from language class to real world.
One such domain is the university. I will discuss here the situation in the American university,
but the principles can be generalized to any higher education situation in which large numbers
of second language speakers are enrolled.
171

Practically every large American university has an ESL program. They range in quality,
of course, from excellent to sub-standard, but regardless of quality, it is my feeling that foreign
students regard them as an obstacle. ESL is, moreover, perceived as irrelevant at just those
levels that both theory and applied research conclude it is irrelevant: at the "intermediate"
level. Many foreign students no longer feel they need ESL when they are able to survive in
regular classes, yet well-meaning administrators feel that for the foreign students' own
protection, their level of English competence should be higher.
Applied research confirms that intermediate ESL is not productive. The studies of
Upshur (1968) and Mason (1971), reviewed in Chapter II, which showed that extra ESL does
not help when students are enrolled in regular classes, included only students at this level.
For some "good language learners" (acquirers), the answer to this problem may very
well be the elimination of the "ESL" requirement or placing the level or required proficiency in
English lower. For others, however, this would not be the best solution. The feelings of ESL
administrators that some students need "more" is quite real and justified. All too often,
students are able only to survive in classes where the language demand is very low, and/or
they end up relying heavily on native language help, in the form of texts or classmates.
Subject matter teaching may be part of the answer to this "transition" problem. What I
propose is that the university consider classes for international students in subject matter,
classes in which international students are in fact "segregated", to be offered in all areas
foreign students are likely to enroll, and to be made available on a voluntary basis. Such
courses would give full academic credit and cover regular subject matter. The main
differences would be the fact that the students may be unfamiliar with American academic
practices.3
The absence of native speakers in the class would help to insure that the input is
comprehensible for the same reason immersion provides more comprehensible input than
submersion. Both the level of complexity of the classroom presentation and the amount and
complexity of outside reading would be regulated to the linguistic level of the class. Other
modifications that would help comprehensibility are also possible:
172

We would expect lower demands on student output, including a tolerance for errors (many of
which will be eliminated by more comprehensible input over time) and tests requiring short
answers in lieu of long essays.
International classes can not only take into account and help eliminate linguistic
deficiencies, they can also help fill several other gaps in international students' knowledge.
They can provide an anxiety-free, or at least anxiety-low, initial exposure to the American
style of education. Students will be able to acquire the subtleties of American classroom style
behavior, and learn many of the obvious differences that exist between what is acceptable
behavior in a classroom in their country and what is expected in the American university. In
other words, international classes can give students some of the tools for communicative
competence in the context of the classroom.4 5
(i) The New England problem. International students can also fill foreign students in on
cultural information that is presupposed in courses for native speakers and American
students. Thomas Jablonski of the History Department at USC has been teaching an
American history course exclusively for international students for the last three years, and he
has pointed out to me that many international students lack information that American
professors take for granted. A clear example is his finding that many of his students did not
have a clear idea of where New England was, a point of information that was essential to a
particular presentation. Information gaps such as this one are not obvious, and probably
abound. They have a better chance of being filled in international classes, where students are
encouraged to ask questions, and where instructors presuppose less.
(ii) The role of ESL in subject matter teaching. The establishment of international
classes does not signal the end of ESL, although it may result in some modification, and
hopefully improvement, of our ESL offerings.
First, while we can imagine pushing subject matter classes "down" to the lowest
linguistic proficiency level possible, we may always have a need for the second language
class at the beginning level. It is an empirical question just how much competence and
instruction (i.e. comprehensible
173

input) is necessary before students can begin special subject matter classes, but there will, in
most cases, be a need for a general class at the beginning.6
Second, as discussed in Chapter IV there are many aspects of language that are
consciously learnable, both in "grammar" (mostly morphology for the majority of students) and
discourse (conscious rules for the fine points of writing, including punctuation and
organization).
Also, a large percentage of foreign students may desire more English than they can get
in the classroom situation in order to facilitate participation in American social life.
Intermediate level classes that focus on providing the tools for communicative competence
and conversational management would be very helpful for students with more integrative
orientation and/or who plan to remain in the United States for extended periods of time.
In addition, ESL teachers might serve the useful function of assisting and consulting
with the subject matter teachers who teach international sections.
Figure 5.2 presents a schema of the possible interaction between an ESL component
and an academic component.
Fig. 5.2. ESL and academic components of international students'
program at the university level
_______________________________________________________________________________
Level ESL component Academic component
_______________________________________________________________________________
Beginning Classroom language teaching, None
focussing on topics of general
interest; introduction to University
life
Intermediate Optional course work on International sections of
1. English grammar (Monitor) subject matter courses
2. Stylistics (learnable) (optional)
3. Conversation (see text)
Advanced None Regular sections of subject
matter courses
_______________________________________________________________________________
See Note 6 for suggestions for a transition between the beginning and
intermediate levels.
(iii) The need for applied linguistics research. If I were simply to assert that the
International Students program as outlined above was
174

"the answer" to our foreign student problems in the American university, I would be repeating
the sins of the past, claiming that we need only consult theory in order to come to the correct
form of practice. To return to the message of Chapter I, this is not sufficient. At least the
following questions need to be answered with empirical data:
1. Do students in international classes acquire more English?
2. Do they learn as much subject matter as those who elect to take
standard courses?
3. Do they have more success in their studies over the long run?
4. Do they feel more comfortable in the academic environment?
Clearly, the answers to these questions will be of both theoretical and practical interest.
(iv) Adult ESL and subject matter. The ESL profession in the United States has already
been experimenting with a form of subject matter teaching at the "adult education" level, in
courses designed for adult immigrants to the United States. (This is another example of
teachers and administrators not waiting for theory and research, but discovering "what works"
on their own; see Chapter I for discussion.) S. Brown (1979) describes one experiment of this
sort in Los Angeles.
While part of ESL instruction in Brown's school is "the more traditional grammar-
oriented" style class, students also participate in units covering "life situations" topics that last
from two to four weeks. Examples include the use of community services (post-office, library,
etc.), consumer education, employment (covering classified ads, employment agencies,
unions, etc.), family life (e.g. wedding invitations, birthday parties, etc.), citizenship (e.g. traffic
and parking tickets, voting, taxes, etc.), and other "life situations". Teachers can use guest
speakers, films, field trips, and commercial materials in helping students understand the
"mechanics of life" in a new country.
Again, as is usually the case, no evidence is yet available confirming the utility of such
a program. Two of the three sources of inspiration for programs presented in Chapter I,
second language acquisition theory and teacher insight/intuition, predict, however, that such
programs will be of great use for language acquisition, in addition to their obvious practical
value, as long as the input is comprehensible.7
175

D. Comments on Achievement Testing
In this section, we will consider the implications of second language acquisition theory
on testing. I will begin with a very short review of what we normally consider to be relevant in
selecting tests for second language achievement, and the kinds of test options we chose
from. As was the case in describing language teaching systems earlier, this is not done in an
effort to supply new information, but to establish a common set of assumptions; I will assume,
therefore, some familiarity with the standard literature in second language testing (e.g. Harris,
1969; Valette, 1977; Oller, 1979). I will then focus on one major consideration, what Oller
(1979) terms the "instructional value" of a test, and suggest that if we take this property of
tests seriously, second language acquisition theory severely limits our options in achievement
test selection.
1. NORMAL CONSIDERATIONS IN TEST EVALUATION AND SELECTION
The standard literature on tests and measurements tells us that a good test needs to
meet certain standards. It must be reliable, that is, it must consistently give the same results
under different conditions. It must also be valid, that is, it should really measure what it is
supposed to measure. Testing experts also advise us to make sure a test is practical, that it is
economical, easy to score, and easy to interpret (Harris, 1969, pp. 21-22). Harris also suggest
that we consider the face validity of a test, "the way the test looks--to the examinees, test
administrators, educators, and the like" (p. 21), noting that if a test does not appear to be a
valid measure, whether it is or not in reality, students and teachers will not take it seriously.
Teachers and administrators in second language programs now have a wide variety of
tests to choose from. Tests are usually classified according to the modality they use (reading,
writing, speaking, listening) and their place among the discrete point/integrative continuum.
Discrete-point tests are tests that attempt "to focus attention on one point of grammar at a
time" (Oller, 1979, p. 37). An extreme discrete point test requires a minimum of knowledge of
context outside the sentence containing the item tested. Here is an example of a discrete-
point item:
176

Mary __________ in New York since 1960.
a. is living
b. has lived
c. lives
Integrative tests, on the other hand, make no attempt to focus on one aspect of language at a
time; according to Oller (1979), "Whereas discrete items attempt to test knowledge of
language one bit at a time, integrative tests attempt to assess a learner's capacity to use
many bits all at the same time, and possibly while exercising several presumed components
of a grammatical system, and perhaps more than one of the traditionally-recognized skills or
aspects of skills" (p. 37). Examples of test that are usually considered integrative include
reading comprehension, cloze tests, dictation, compositions, and tests of oral communication.
2. INSTRUCTIONAL VALUE
I would like to focus here on only one aspect of one kind of testing, the instructional
value of achievement tests, and make only one point. Tests have a huge impact on classroom
behavior, and need to be selected to encourage students to engage in activities that will help
them acquire more language. It may be that the instructional value criterion is possibly of
more importance than the criteria listed above.
Stated simply, the sort of test selected has a huge impact on the class. If students
know in advance what sort of test will be used to measure their achievement in a course, they
will, naturally, tend to study for the test, and teachers will feel pressure to teach to the test. I
suggest we harness this natural tendency and select tests that will encourage student
preparation that in itself causes more second language acquisition.8
Jones (1979) gives a good example of the results of harnessing this tendency, which
he calls the 'backwash" effect. In teaching an elementary German course at the university
level, he decided to give an oral midterm, a short (five minute) conversation done on a one-
on-one basis. Jones noted on this test that few of his students were proficient in the area of
social communication: "When I greeted them, asked how they were, or said good-bye, the
majority of them had no response but
177

awkward laughter, even though they had practiced these protocols in the classroom" (p. 56).
The effect of this midterm experience on the class was striking: "The teaching
assistants told me shortly after the first oral test that students were begging for more oral
practice in the classroom. The situation was much different on the second test. They were
waiting for me. It was obvious that they had made a great effort to develop speaking
proficiency in a very short time. The test not only gave me vital information about their ability
to speak the language, but it also served as a motivating influence for them to spend more
time developing this important skill" (pp. 56-57).
What if Jones' oral test had failed the usual standards for reliability? What if, for
example, the rating had been made by several judges and their interrater reliability had not
met the required level? The powerful backwash effect, I am suggesting, may, in certain
situations, more than make up for this problem.
The basic problem I am speaking of here is the fact that practice in certain types of
tests does not necessarily lead to more acquisition of the second language. This factor
eliminates some tests with very fine track records when judged on the basis of reliability and
validity. There is no evidence, for example, that practicing cloze tests in class helps the
student acquire more of the language, or improves performance on cloze tests. There is very
good evidence, on the other hand, that participating in conversation, and reading for content
or pleasure, do help the student acquire language. Conversational practice provides
comprehensible input and helps the student acquire the tools needed for conversation with
native speakers, which in turn results in more input and more language acquisition. Reading
for content is also an effective way of getting input that meets the requirements for optimal
input for acquisition, as we saw earlier in this chapter.
Achievement tests, I am suggesting, should meet this requirement: preparation for the
test, or studying for the test, should obviously encourage the student to do things that will
provide more comprehensible input and the tools to gain even more input when the class is
over. This drastically reduces our options, but also, in a real sense, simplifies the task of
achievement testing. Let us first examine what the consequences of this philosophy might be
in the area of foreign language testing.
178

Achievement testing in foreign language classes attempts to assess whether a student
has met the requirements of a given course, and sometimes whether he has satisfied a
language requirement at an institution. I will deal with each of these situations in turn.
For the foreign language class, I see only two options. One of them is fairly traditional:
reading comprehension. If students know in advance that they will be given a reading
comprehension test, a test in which they are asked to read several short passages and
answer general questions about the content of what they have read, they will be encouraged
to read. They will be encouraged to study for the test in the simplest and most obvious way,
and will seek out reading opportunities in the second language. As long as they know they will
be presented with a variety of passages (on different topics) and as long as the questions
focus on the "gist" of the passage and do not rely on one specific word or structure, it certainly
will be the case that general reading for pleasure and interest will prepare them for such a
test. Teachers will be encouraged to provide comprehensible reading materials, and students
will be encouraged to go outside the bounds of the classroom in search of supplementary
materials. Most important, if they read, they will acquire more of the target language.
The reading comprehension test is especially useful, since there is generally no
problem in purchasing or constructing tests that meet the statistical requirements mentioned
above. The standard literature has many suggestions on constructing reading tests (see, for
example, Harris, 1969, chapter 6), and reliability measures and various types of validity
measures can easily be obtained. Reading tests can be constructed that are practical and
that have obvious face validity.
A second kind of test is more complicated, but, at the moment, I see no other valid
options. What is needed is a test that will encourage students to engage in conversations,
that requires use of the tools of communicative competence. Many standard oral tests fail to
do this. A test in which the student answers questions does not require interactional ability,
nor does a test in which a student simply talks or even asks questions. What is needed is a
true test of conversational management.
I will attempt to give a rough description of what a test of conversational management
would look like: Ideally, it would involve both tester and student in a conversation about
something real, a problem that
179

has to be solved, a topic that needs to be discussed. Second, the student would be rated on
his ability to manage the conversation and communicate, not on grammatical accuracy. If, for
example, the student had word-finding difficulties that resulted only in an embarrassed silence
on his part, he would be graded down. If the student were able to "cover" the problem with
appropriate fillers (just a moment... what I want to say is... how do you say...?), he would not
only not be penalized but would be graded up for having the ability to keep the conversation
going and not lose the floor! Students would also be given credit for politeness and
appropriateness, since a minimum amount of this knowledge is absolutely necessary for
successful conversation. Most important, they would be given credit for successful
communication, for successfully completing the communicative exchange. Students who were
able to get the examiner to help them would also be graded more highly, the assumption
being that those who can elicit needed vocabulary and help the native speaker give them
comprehensible input will have more success in second language acquisition in the long run.9
There are predictable objections one can make to such a testing plan. Most obviously,
it can be argued that such tests, especially the second one, will do nothing for the
development of grammatical accuracy, and will only encourage sloppy speech, a laissez-faire,
"anything goes" attitude toward language, and the establishment of permanent bad habits.
Second language acquisition theory, however, makes quite different predictions: if tests of this
sort encourage students to participate in conversation and develop the skills to manage
conversations, they will contribute a great deal to the development of grammatical accuracy.
Indeed, they will develop, perhaps, more grammatical accuracy in the long run than any other
kind of measure! They will give the student the tools he needs to obtain comprehensible input,
and this in turn will result in subsequent language acquisition, improvement after the term
ends.
The conversational management test promises to be very difficult to grade reliably, and
thanks to this unreliability, it may fail to meet acceptable standards of validity. It will be hard to
train raters and hard to invent topics to discuss. Nevertheless, it has the promise of
stimulating students to develop conversational skills that will enable them to
180

use the language despite their less than perfect proficiency, thus helping to insure continued
progress in second language acquisition after the term has ended.
One could also argue that at least some grammar testing should be included. As
emphasized in Chapter II, we have not rejected the teaching of formal grammar. It has its use
as a Monitor, when using the Monitor does not interfere with communication. It is therefore a
portion of the instructional program. Shouldn't we therefore test grammar as well, in the form
of testing our students' abilities to Monitor their output under conditions conducive to the use
of the Monitor?
The argument appeared plausible to me at one time. Tracy Terrell presented me with a
counter-argument to testing grammar, and I think he is right: if we allow grammar testing, it
will grow and soon dominate the testing program, and hence the curriculum. While limited
grammar testing is consistent with the limited role of the grammar, there is a real danger that
teachers and administrators will revert to their old ways and gradually return to testing
grammar exclusively!
3. LANGUAGE REQUIREMENTS
Many universities and some high schools still have language requirements. This is
usually expressed as the necessity of studying a foreign language for a given period of time,
two to four semesters. If, however, the goal of the classroom is to bring students to the point
where they can continue to acquire the language by using the outside world, or resources
outside the classroom, this suggests that we should consider testing students to see whether
they have reached this level: can they continue to obtain comprehensible input? The tests
that probe this could be the identical ones proposed to be of maximum educational value in
the preceding section: Reading comprehension and conversational management are not only
the most appropriate for achievement tests given at the end of the semester, but may also be
the most appropriate leaving exams. The tests ask only these questions: can the student read
well enough in the second language so that he can read texts without having to consult a
dictionary excessively and without undue pain, i.e. without what Newmark calls "crytoanalytic
decoding". Is he able to communicate effectively with a native speaker who is willing to help?
181

Of course, I have left many serious questions unsettled, such as the range of topics to
be read and discussed, the problem of requiring equal levels of proficiency in cognate (and
hence more comprehensible) languages and more exotic languages, and how the passing
level is determined. Some applied research may eventually help to solve them; at the
moment, however, the format seems clear.
4. UNIVERSITY LEVEL ESL
Second language acquisition theory, as presented in this volume, gives no magical and
obvious answer to the difficult question of ESL testing at the university level. The goal of such
testing is to determine whether students know enough English to study in English. As is well
known, the "backwash" effect has been a problem in this area for years: many foreign
students study for the TOEFL examination exclusively, and are helped to do so by special
courses designed to do just this (see discussion in Wiggon, 1979).
Applying the same arguments here that we used earlier, emphasizing the instructional
value of tests, we come to the conclusion that subject matter testing would be of benefit at
this level as well. This is more easily said than done; it would be prohibitively expensive to
design standardized subject matter tests in all disciplines for international students.
International courses, as outlined in the previous sections, may be a step in this direction, as
long as they use subject matter tests as finals; a students' release from the ESL requirement
could be at least partially dependent on his ability to pass international courses.
E. Some Gaps in Materials
If the conclusions we have reached in this volume are correct, it implies that we have
some fairly serious gaps in our materials. Before listing where I think these gaps are, let me
first of all note that materials need to meet the same requirements that methods do, as listed
in Chapters III and IV. If materials are supposed to help students in language acquisition, they
should either supply input that is comprehensible, interesting/relevant, and not grammatically
sequenced themselves, or they should provide students with the means of obtaining such
input. If materials are meant to help language learning, they
182

should focus on rules that are learnable, portable, etc. While learning materials can be
criticized, it is my impression that there is no lack of materials for this purpose, and that
current texts can be useful for the language learning component of second language and
foreign language courses. We will therefore focus on what sorts of materials need to be
developed to encourage acquisition.
The new materials will be designed, I hope, to fill a basic need, helping beginning and
intermediate students obtain comprehensible input outside the classroom. This is an obvious
problem for foreign language students, and is especially crucial for students of "exotic"
languages. It is also a major problem for students of commonly spoken languages and
second language students; students at beginning levels do not have the competence to
engage native speakers in conversation, and cannot understand radio and TV or read easily.
We need materials, in addition to the input provided by the classroom, to bring students to the
point where they can utilize the outside world.
One obvious and convenient source of comprehensible input is reading. As discussed
earlier in this chapter, pleasure reading meets the requirements to qualify as input for
acquisition very well. The problem we have today is that readers designed for second
language students do not meet these requirements. What is currently available is often not
comprehensible; as mentioned earlier, the only reading many foreign language students
encounter are paragraphs that are loaded up with complex vocabulary and syntax. It is nearly
always grammatically sequenced; writers are careful only to include syntax that the student is
supposed to have studied or is currently learning. Also, there is simply not enough reading
available.
The second language student needs massive amounts of comprehensible, interesting
reading material, enough so that he can read for pleasure and/or interest for an hour an
evening, if he wants to, for several months.
Some current texts are in the right direction, but they are flawed in several ways.
(1) The use of exercises, questions that test students on content and drill them on the
grammar and vocabulary used. Teachers are, of course, free to ignore these exercises, but
they often take up most of the pages of the reader. While it can be argued that exercises
provide
183

learning, while the text provides acquisition, I think it is dangerous practice to try to combine
the two in this way. First, the necessity of answering content questions can ruin the pleasure
of reading. Second, they encourage reading more for form and less for content.
The assumption underlying many of the exercises found in readers seems to be that
students need "review" and "practice" on new vocabulary and grammar, otherwise they will
not retain it. This is, it seems to me, a self-fulfilling prophecy. With fewer exercises, students
might read more, and have a better chance of encountering these items in texts. With
excessive exercises, we may be destroying our students' desire to read for pleasure and
interest in the second language, thus insuring that many will indeed never see the new
structures and words again.
(2) Current readers simply do not provide enough. Part of the problem is the inclusion
of exercises, which take up valuable space. The reader of the future will be thick, full of
reading, and on varied topics. Students will be able to pick and choose their topics. To do this,
they need a lot to choose from. Simply including one story about the Wine Country of France,
another about sports, and one mystery story is not enough.
(3) Finally, writers of such readers need to rid themselves of the illusion that each line,
each paragraph, must count, and introduce some new structure or vocabulary item. As
emphasized many times in this book, such grammatical emphasis will seriously distort any
attempt to write anything of interest. We need not worry about each line. If we provide enough
comprehensible input, everything the student needs will be there.
1. THE LANGUAGE LABORATORY
As many readers know, there has been a great deal of discussion and debate in the
applied linguistics literature over the virtues of the language lab. In my view, it is not a
question of whether the lab is "good" or "bad", but simply whether it can be used to supply
input that is useful for acquisition, and thereby supplement what we can provide in class and
in reading.
Not only can the lab be used in this way, but it appears to be the case
184

that it is far easier, technologically speaking, to use the lab as a means of supplying
comprehensible input than for other purposes. The traditional use of the language lab puts a
tremendous technological and pedagogical burden on the teacher: the teacher is expected to
monitor student output, and correct their errors. Using the lab as a source of comprehensible
input is easier. Here are some possibilities: taped stories, with pictures to aid comprehension
and add to enjoyment, class-type lectures, supplemented with lecture notes (on real topics,
designed to supplement international classes, not sample lectures on random aspects of
chemistry or the history of a pretend kingdom), radio programs, commercials, etc. In other
words, comprehensible input, with simple aids to comprehension.
In my view, the lab should be a resource, a place students can go to get input on a
variety of subject matters whenever it is convenient for them. The old view of the lab, with the
vigilant drill master, does not allow this.10
2. A COMMENT ON FIELD TESTING OF MATERIALS
This slightly new approach to materials might also necessitate a slightly new approach
to field testing. I think I can best illustrate this by relating a conversation I had several years
ago with a representative of a publishing house that is active in both ESL and foreign
language materials. He had come to see me because of our work on the order of acquisition
of grammatical structures (e.g. Bailey, Madden and Krashen, 1974; Krashen et al., 1978;
Krashen et al., 1976; Houck, Roberson and Krashen, 1978a) feeling that our work, and similar
word done by other researchers, might give his writers a better sequence to base their
readers on. He accepted it as a given fact that readers designed for students needed to be
controlled for structures, and that our natural order studies would provide a superior basis for
this. Book one, for example, would contain only those structures found to be early acquired,
book two would add those structures slightly farther down on the natural order, etc.
I have argued against this philosophy several times in this volume. As Stevick (1980)
notes, it leads to a style "which is linguistically antiseptic and emotionally sterile" (p. 203; see
also his excellent discussion,
185

pp. 203-204). I presented my arguments against this approach to this publisher's
representative, and asked him what form of field testing his readers underwent. His response
was that the linguistic analysis was deemed sufficient: his publishing house provides writers
with a guide, indicating what structures are to be included for different levels. If the proposed
texts do indeed only contain these structures, they are considered worthy and have passed
the test. His purpose in seeing me was to revise this guide according to the natural order.
Here is an alternative approach to developing and field testing readers, one that is
consistent with the philosophy set forth in this book. The first step is to use writers who are
genuinely interested in telling, or re-telling a story, and who are interested in and sympathetic
with the audience. They simply write, focussing on the story, using what they intuitively feel
they need to tell it and make it comprehensible (recall Brown's advice to parents, repeated on
page 65).The field test is not a syntactic analysis. It is done in order to answer the questions:
do members of the intended audience understand it? Do they enjoy it? Do they find it
interesting? Would they read it on their own (not as an assignment)? If the answers to these
questions are in the affirmative, second language acquisition theory tells us that i + 1 will be
there, that the reading is linguistically appropriate and it will help the reader acquire more of
the target language.
We may apply similar criteria to other kinds of materials, i.e. the lab materials
recommended earlier, and materials designed to help teach subject matter (see Note 10). Are
they comprehensible? Are they interesting/relevant? etc. Only the students and language
acquirers can answer these questions.
Let us also not forget the obvious question that needs to be asked about all materials:
do they actually result in more proficiency in the target language? The theory predicts that if
materials satisfy our requirements, this will happen, but, as emphasized in Chapter I, this is
not enough. Applied linguistics research needs to confirm it.
F. Some Problems
Even if the theory presented here is totally correct, and my suggestions for application
are in fact the appropriate ones, there are some
186

serious problems that need to be mentioned before concluding. These have to do with the
acceptance, by teachers and students, of language acquisition as primary, and
comprehensible input as the means of encouraging language acquisition. These problems are
caused by he fact that acquisition differs from learning in two major ways: acquisition is slow
and subtle, while learning is fast and, for some people, obvious.
Acquisition takes time; it takes far more than five hours per week over nine months to
acquire the subjunctive. It may, if fact, take years. Good linguists, on the other hand, can
consciously learn a great deal in a very short time. Also, when we have acquired something,
we are hardly aware of it. In a sense, it feels as if it was always there, and something anyone
can do. Learning is different. Some people derive great pleasure from the learning and use of
conscious rules, and I am one of them! "Mastering" the subjunctive in French was very
satisfying for me, and I rekindle this sense of victory every time I plan and say sentences such
as "Il faut que j'aille". It is sometimes hard for people like us to understand that this sort of
pleasurable activity is not real language acquisition.
This leads to one major problem. Language curriculum and texts are designed by
people like us, people who learn quickly and who derive satisfaction from it (Stevick's "group
G", p. 253; Stevick, 1980). The vast majority of our students, however, are not as interested in
the structure of language as we are, and get their pleasures elsewhere!
But what about those students who believed us, and will only accept conscious
grammar and drill as the core of a language class, and who expect all of their errors to be
corrected (see e.g. Cathcart and Olsen, 1976)? I can only recommend two sorts of solution,
one long term and one short term. If the essentials of this book are correct, in the long term,
these students and their teachers will be educated. Ideas change slowly, however, and some
short-term solutions are needed. One of these, suggested by Tony Pfannkuche, is to present
a short course on language acquisition as part of the language teaching program, or just prior
to it. I think this is justified, especially if we conceive of the language requirement in high
schools and colleges as including skills and information about how to acquire any language,
not just the one presented in class. Another approach, and one that I am personally not above
using in my classes, is deception. We can teach vocabulary or
187

grammar, and, as long as it is done in the target language, a great deal of acquisition will take
place, the medium being the message. We can teach situationally, giving students useful,
short dialogues that satisfy the craving for learning and memorized language, but, at the
same time, present comprehensible input. Finally, the subject matter international classes will
also provide comprehensible input for a student, whether he believes in subconscious
acquisition or not.
I think that I have presented a conservative view of language acquisition theory and its
applications, conservative in the sense that it attempts to be consistent with all empirical data
that are known to me. It is consistent with the way thousands of people have acquired second
language throughout history, and in many cases acquired them very well. They acquired
second language while they were focussed on something else, while they were gaining
interesting or needed information, or interacting with people they liked to be with.
Notes
1 These principles derive from what Asher considers to be the three critical elements of
child language acquisition:
(1) listening in advance of speaking: "It may be that listening comprehension maps
the blueprint for the future acquisition of speaking" (p. 1041).
(2) "...the understanding of spoken language may be acquired when adults
manipulate the physical behavior of the infant through commands..."
(3) "...listening skill may produce a 'readiness' for the child to speak... As
understanding develops, there is a point of readiness to speak in which the child
spontaneously begins to produce utterances" (p. 1041).
2 While not strictly a method comparison experiment, Newmark's Minimal Language
Teaching Program for foreign language teaching at the University level, reported in Newmark
(1971), is of great interest. Newmark's students spent their instructional week as follows: three
hours in conversation sections with native speakers; two hours of extensive reading ("in order
to encourage scanning and rapid reading, assignments are purposely longer (10-20 pages)
than students can study crytoanalytically, and examinations on readings purposely encourage
rapid sketchy reading", p. 16); three hours in the lab for work on dialogues; and four hours with
"learning" type activities (study of a conventional grammar, reading and discussion in general
linguistics). Clearly, the first three portions focus on acquisition, with the conversational
sections and extensive reading assignments providing comprehensible input. Newmark reports
that his students consistently reach the MLA norms for two years in reading after only one year
in his program.
3 In some cases, international classes are impractical or impossible. One example is the
large lecture class in elementary sciences. A possibility is the international discussion section
and/or "pre-lecture" section, in which difficult vocabulary is explained, and the topic of the
lecture discussed in advance.
188

4 In some cases, international classes are impractical or impossible. One example is the
large lecture class in elementary sciences. A possibility is the international discussion section
and/or "pre-lecture" section, in which difficult vocabulary is explained, and the topic of the
lecture discussed in advance.
1. Ability to take notes in lectures.
2. Ability to take notes on written, textual materials.
3. Ability to organize essay type examination questions and write
accurately under the pressure of time.
4. Ability to recognize and understand the thinking strategies implicit in
objective type test questions (p. 79).
The international class, it can be argued, provides a natural syllabus for the acquisition of study
skills; needs such as those listed above will be met, as well as others not predicted by the
needs survey (see footnote five for an example). Second, international students may not regard
"study skills" classes as essential to their needs and as contributing directly to their educational
program (although Schwabe points out that her students at the University of California at Davis
appear to be more motivated for and interested in her ESL clinic than regular ESL classes).
They may simply be another obstacle to get through before students can pursue their major
interest.
This argumentation and speculation needs to be supplemented with research on the
applied level, to determine, whether the best approach is the clinic alone, the international class
alone, or some combination.
5 To give a concrete example of an easily-learnable aspect of classroom/academic
behavior, Gloria Heller has pointed out to me that several of her ESL students would hand in
homework assignments on three ring notebook paper with the rings on the wrong (right) side
(on what we consider to be the back of the paper). This trivial error might be interpreted as a
sign of sloppiness in a regular class and might not be corrected. It would be anticipated or at
least corrected in an international students' class, and is a good example of a simple, learnable
rule that makes a real difference. Using the correct side of the paper may not make a student a
better student or improve his grasp of subject matter, but it will affect his image in the eyes of
the teacher. "Learning" small aspects of classroom and academic behavior may thus have
similar functions as learning late-acquired aspects of language (Chapter IV): they may not be
essential for communication, but add "polish", giving an often important cosmetic effect.
6 Here is a possible summer intensive program, meant for the international student with a
few years of formal English instruction in his own country who is not yet ready for academic
work in English. The goal of the program is to provide subject matter instruction in areas that
are, at the same time, very relevant to the students' needs and interests, and that are
linguistically comprehensible
(1) Course work, taught by subject matter teachers. The student selects
courses from a list consisting of courses such as these:
(i) Mathematics review, from algebra through calculus.
(ii) Computer operation (not programming).
(iii) American consumer economics ("Sylvia Porter"), including credit, banking,
shopping strategies, etc.
189

(iv) English grammar ("language appreciation", or linguistics).
(v) English grammar for Monitor use.
(2) Once a degree of fluency is achieved, discussion groups with both more
experienced foreign students (in English) and with native speakers who are interested in the
same area of study can supplement the formal course offerings.
My prediction is that such a program would result in far more acquisition of English than
the standard intensive program, would be perceived of as more relevant by international
students, and would be of considerable value in furthering the students' educational progress in
his specialty.
7 In areas where there are enough students to support such classes, other forms of
subject matter teaching should also work in adult ESL, including job related classes for
immigrants or non-native speakers of English, and topics of interest, e.g. introduction to
American literature, American sports, cooking, etc. The point is that any topic will work as long
as the input is comprehensible and the students are genuinely interested in the subject matter.
8 As Carroll (1980) notes: "It is only natural for students to shape their learning efforts so
as to be maximally successful on tests, and if the tests measure objectives that are in some
ways different from those of the instruction, students will work towards those objectives and pay
less attention to achieving other objectives. The nature of external examinations will often shape
the behavior of the teachers themselves. We sometimes complain that teachers do nothing but
'teach for the tests'" (p. 528).
9 I have no totally satisfactory topics to suggest that are "real" and that present real
problems to be solved. In a consulting session with Karl Scheville's "PEFL" project at the
University of California at Berkeley (Department of Education), I feel we came close to
developing some. Here is one example. Examiner and student are given the following situation:
they are siblings, and live in a small apartment with a large family. All the children share
bedrooms. The oldest brother has decided that he wants a room of his own. A family meeting
needs to take place to decide what to do, because if the brother gets his way, there will be
intolerable space constraints on the rest of the family. The examiner and student discuss the
situation, with the goal of recommending to the family what the possible solutions are. The topic
is not "real", since it is a contrived situation, but in our rehearsals, we found that it was possible
to stimulate some interesting back and forth discussion.
10 The international classes I proposed earlier, special sections of subject matter classes
for international students, might also profit from special materials. These might include texts in
areas where slightly easier reading is not available, supplements to existing texts, and, as just
mentioned, taped lectures supplemented with notes.
190

Bibliography
ALLWRIGHT, R. (1975) Problems in the study of the language teacher's treatment of error. In M. Burt and H. Dulay (Eds.)
New Directions in Second Language Learning, Teaching, and Bilingual Education. Washington, D.C.: TESOL. pp. 96-109.
ANDERSEN, R. (1976) A functional acquisition hierarchy study in Puerto Rico. Paper presented at the 10th annual TESOL
conference, New York, New York, March, 1976
ANDERSEN, R. (1978) An implicational model for second language research. Language Learning 28: 221-282.
ASHER, J. (1965) The strategy of the total physical response: an application to learning Russian. International Review of
Applied Linguistics 3: 291-300.
ASHER, J. (1966) The learning strategy of the total physical response: a review. Modern Language Journal 50: 79-84.
ASHER, J. (1969) The total physical response approach to second language learning. Modern Language Journal 53: 3-17.
ASHER, J. (1972) Children's first language as a model for second language learning. Modern Language Journal 56:
133-139.
ASHER, J. (1977a) Learning Another Language Through Actions: The Complete Teacher's Guidebook. Los Gatos, Calif: Sky
Oaks Productions.
ASHER, J. (1977b) Children learning another language: a developmental hypothesis. Child Development 48: 1040-1048.
ASHER, J. and Price, B. (1967) The learning strategy of the total physical response: some age differences. Child
Development 38: 1219-1227.
ASHER, J., KUSUDO, J. and DE LA TORRE, R. (1974) Learning a second language through commands: the second field
test. Modern Language Journal 58: 24-32.
BAILEY, N., MADDEN, C. and KRASHEN, S. (1974) Is there a "natural sequence" in adult second language learning?
Language Learning 21: 235-243.
BANCROFT, J. (1978) The Lozanov method and its American adaptations. Modern
Language Journal 62: 167-174.
BIALYSTOCK, E. and FROHLICH, M. (1977) Aspects of second language learning in classroom settings. Working Papers
on Bilingualism 13: 1-26.
BIALYSTOCK, E. and FROHLICH, M. (1978a) The aural grammar test: description and implications. Working Papers on
Bilingualism 15: 15-35.
BIALYSTOCK, E. and FROHLICH, M. (1978b) Variables of classroom achievement in second language learning. Modern
Language Journal 62: 327-335.
BIRKBICHLER, D. (1977) Communication and beyond. In J. Phillips (Ed.) The Language Connection: From the Classroom to
the World. Skokie, Ill.: National Textbook. pp. 53-94.
BRIERE, E. (1978) Variables affecting native Mexican children's learning Spanish as a second language. Language Learning
28: 159-174.
BROWN, J. (1980) An explanation of morpheme-group interactions. Paper presented at the Los Angeles Second Language
Acquisition Research Forum, UCLA, February, 1980.
BROWN, R. (1973) A First Language. Cambridge: Harvard Press.
191

BROWN, R. (1977) Introduction. In C. Snow and C. Ferguson (Eds.) Talking to Children. New York: Cambridge University
Press. pp. 1-27.
BROWN, R., CAZDEN, C. and BELLUGI, U. (1973) The child's grammar from I to III. In C. Ferguson and D. Slobin (Eds.)
Studies of Child Language Development. New York: Holt Rinehart and Winston. pp. 295-333.
BROWN, S. (1979) Life situations: incorporating community resources into the adult ESL curriculum. CATESOL Occasional
Papers 5: 48-65.
BRUCE, L. (1979) The acquisition of grammatical morphemes by adult students of Russian as a foreign language. MA
Paper, Department of Linguistics, USC.
BRUCK, M., LAMBERT, W. and TUCKER, G. R. (1974) Bilingual schooling through the elementary grades: the St. Lambert
Project and grade seven. Language Learning 24: 183-204.
BURT, M. and KIPARSKY, C. (1972) The Gooficon: A Repair Manual for English. Rowley, Ma: Newbury House.
BUSHMAN, R. and MADSEN, H. (1976) A description and evaluation of Suggestopedia--a new teaching methodology. In J.
Fanselow and R. Crymes (Eds.) On TESOL '76. Washington: TESOL. pp. 29-38.
CAMPBELL, D. and STANLEY, J. (1963) Experimental and Quasi-Experimental Designs
for Research. New York: Rand McNally.
CANCINO, H., ROSANSKY, E, and SCHUMANN, J. (1975) The acquisition of the English auxiliary by native Spanish
speakers. TESOL Quarterly 9: 421-430.
CARROLL, J. (1966) The contributions of psychological theory and educational research to teaching of foreign languages. In
A. Valdman (Ed.) Trends in Language Teaching. New York: McGraw-Hill. pp. 93-106.
CARROLL, J. (1967) Foreign language proficiency levels attained by language majors near graduation from college. Foreign
Language Annals 1: 131-151.
CARROLL, J. (1980) Foreign language testing: persistent problems. In K. Croft (Ed.) Readings on English as a Second
Language. Cambridge, Ma: Winthrop. pp. 518-530.
CATHCART, R. and OLSEN, J. (1976) Teachers' and students' preference for correction of classroom conversation errors. In
J. Fanselow and R. Crymes (Eds.) On TESOL '76. Washington; TESOL. pp. 41-53.
CAZDEN, C. (1979) Curriculum/language contexts for bilingual education. In E. Briere (Ed.) Language Development in a
Bilingual Setting. Pomona, California: National Multilingual Multicultural Materials Development Center. pp. 129-138.
CELCE-MURCIA, M. and ROSENZWEIG, F. (1979) Teaching vocabulary in the ESL classroom. In M. Celce-Murcia and L.
McIntosh (Eds.) Teaching English as a Second or Foreign Language. Rowley, Ma.: Newbury House. pp. 241-257.
CHASTAIN, K. (1970) A methodological study comparing the audio-lingual habit theory and the cognitive code learning
theory: a continuation. Modern Language Journal 54: 257-266.
CHASTAIN, K. and WOERDEHOFF, F. (1968) A methodological study comparing the audio-lingual habit theory and the
cognitive code-learning theory. Modern Language Journal 52: 268-279.
CHIHARA, T. and OLLER, J. (1978) Attitudes and attained proficiency in EFL: a sociolinguistic study of adult Japanese
speakers. Language Learning 28: 55-68.
CHOMSKY, N. (1965) Aspects of the Theory of Syntax. Cambridge: MIT Press.
CHRISTISON, M. (1979) Natural sequencing in adult second language acquisition.
TESOL Quarterly 13: 122.
192

CLARK, E. and ANDERSEN, E. (1980) Spontaneous repairs: awareness in the process of acquiring language. Papers and
Reports in Child Language Dev. 16: 1-12.
CLARK, H. and CLARK, E. (1977) Psychology and Language. New York: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich.
COHEN, A. and ROBBINS, M. (1976) Towards assessing interlanguage performance: the relationship between selecting
errors, learner's characteristics, and learner's explanations. Language Learning 26: 45-66.
COHEN, A. and SWAIN, M. (1976) Bilingual Education: the "Immersion" model in the North American context. TESOL
Quarterly 10: 45-53.
CORDER, S. P. (1967) The significance of learner's errors. International Review of Applied Linguistics 5: 161-170.
CROSS, T. (1977) Mother's speech adjustments: the contributions of selected child listener variables. In C. Snow and C.
Ferguson, Talking to Children. New York: Cambridge University Press. pp. 151-188.
d'ANGLEJAN, A. (1978) Language learning in and out of classrooms. In J. Richards (Ed.) Understanding Second and
Foreign Language Learning. Rowley, Ma: Newbury House. pp. 218-236.
DE VILLERS, P. and DE VILLERS, J. (1973) A Cross-sectional study of the acquisition of grammatical morphemes in child
speech. Journal of Psycholinguistic Research 2: 267-278.
DILLER, K. (1978) The Language Teaching Controversy. Rowley, Ma.: Newbury House.
DULAY, H. and BURT, M. (1974) Natural sequences in child second language acquisition. Language Learning 24: 37-53.
DULAY, H. and BURT, M. (1975) A new approach to discovering universal strategies of child second language acquisition. In
D. Dato (Eds.) Developmental Psycholinguistics: Theory and Applications. Georgetown University Round Table on
Languages and Linguistics. Washington: Georgetown University Press. pp. 209-233.
DULAY, H. and BURT, M. (1977) Remarks on creativity in language acquisition. In M. Burt, H. Dulay and M. Finnochiaro
(Eds.) Viewpoints on English as a Second Language. New York: Regents. pp. 95-126.
DULAY, H. and BURT, M. (1978) Some guidelines for the assessment of oral language proficiency and dominance. TESOL
DULAY, H., BURT, M. and KRASHEN, S. Language Two. New York: Oxford. In press.
DUSKOVA, L. (1969) On sources of error in foreign language learning. International Review of Applied Linguistics 4: 11-36.
EKSTRAND, L. (1976) Age and length of residence as variables related to the adjustment of migrant children, with special
reference to second language learning. In G. Nickel (Ed.) Proceedings of the Fourth International Congress of Applied
Linguistics. Vol. 3. Stuttgart: Hochschul Verlag, pp. 179-197.
ERVIN-TRIPP, S. (1973) Some strategies for the first and second years. In A. Dil (Ed.) Language Acquisition and
Communicative Choice. Stanford: Stanford University Press. pp. 204-238.
ERVIN-TRIPP, S. (1974) Is second language learning like the first? TESOL Quarterly 8: 111-127.
FABRIS, M. (1978) The acquisition of English grammatical functors by child second language learners. TESOL Quarterly 12:
482.
FANSELOW, J. (1977) The treatment of error in oral work. Foreign Language Annals 10: 583-593.
193

FATHMAN, A. (1975) The relationship between age and second language productive ability. Language Learning 25:
245-266.
FATHMAN, A. (1979) The value of morpheme order studies for second language learning. Working Papers on Bilingualism
18: 179-199.
FATHMAN, A. (1980) Influences of age and setting on second language oral proficiency. Paper presented at Los Angeles
Second Language Research Forum, UCLA, February, 1980.
FELIX, S. (1980) The effect of formal instruction on second language learning. Paper presented at Los Angeles Second
Language Research Forum, UCLA, February, 1980.
FREED, B. (1980) Talking to foreigners versus talking to children: similarities and differences. In R. Scarcella and S. Krashen
(Eds.) Research in Second Language Acquisition. Rowley, Ma.: Newbury House. pp. 19-27.
GAIES, S. (1977) The nature of linguistic input in formal language learning: linguistic and communicative strategies in ESL
teachers' classroom language. In H. D. Brown, C. Yorio and R. Crymes (Eds.) Teaching and Learning English as a Second
Language: Trends in Research and Practice. Washington: TESOL. pp. 204-212.
GARDNER, R. and LAMBERT, W. (1972) Attitudes and Motivation in Second-Language Learning. Rowley, Ma.: Newbury
House.
GARY, J. O. (1975) Delayed oral practice in initial stages of second language learning. In M. Burt and M. Dulay (Eds.) On
TESOL '75: New Directions in Second Language Learning, Teaching and Bilingual Education. Washington: TESOL. pp.
89-95.
GILLIS, M. and WEBER, R. (1976) The emergence of sentence modalities in the English of Japanese-speaking children.
Language Learning 26: 77-94.
HAKUTA, K. (1974) A preliminary report of the development of grammatical morphemes in a Japanese girl learning English
as a second language. Working Papers on Bilingualism 3: 18-43.
HALE, T. and BUDAR, E. (1970) Are TESOL classes the only answer? Modern Language Journal 54: 487-492.
HALL, E. (1959) The Silent Language. Greenwich, Conn.: Fawcett.
HAMMARBERG, B. (1979) On intralingual, interlingual and developmental solutions in interlanguage. Paper presented at the
Fifth Scandinavian Conference of Linguistics, Frostvallen, April, 1979.
HAMMERLY, H. (1975) The deduction/induction controversy. Modern Language Journal
LIX: 15-18.
HANANIA, E. and GRADMAN, H. (1977) Acquisition of English structures: a case study of an adult native speaker in an
English-speaking environment. Language Learning 27: 75-92.
HARRIS, D. (1969) Testing English as a Second Language. New York. McGraw Hill.
HARTNETT, D. (1974) The Relation of Cognitive Style and Hemispheric Preference to Deductive and Inductive Second
Language Learning. MA Thesis, Department of English, (TESL), UCLA.
HATCH, E. (1972) Some studies in second language learning. UCLA Workpapers in Teaching English as a Second
Language 6: 29-36.
HATCH, E. (1976) Language in outer space. Paper presented at the UCLA-USC Second Language Acquisition Forum, Fall,
1976.
HATCH, E. (1978a) Discourse analysis and second language acquisition. In E. Hatch (Ed.) Second Language Acquisition.
Rowley, Ma.: Newbury House. pp. 401-435.
HATCH, E. (1978b) Introduction. In E. Hatch (Ed.) Second Language Acquisition. Rowley, Ma.: Newbury House. pp. 1-18.
194

HATCH, E. (1979) Apply with caution. Studies in Second Language Acquisition 2: 123-143.
HATCH, E., SHAPIRA, R. and GOUGH, J. (1978) "Foreigner-talk" discourse. ITL: Review of Applied Linguistics 39-40:
39-60.
HAWKINS, J. (1978) Definiteness and Indefiniteness: A Study in Reference and Grammaticality Prediction. London: Croom
Helm.
HENDRICKSON, J. (1978) Error correction in foreign language teaching: recent theory, research, and practice. In K. Croft
(Ed.) Readings on English as a Second Language. Cambridge, Ma.: Winthrop. pp. 153-175.
HOUCK, N., ROBERTSON, J. and KRASHEN, S. (1978) On the domain of the conscious grammar: morpheme orders for
corrected and uncorrected ESL student transcriptions. TESOL Quarterly 12: 335-339.
HOUCK, N., ROBERTSON, J. and KRASHEN, S. (1978b) What happens in error correction. Abstract submitted to 1978
TESOL Conference.
HYLTENSTAM, K. (1977) Implicational patterns in interlanguage syntax variation. Language Learning 27: 383-411.
INHELDER, B., and PIAGET, J. (1958) The Growth of Logical Thinking from Childhood to Adolescence. New York: Basic
Books.
JOHNSON, T. and KRUG, K. (1980) Integrative and instrumental motivations: in search of a measure. In J. Oller and K.
Perkins (Eds.) Research in Language Testing. Rowley, Ma.: Newbury House. pp. 241-249
JONES, R. (1979) Performance testing of second language proficiency. In E. Briere and F. Hinofotis (Eds.) Concepts in
Language Testing. Washington: TESOL. pp. 50-57.
JORDENS, P. and KELLERMAN, E. (1978) Investigation into the strategy of transfer in second language learning. Paper
presented at AILA conference, Montreal, August, 1978.
KAYFETZ, J. (Fuller) (1978) Natural and Monitored Sequences by Adult Learners of English as a Second Language. Ph.D.
dissertation. Florida State University.
KELLERMAN, E. 1978) Giving learners a break: native language intuitions as a source of predictions about transferability.
Working Papers on Bilingualism 15: 59-92.
KESSLER, C. and IDAR, I. (1977) The acquisition of English syntactic structures by a Vietnamese child. Paper presented at
the Los Angeles Second Language Acquisition Forum, UCLA, 1977.
KLEINMAN, H. (1977) Avoidance behavior in adult second language acquisition. Language Learning 27: 93-107.
KLIMA, E. and BELLUGI, U. (1966) Syntactic regularities in the speech of children. In J. Lyons and R. Wales (Eds.)
Psycholinguistic Papers. Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press. pp. 183-208.
KOUNIN, T. and KRASHEN, S. (1978) Approaching native speaker competence from two different directions. In C.
Blatchford and J. Schachter (Eds.) On TESOL '78: EFL Policies, Programs, Practices. Washington: TESOL. pp. 205-212.
KRASHEN, S. (1976) Formal and informal linguistic environments in language learning and language acquisition. TESOL
Quarterly 157-168.
KRASHEN, S. (1977) Some issues relating to the Monitor Model. In H. D. Brown, C. Yorio and R. Crymes (Eds.) On TESOL
'77: Teaching and Learning English as a Second Language: Trends in Research and Practice. Washington: TESOL. pp.
144-158.
KRASHEN, S. (1978) Individual variation in the use of the Monitor. In W. Ritchie (Ed.) Principles of Second Language
Learning. New York: Academic Press. pp. 175-183.
195

KRASHEN, S. (1980) The theoretical and practical relevance of simple codes in second language acquisition. In R. Scarcella
and S. Krashen (Eds.) Research in Second Language Acquisition. Rowley, Ma.: Newbury House. pp. 7-18.
KRASHEN, S. (1981) Second Language Acquisition and Second Language Learning. Oxford: Pergamon Press.
KRASHEN, S. (1982) Newmark's "Ignorance Hypothesis" and current second language acquisition theory. Unpublished
manuscript.
KRASHEN, S., SELIGER, H. and HARTNETT, D. (1974) Two studies in second language learning. Kritikon Litterarum 3:
220-228.
KRASHEN, S. and PON, P. (1975) An error analysis of an advance ESL learner. Working Papers on Bilingualism 7: 125-129.
KRASHEN, S., MADDEN, C. and BAILEY, N. (1975) Theoretical aspects of grammatical sequencing. In M. Burt and H. Dulay
(Eds.) Second language Learning, Teaching, and Bilingual Education. Washington: TESOL. pp. 44-54.
KRASHEN, S. and SELIGER, H. (1975) The essential characteristics of formal instruction. TESOL Quarterly 9: 173-183.
KRASHEN, S. and SELIGER, H. (1976) The role of formal and informal linguistic environments is adult second language
learning. International Journal of Psycholinguistics 3: 15-21.
KRASHEN, S., SFERRLAZZA, V. FELDMAN, L. and FATHMAN, A. (1976) Adult performance on the SLOPE test: more
evidence for a natural sequence in adult second language acquisition. Language Learning 26: 145-151.
KRASHEN, S., HOUCK, N., GIUNCHI, P, BODE, S., BIRNBAUM, R. and STREI, J. (1977) Difficulty order for grammatical
morphemes for adult second language performers using free speech. TESOL Quarterly 11: 338-341.
KRASHEN, S., BUTLER, J., BIRNBAUM, R., and ROBERTSON, J. (1978) Two studies in language acquisition and language
learning. ITL: Review of Applied Linguistics 39-40: 73-92.
KRASHEN, S., and SCARCELLA, R. (1978) On routines and patterns in language acquisition and performance. Language
Learning 28: 283-300.
KRASHEN, S., ZELINSKI, S., JONES, C. and USPRICH, C. (1978) How important is instruction? English Language
Teaching Journal 32: 257-261.
KRASHEN, S., LONG, M. and SCARCELLA, R. (1979) Age, rate and eventual attainment in second language acquisition.
TESOL Quarterly 13: 573-582.
KUNIHARA, S. and ASHER, J. (1965) The strategy of the total physical response: an application to learning Japanese.
International Review of Applied Linguistics 4: 277-289.
LADO, R. (1964) Language Teaching: A Scientific Approach. New York: McGraw Hill.
LADO, R. and FRIES, C. (1958) An Intensive Course in English. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press.
LAMBERT, W. and TUCKER, G. R. (1972) The Bilingual Education of Children. Rowley, Ma.: Newbury House.
LAMENDELLA, J. (1979) Lectures presented at the 1979 TESOL Summer Institute, UCLA, English 272K.
LARSEN, D. (1975) A Re-evaluation of grammatical structure sequencing. On TESOL '74. Washington: TESOL.
LARSEN-FREEMAN, D. (1975) The Acquisition of Grammatical Morphemes by Adult Learners of English as a Second
Language. Ph.D. dissertation, University of Michigan.
196

LARSEN-FREEMAN, D. (1979) The importance of input in second language acquisition. Paper presented at the Linguistic
Society of America, Los Angeles, December, 1979.
LAWLER, J and SELINKER L. (1971) On paradoxes, rules, and research in second language acquisition. Language
Learning. 21: 27-43.
LEE, R., McCUNE, L, and PATTON, L. (1970) Physiological responses to different modes of feedback in pronunciation
testing. TESOL Quarterly 4: 117-122.
LENNEBERG, E. (1962) Understanding language without ability to speak: a case report. Journal of Abnormal and Social
Psychology 65: 419-425.
LEVIN, L. (1972) Comparative Studies in Foreign-Language Teaching. Stockholm: Almqvist & Wiksell.
LIGHTBOWN, P., SPADA, N. and WALLACE, R. (1980) Some effects of instruction on child and adolescent ESL learners. In
R. Scarcella and S. Krashen (Eds.) Research in Second Language Acquisition. Rowley, Ma: Newbury House. pp. 162-172.
LIGHTBOWN, P. Exploring the relationships between developmental and instructional sequences in second language
acquisition. In H. Seliger and M. Long (Eds.) Classroom Language Acquisition and Use: New Perspectives. Rowley, Ma.:
Newbury House. In press.
LoCOCO, V. (1975) An analysis of Spanish and German learner's errors. Working papers on Bilingualism 7: 96-124.
LONG, M. (1980) Input, Interaction, and Second Language Acquisition.Ph.D. dissertation, UCLA.
LUKMANI, Y. (1972) Motivation to learn and language proficiency. Language Learning 22: 261-273.
MACHA, D. (1979) Reading comprehension of non-native students in English composition at the freshman level. TESOL
MaCNAMARA, J. (1972) Cognitive basis of language learning in infants. Psychological Review 79: 1-14.
MAKINO, T. (1980) Acquisition Order of English Morphemes by Japanese Adolescents. Tokyo: Shinozaki Shorin Press.
MASON, C. (1971) The relevance of intensive training in English as a foreign language for university students. Language
Learning 21: 197-204.
MILON, J. (1974) The development of negation in English by a second language learner. TESOL Quarterly 8: 137-143.
MINOURA, Y. (1979) An examination of the role of acculturation in second language acquisition through multivariate
analysis. Paper presented at TESOL summer meeting, UCLA, July, 1979.
MUELLER, T. (1971) The effectiveness of two learning models: the audio-lingual habit theory and the cognitive code-learning
theory. In P. Pimsleur and T. Quinn (Eds.) The Psychology of Second Language Learning. Cambridge: Cambridge University
Press, pp. 113-122.
MURAKAMI, M. (1980) Behavioral and attitudinal correlates of progress in ESL by native speakers of Japanese. In J. Oller
and K. Perkins (Eds.) Research in Language Testing. Rowley, Ma.: Newbury House. pp. 227-232.
NELSON, J. (1980) Language Systems in Adult Informal Second Language Learners. Ph.D. dissertation, McGill University.
NEWMARK, L. (1966) How not to interfere with language learning. Language Learning: The Individual and the Process.
International Journal of American Linguistics 40: 77-83.
197

NEWMARK, L. (1971) A minimal language teaching program. In P. Pimsleur and T. Quinn (Eds.) The Psychology of Second
Language Learning. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. pp. 11-18.
NEWMARK, L., and REIBEL, D. (1973) Necessity and sufficiency in language learning. In M. Lester (Ed.) Readings in
Applied Transformational Grammar. New York: Holt Rinehart Winston. pp. 220-244.
NEWMARK, E., GLEITMAN, H. and GLEITMAN, L. (1977) Mother, I'd rather do it myself: some effects and non-effects of
maternal speech style. In C. Snow and C. Ferguson (Eds.) Talking to Children. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. pp.
109-149.
OLLER, J. (1979) Language Tests at School. London: Longmans.
OLLER, J., BACA, L. and VIGIL, A. (1977) Attitudes and attained proficiency in ESL: a sociolinguistic study of Mexican-
Americans in the southwest. TESOL Quarterly 11: 173-183.
OLLER, J. and PERKINS, K. (1978) Intelligence and language proficiency as sources of variance in self reported affective
variables. In J. Oller and K. Perkins (Eds.) Language in Education: Testing the Tests. Rowley Ma.: Newbury House. pp.
103-122.
OLLER, J., PERKINS, K. and MURAKAMI, M. (1980) Seven types of learner variables in relation to ESL learning. In J. Oller
and K. Perkins (Eds.) Research in Language Testing. Rowley Ma.: Newbury House. pp. 233-240.
OLSSON, M. (1969) Implicit and explicit: an experiment in applied psycholinguistics, assessing different methods of teaching
grammatical structures in English as a foreign language. GUME Report #3, Gothenburg School of Education. Sweden.
OSTRANDER, S. and SCHROEDER, L. (Eds.)(1976) The ESP Papers. New York: Bantam Books.
OYAMA, S. (1976) A sensitive period for the acquisition of a non-native phonological system. Journal of Psycholinguistic
Research 5: 261-285.
OYAMA, S. (1978) The sensitive period and comprehension of speech. Working Papers on Bilingualism 16: 1-17.
PATKOWSKI, M. (1980) The sensitive period for the acquisition of syntax in a second language. Language Learning 30:
449-472.
PAULSTON, C. (1972) Structural pattern drills: a classification. Foreign Language Annals 4: 187-193.
POSTOVSKY, V. (1974) Effects of delay in oral practice at the beginning of second language learning. Modern Language
Journal 58: 229-239.
Public Service Commission of Canada, Staff Development Branch, Studies Division, Suggestopedia Program (1975) A
teaching experience with the Suggestopedic Method. Ottawa, Canada.
PURCELL, E.. and SUTER, R. (1980) Predictors of pronunciation accuracy: a re-examination. Language Learning 30:
271-287.
RACLE, G. (1979) Psychopédagogie profonde en enseignement del langes. Medium 4:
91-110.
RACLE, R. (1980) Psychopédagogie profonde en enseignement del langes. (suite). Medium 5: 73-83.
RAMSEY, C. and WRIGHT, E. (1974) Age and second language learning. Journal of Social Psychology 94: 115-121.
RAVEM, R. (1974) The development of wh-questions in first and second language learners. In J. Richards (Ed.) Error
Analysis: Perspectives on Second Language Learning. London: Longman. pp. 134-155.
198

REBER, A. (1976) Implicit learning of synthetic languages: the role of instructional set. Journal of Experimental Psychology:
Human Memory and Learning. 2: 88-95.
RIVERS, W. (1968) Teaching Foreign Language Skills. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
RIVERS, W. (1979) Foreign language acquisition: where the real problems lie. Applied Linguistics 1: 48-57.
ROBINSON, P. (1980) ESP: English for Specific Purposes. Oxford: Pergamon Press.
SCARCELLA, R. Developing conversational competence in a second language. Forthcoming.
SCARCELLA, R. and HIGA, C. Input and age differences in second language acquisition. In S. Krashen, R. Scarcella and M.
Long (Eds.) Child-Adult Differences in Second Language Acquisition. Rowley, Ma.: Newbury House. Forthcoming.
SCHACHTER, J. (1974) An error in error analysis. Language learning 24: 204-214.
SCHACHTER, J., TYSON, A. and DIFFLEY, F. (1976) Learner intuitions of grammaticality. Language Learning 26: 67-76.
SCHERE, G. and WERTHEIMER, M. (1964) A Psycholinguistic Experiment in Foreign Language Teaching. New York:
McGraw Hill.
SCHLUE, K. (1977) An inside view of interlanguage. In C. Henning (Ed.) Proceedings of the Los Angeles Second Language
Research Forum. UCLA TESL Department. pp. 342-348.
SCHUMANN, J. (1978a) The Pidginization Process. Rowley, Ma: Newbury House.
SCHUMANN, J. (1978b) The acculturation model for second-language acquisition, In R. Gingras (Ed.) Second-Language
Acquisition and Foreign Language Teaching. Arlington, Virginia: Center for Applied Linguistics. pp. 27-50.
SCHUMANN, J. (1979) The acquisition of English negation by speakers of Spanish: a review of the literature. In R. Andersen
(Ed.) The Acquisition and Use of Spanish and English as First and Second Languages. Washington: TESOL.
SCHUMANN, J. (1980) The acquisition of English relative clauses by second language learners. In R. Scarcella and S.
Krashen (Eds.) Research in Second Language Acquisition. Rowley, Ma.: Newbury House. pp. 118-131.
SCHUMANN, J. and SCHUMANN, F. (1977) Diary of a language learner: an introspective study of second language
learning. In H. D. Brown, C. Yorio and R. Crymes (Eds.) On TESOL '77: Teaching and Learning English as a Second
Language, Trends in Research and Practice. Washington: TESOL. pp. 209-249.
SCHWABE, T. (1978) Survival English for ESL students in American educational institutions. CATESOL Occasional Papers
4: 79-87.
SCOVEL, T. (1979) Georgi Lozanov: Suggestology and outlines of Suggestology. TESOL Quarterly 13: 255-266.
SELIGER, H. (1975) Inductive method and deductive method in language teaching: a reexamination. International Review of
Applied Linguistics 13: 1-18.
SELIGER, H. (1979) On the nature and function of language rules in language teaching. TESOL Quarterly 13: 359-369.
SELIGER, H., KRASHEN, S. and LADEFOGED, P. (1975) Maturational constraints in the acquisition of a native-like accent
in second language learning. Language Sciences 36: 209-231.
SELINKER, L. (1972) Interlanguage International Review of Applied Linguistics 10: 209-231.
SHIPLEY, E., SMITH, C. and GLEITMAN, L. (1969) A study in the acquisition of language: free responses to commands.
Language 45: 322-342.
199

STAFFORD, C. and COVITT, G. (1978) Monitor use in adult second language production. ITL: Review of Applied Linguistics 39-40:
103-125.
STAUBLE, A. (1978) The process of decreolization: a model for second language development. Language Learning 28: 29-54.
STEVICK, E. (1976) Memory, Meaning, and Method. Rowley, Ma.: Newbury House.
STEVICK, E. (1980) Teaching Languages: A Way and Ways. Rowley, Ma.: Newbury House.
SWAFFER, J. and WOODRUFF, M. (1978) Language for comprehension: focus on reading. Modern Language Journal 62: 27-32.
SWAIN, M. (1974) French immersion programs across Canada: research findings. Canadian Modern Language Review 31: 117-129.
TERRELL, T. (1977) A natural approach to second language acquisition and learning. Modern Language Journal 6: 325-337.
TUCKER, G. R. and SAROFIM, M. (1979) Investigating linguistic acceptability with Egyptian EFL students. TESOL Quarterly 13: 29-39.
ULUN, J. and KEMPEN, G. (1976) The role of the first language in second language reading comprehension--some experimental evidence.
Proceedings of the Fourth International Congress of Applied Linguistics. Stuttgart: HochschulVerlag. pp. 495-507.
UPSHUR, J. (1968) Four experiments on the relation between foreign language teaching and learning. Language Learning 18: 111-124.
VALETTE, R. (1977) Modern Language Testing. New York: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich.
van NAERSSEN, M. (1981) Ph.D. dissertation, Department of Linguistics, University of Southern California.
VARVEL, T. (1979) The Silent Way: panacea or pipedream? TESOL Quarterly 13: 493-494.
von ELEK, T. and OSKARSSON, M. (1975) Comparative Method Experiments in Foreign Language Teaching. Department of Educational
Research. Mőlndal (Gothenburg) School of Education. Sweden.
WAGNER-GOUGH, J. and HATCH, E. (1975) The importance of input data in second language acquisition studies. Language Learning 25:
297-308.
WALBURG, H., HASE, K. and PINZUR RASHER, S. (1978) English acquisition as a diminishing function of experience rather than age.
TESOL Quarterly 12: 427-437.
WHITE, L. (1977) Error analysis and error correction in adult learners of English as a second language. Working Papers on Bilingualism 13:
42-58.
WIDDOWSON, H. (1977) The significance of simplification. Studies in Second Language Acquisition 1.
WIGGIN, B. (1979) Comments on the TOEFL test. TESOL Quarterly 13: 292-294.
WINN-BELL OLSEN, J. (1977) Communication Starters and Other Activities for the ESL Classroom. San Francisco: Alemeny Press.
WODE, H. (1976) Developmental sequences in naturalistic L2 acquisition. In E. Hatch (Ed.) Second Language Acquisition. Rowley, Ma.:
Newbury House. pp. 101-117.
YORIO, C. (1978) Confessions of a second language speaker/learner. Paper presented at 12th annual TESOL convention, Mexico City,
April, 1978.
ZOBL, H. (1980a) Developmental and transfer errors; their common bases and (possibly) differential effects on subsequent learning. TESOL
ZOBL, H. (1980b) Contact-induced language change, learner-language, and the potentials of a modified CA. Paper presented at the Los
Angeles Second Language Acquisition Research Forum, UCLA.
ZOBL, H. (1980c) The formal and developmental selectivity of L1 influence on L2 acquisition. Language Learning 30: 43-57.
200

Index
Acculturation 45-50
Achievement testing 176-182
Acquisition (defined) 10
does not result from learning 83-89
not the same as inductive learning 113
characteristics 18
Affective Filter 30-32, 73-76, 128, 131, 134, 136, 139,
141-142, 144-145, 164, 165, 168-169
Age 43-45, 95
Audio-lingualism 129-132, 149-154
Avoidance 51
Backwash effect 177-178, 182
"Careless" errors 86, 99
Caretaker speech 22-24, 64-65
Classroom, role of 30, 33-37, 58-60
Cognitive-code 84, 113, 132-134, 149-154
Conversation 61, 163-164
Conversational management 44, 59, 61, 76-79, 129,
131, 134, 135-136, 139, 142, 164, 165, 169
Counseling-Learning 32, 126
Deductive learning 87, 113-115
Direct method 135-137
Error correction 11, 61, 74-76, 91-92, 116-119, 138,
139, 141
"Eureka" experience 88
Exposure 37-43
Foreigner talk 24, 60, 64-65, 163
Forgetting Principle 66, 133, 168
First language influence 27-28
Grammatical sequencing
(for acquisition) 14, 25-26, 68-70, 128, 131, 134, 136,
138, 141, 145, 163, 165, 168
(for learning) 115-116
Grammar teaching 81, 88, 89, 112, 113-115, 119-121,
137
Grammar-translation 127-129, 149-154
GUME project 150-154
Immersion 170-171
Inductive Learning 11, 87, 113-115, 132, 135, 142
Input hypothesis 20-30, 60
Interlanguage talk 24
Internalization 81, 84
Learning (defined) 10, 16, 83-124, 129, 132, 134, 137,
139, 142, 187
Language laboratory 184-185
Materials 182-186
Method comparisons 147-160
Monitor hypothesis 15-20
Monitor use 89-104
Natural Approach 76, 117, 137-140
Natural order 12, 13, 14, 17, 101, 116, 124, 185
Output 60-62, 74
Pleasure reading 164-167, 183-184
201

Quantity of input 71, 128, 131, 134, 136,
138-139, 141, 163, 165, 168, 184
Self-correction 104-112
Silent period 26-27, 71-72, 81, 157, 171
Silent Way 126
Subject matter teaching 167-175
Suggestopedia 32, 142-146, 158-160
Teacher, function of 64-66
Teacher talk 24, 64-65, 137
Total Physical Response 140-142, 155-157
Transitional forms 14, 51-52
Vocabulary 80-81
202

Principles of language acquisition

More Related Content

What's hot (20)

Viewers also liked (15)

Similar to Principles of language acquisition (20)

Recently uploaded (20)

Principles of language acquisition