Automation and Robotics Week 03 Theory Notes 20ME51I.pdf

Vidya Vikas Educational Trust (R),
Vidya Vikas Polytechnic
27-128, Mysore - Bannur Road Alanahally,Alanahally Post, Mysuru, Karnataka 570028
Prepared by: Mr Thanmay J.S, H.O.D Mechanical Engineering VVETP, Mysore
WEEK 03
Day 01 Session:
Communication network with PLC systems and standard communication protocols for data transfer
Communication is an important role player in PLC. Apart from traditional hardware IO’s,
communication protocols provide more diversity and flexibility to exchange data with various means. The
various communication methods used in a PLC are as follows:
1) Ethernet/IP: It is a protocol that works under Common Industrial Protocol (CIP), which is an open
application layer protocol. It is an advanced version of standard Ethernet, which is useful only for in-home
and commercial purposes; but not for industrial applications. It defines all the devices on a network as a
series of objects and binds all of them to work on the same standard. This protocol was developed by
Rockwell Automation.
2) Modbus: Modbus is a protocol that is used for transmitting information over a serial lines or Ethernet, based
on master-slave technology. Here we have two types of devices in this communication. The devices which
request information are called Modbus Master and the devices which provide the information are
called Modbus Slaves.
3) Profibus: It is similar to Modbus RTU, which also works on serial line communication. The only difference
is that it is owned by Siemens Automation.
4) Optomux: It is a serial network protocol that works on RS-232/RS-485 and works on ASCII standard. It
was developed by Opto22.
5) Interbus: It is a serial network protocol which works on RS-232/RS-485 and works on RTU standard. It
was developed by Phoenix Contact.
6) HostLink: It is a serial network protocol that works on RS-232/RS-485 and works on RTU standard. It
works only on Omron PLCs. It was developed by Omron.
7) Data Highway (DH+): It is a protocol developed by Rockwell Automation and uses transformer-coupled
differential signals; meaning that the transmitter and receiver stations need not be at the same ground
potential. It works with the differential signaling concept. It uses two wires for data transfer and the data is
represented with voltage differences in the two wires. Here the data is carried with differential voltages, the
noise will be easily removed in the two wires.
8) Point to Point (PP): As the name suggests, it is a communication protocol which is used to communicate
between only two connected devices. It is byte-oriented and is full duplex.
9) Actual Sensor Interface (ASI): It is a protocol that is used to connect all the sensors and actuators in a field
with a single two-conductor cable. It reduces the wiring and manpower done to connect the field equipment
to the PLC. It works in master-slave technology.
10) Open Smart Grid Protocol: This protocol has been developed to connect all the electrical devices in a
power grid through communication and make it a smart grid system. The devices are meters, direct load
control modules, solar panels, gateways, and other smart grid devices.
11) CAN (Controller Area Network): This protocol is an application layer protocol that communicates with
various devices using peer messaging. It is a multi-master slave communication system and has an object
dictionary that contains all the functions of a device. This is an actual communication mean and has standard
communication objects for real-time data (PDO’s), configuration data (SDO’s), timestamp, sync message,
emergency message, boot-up message, NMT message, and error control message, and other data.
12) HART (Highway Addressable Remote Transducer): HART is a protocol in which digital data is
superimposed on the traditional analog signal of 4-20 mA; so that the user gets both the analog information
as well as digital information. HART-enabled field transmitters and actuators are of great use in industrial
automation; as the user gets all the information and calibration settings sitting at one corner in the office.

Serial Communications
A serial transmission transfers data one bit at a time, consecutively, via a communication channel or computer
bus in telecommunication and data transmission. On the other hand, parallel communication delivers multiple
bits as a single unit through a network with many similar channels.
• 8-bits are conveyed at a time in serial transmission, with a start bit and a stop bit.
• All long-distance communication and most computer networks employ serial communication.
• Serial computer buses are becoming more common, even across shorter distances, since newer serial
technologies' greater signal integrity and transmission speeds have begun to outperform the parallel
bus's simplicity advantage.
• The majority of communication systems use serial mode. Serial networks may be extended over vast
distances for far less money since fewer physical wires are required.
Parallel Communications
Parallel communication is a means of transmitting multiple binary digits (bits) simultaneously in data
transmission. It differs from serial communication, which sends only one bit at a time; this distinction is one
method to classify a communication channel.
• A parallel interface comprises parallel wires that individually contain data and other cables that allow
the transmitter and receiver to communicate. Therefore, the wires for a similar transmission system are
put in a single physical thread to simplify installation and troubleshooting.
• A large amount of data must be delivered across connection lines at high speeds that match the
underlying hardware.
• The data stream must be transmitted through "n" communication lines, which necessitates using many
wires. This is an expensive mode of transportation; hence it is usually limited to shorter distances.
Difference between Serial and Parallel Transmission
The following table highlights the major differences between Serial and Parallel Transmission −
Key Serial Transmission Parallel Transmission
Definition
Serial Transmission is the type of
transmission in which a single
communication link is used to transfer the
data from one end to another.
Parallel Transmission is the mode of
transmission in which multiple parallel
links are used that transmit each bit of data
simultaneously.
Bit
transmission
In case of Serial Transmission, only one bit
is transferred at one clock pulse.
In case of Parallel Transmission, 8-bits
transferred at one clock pulse.
Cost
Efficiency
it can be implemented easily without having
to spend a huge amount. It is cost efficient.
Multiple links need to be implemented in
case of Parallel Transmission; hence it is
not cost efficient.
Performance
Performance is comparatively lower as
compared to Parallel Transmission.
8-bits get transferred per clock in case of
Parallel transmission is more efficient.
Preference
Serial Transmission is preferred for long
distance transmission.
Parallel Transmission is preferred only for
short distance.
Complexity
Serial Transmission is less complex as
compared to that of Parallel Transmission.
Parallel Transmission is more complex as
compared to that of Serial Transmission.

ASCII Functions
ASCII (American Standard Code for Information Interchange) is the most common character encoding format
for text data in computers and on the internet. In standard ASCII-encoded data, there are unique values for
128 alphabetic, numeric or special additional characters and control codes.
ASCII encoding is based on character encoding used for telegraph data. The American National Standards
Institute first published it as a standard for computing in 1963.
Characters in ASCII encoding include upper- and lowercase letters A through Z, numerals 0 through 9 and
basic punctuation symbols. It also uses some non-printing control characters that were originally intended for
use with teletype printing terminals.
ASCII characters may be represented in the following ways:
• as pairs of hexadecimal digits -- base-16 numbers, represented as 0 through 9 and A through F for
the decimal values of 10-15;
• as three-digit octal (base 8) numbers;
• as decimal numbers from 0 to 127; or
• as 7-bit or 8-bit binary
For example, the ASCII encoding for the lowercase letter "m" is represented in the following ways:
Character Hexadecimal Octal Decimal Binary (7 bit) Binary (8 bit)
m 0x6D /155 109 110 1101 0110 1101
ASCII characters were initially encoded into 7 bits and stored as 8-bit characters with the most significant bit -
- usually, the left-most bit -- set to 0.

Week 03
Day 02 Session
Computer network
A computer network is an interconnected system of devices, represented as network nodes, that share
information, data and resources among each other. Depending on the network type, devices can be as simple
as computers or smartphones that connect into a network. Larger networks use devices like routers and
switches to create the underlying network infrastructure. There are several types of networks, each existing to
support the devices, size and location of the system. Networks also have differing levels of access and forms
of connectivity. Below are seven common types of networks, along with their benefits and use cases.
1. Personal area network: A personal area network (PAN) is the smallest and simplest type of network.
PANs connect devices within the range of an individual and are no larger than about 10 meters (m). Because
PANs operate in such limited areas of space, most are wireless and provide short-range connectivity with
infrared technology. An example of a wireless PAN is when users connect Bluetooth devices, like wireless
headsets, to a smartphone or laptop. Although most PANs are wireless, wired PAN options exist, including
USB.
2. Local area network: A local area network (LAN) is a system where computers and other devices connect
to each other in one location. While PANs connect devices around an individual, the scope of a LAN can
range from a few meters in a home to hundreds of meters in a large company office. The network
topology determines how devices in
3. Metropolitan area network: A metropolitan area network (MAN) is an interconnection of several LANs
throughout a city, town or municipality. Like LANs, a MAN can use various wired or wireless connectivity
options, including fiber optics, Ethernet cables, Wi-Fi or cellular.
4. Campus network: A campus network, sometimes referred to as a campus area network or CAN, is a
network of interconnected, dispersed LANs. Like MANs, campus networks extend coverage to buildings close
in proximity. The difference between the two configurations is that campus networks connect LANs within a
limited geographical area, while MANs connect LANs within a larger metro area. The geographical range of
a campus network varies from 1 kilometer to 5 km, while MANs can extend to 50 km.
5. Wide area network: A wide area network (WAN) is the most expansive type of computer network
configuration. Like a MAN, a WAN is a connection of multiple LANs belonging to the same network. Unlike
MANs, however, WANs aren't restricted to the confines of city limits. A WAN can extend to any area of the
globe. For example, an organization with a corporate office in New York can connect a branch location in
London in the same WAN. Users in both locations obtain access to the same data, files and applications, and
can communicate with each other.
6. Content delivery network: A content delivery network (CDN) is a network of globally distributed servers
that deliver dynamic multimedia content -- such as interactive ads or video content -- to web-based internet
users. CDNs use specialized servers that deliver bandwidth-heavy rich media content by caching it and
speeding up delivery time. CDN providers deploy these digitized servers globally at a network edge, creating
geographically distributed points of presence.
7. Virtual private network: A virtual private network (VPN) creates a private network overlay across an
existing public network. VPNs use tunneling protocols that create encrypted connections between the network
and client devices. Network traffic travels over the VPN service's secure, encrypted tunnels instead of a public
network, effectively hiding a user's IP address and data from ISPs and cybersecurity hackers. The user's
location appears to be wherever the VPN server exists.

Networking architecture
Network architecture is the logical and structural layout of the network, consisting of transmission equipment,
software and communication protocols, and infrastructure (i.e., wired or wireless) transmission of data and
connectivity between components. The two types of widely used network architectures are
a) peer-to-peer aka P2P and
b) client/server aka tiered.
I. Peer-to-Peer Architecture
In a peer-to-peer network, tasks are allocated to every device
on the network. Furthermore, there is no real hierarchy in this
network, all computers are considered equal and all have the
same abilities to use the resources available on this network.
Instead of having a central server which would act as the
shared drive, each computer that is connected to this network
would act as the server for the files stored on it.
Advantages of a peer-to-peer network
• Does not require a dedicated server which means its
less costly.
• If one computer stops working, the other computers connected to the network will continue working.
• Installation and setup are quite painless because of the built-in support in modern operating systems.
Disadvantages of a peer-to-peer network
• Security and data backups are to be done to each individual computer.
• As the numbers of computers increases on a P2P network… performance, security, and access become
a major headache.

II. Client/Server Architecture
Client-server architecture, architecture of a computer network in
which many clients (remote processors) request and receive
service from a centralized server (host computer). In a
client/server network, a centralized, really powerful
computer(server) act as a hub in which other computers or
workstations(clients) can connect to. This server is the heart of the
system, which manages and provides resources to any client that
requests them.
Advantages of a client/server network
• Resources and data security are controlled through the server.
• Not restricted to a small number of computers.
• Server can be accessed anywhere and across multiple platforms.
Disadvantages of a client/server network
• Can become very costly due to the need of a server as well as networking devices such as hubs, routers,
and switches.
• If and when the server goes down, the entire network will be affected.
• Technical staff needed to maintain and ensure network functions efficiently.
Explain OSI model of networking
The Open Systems Interconnection (OSI) model describes seven layers that computer systems use to
communicate over a network. It was the first standard model for network communications, adopted by all
major computer and telecommunication companies in the early 1980s
The modern Internet is not based on OSI, but on the simpler
TCP/IP model. However, the OSI 7-layer model is still
widely used, as it helps visualize and communicate how
networks operate, and helps isolate and troubleshoot
networking problems. OSI Model Explained: The OSI 7
Layers
1) Application Layer: The application layer is used by
end-user software such as web browsers and email
clients. It provides protocols that allow software to send
and receive information and present meaningful data to
users. A few examples of application layer protocols are
the Hypertext Transfer Protocol (HTTP), File Transfer
Protocol (FTP), Post Office Protocol (POP), Simple Mail Transfer Protocol (SMTP), and Domain Name
System (DNS).
2) Presentation Layer: The presentation layer prepares data for the application layer. It defines how two
devices should encode, encrypt, and compress data so it is received correctly on the other end. The
presentation layer takes any data transmitted by the application layer and prepares it for transmission over
the session layer.
3) Session Layer: The session layer creates communication channels, called sessions, between devices. It
is responsible for opening sessions, ensuring they remain open and functional while data is being

transferred, and closing them when communication ends. The session layer can also set checkpoints
during a data transfer—if the session is interrupted, devices can resume data transfer from the last
checkpoint.
4) Transport Layer: The transport layer takes data transferred in the session layer and breaks it into
“segments” on the transmitting end. It is responsible for reassembling the segments on the receiving end,
turning it back into data that can be used by the session layer. The transport layer carries out flow control,
sending data at a rate that matches the connection speed of the receiving device, and error control,
checking if data was received incorrectly and if not, requesting it again.
5) Network Layer: The network layer has two main functions. One is breaking up segments into network
packets, and reassembling the packets on the receiving end. The other is routing packets by discovering
the best path across a physical network. The network layer uses network addresses (typically Internet
Protocol addresses) to route packets to a destination node.
6) Data Link Layer: The data link layer establishes and terminates a connection between two physically-
connected nodes on a network. It breaks up packets into frames and sends them from source to destination.
This layer is composed of two parts—Logical Link Control (LLC), which identifies network protocols,
performs error checking and synchronizes frames, and Media Access Control (MAC) which uses MAC
addresses to connect devices and define permissions to transmit and receive data.
7) Physical Layer: The physical layer is responsible for the physical cable or wireless connection between
network nodes. It defines the connector, the electrical cable or wireless technology connecting the devices,
and is responsible for transmission of the raw data, which is simply a series of 0s and 1s, while taking
care of bit rate control.
Advantages of OSI Model
The OSI model helps users and operators of computer networks:
• Determine the required hardware and software to build their network.
• Understand and communicate the process followed by components communicating across a network.
• Perform troubleshooting, by identifying which network layer is causing an issue and focusing efforts
on that layer.
The OSI model helps network device manufacturers and networking software vendors:
• Create devices and software that can communicate with products from any other vendor, allowing
open interoperability
• Define which parts of the network their products should work with.
• Communicate to users at which network layers their product operates – for example, only at the
application layer, or across the stack.
Networking hardware
Network hardware is a set of physical or network devices that are essential for interaction and communication
between hardware units operational on a computer network. These are dedicated hardware components that
connect to each other and enable a network to function effectively and efficiently.
Network equipment is part of advancements of the Ethernet network protocol and utilizes a twisted pair or
fiber cable as a connection medium. Routers, hubs, switches, and bridges are some examples of network
hardware. The fundamental devices of a computer network.
a) Modems: A modem enables a computer to connect to the internet via a telephone line. The modem at one
end converts the computer’s digital signals into analog signals and sends them through a telephone line.

At the other end, it converts the analog signals to digital signals that are understandable for another
computer.
b) Routers: A router connects two or more networks. One common use of the router is to connect a home
or office network (LAN) to the internet (WAN). It generally has a plugged-in internet cable along with
cables that connect computers on the LAN. Alternatively, a LAN connection can also be wireless (Wi-
Fi-enabled), making the network device wireless. These are also referred to as wireless access points
(WAPs).
c) Hubs, bridges, and switches: Hubs, bridges, and switches are connecting units that allow multiple
devices to connect to the router and enable data transfer to all devices on a network. A router is a complex
device with the capabilities of hubs, bridges, and even switches.
• Hubs: A hub broadcasts data to all devices on a network. As a result, it consumes a lot of bandwidth as
many computers might not need to receive the broadcasted data. The hub could be useful in linking a few
gaming consoles in a local multiplayer game via a wired or wireless LAN.
• Bridges: A bridge connects two separate LAN networks. It scans for the receiving device before sending
a message. This implies that it avoids unnecessary data transfers if the receiving device is not there.
Moreover, it also checks to see whether the receiving device has already received the message. These
practices improve the overall performance of the network.
• Switches: A switch is more powerful than a hub or a bridge but performs a similar role. It stores the MAC
addresses of network devices and transfers data packets only to those devices that have requested Thus,
when the demand is high, a switch becomes more efficient as it reduces the amount of latency.
d) Network interface cards: A network interface card (NIC) is a hardware unit installed on a computer,
which allows it to connect to a network. It is typically in the form of a circuit board or chip. In most
modern machines, NICs are built into the motherboards, while in some computers, an extra expansion
card in the form of a small circuit board is added externally.
e) Network cables: Cables connect different devices on a network. Today, most networks have cables over
a wireless connection as they are more secure, i.e., less prone to attacks, and at the same time carry larger
volumes of data per second.
f) Firewall: A firewall is a hardware or software device between a computer and the rest of the network
open to attackers or hackers. Thus, a LAN can be protected from hackers by placing a firewall between
the LAN and the internet connection. A firewall allows authorized connections and data-like emails or
web pages to pass through but blocks unauthorized connections made to a computer or LAN.
Network Architecture: Key Components
Network architecture defines the structural and
logical design of a network. It constitutes hardware
devices, physical connections, software, wireless
networks, protocols, and transmission media. It gives
a detailed overview of the whole network, which
organizations use to create LAN, WAN, and other
specific communication tunnels.
Network architecture design is more about
optimizing its fundamental building blocks. These
include four key components:

1. Hardware: Hardware refers to network devices that form the core of any network. These include user
devices (laptops, PDAs, mobile phones), routers, servers, and gateways. The basic objective of any network
architecture is to establish an efficient mechanism to transfer data from one hardware device to another.
2. Transmission media: Transmission media encompasses all physical connections between network
(hardware) devices. The properties of different transmission media determine the speed of data transfer from
one endpoint to another. These can be wired and wireless. Wired media include physical wires or cables used
for connections within a network, such as coaxial or fibre optics. On the other hand, wireless media operates
on properties of microwave or radio signals, such as Wi-Fi or cellular.
3. Protocols: Protocols refer to the rules that govern data movement between network devices. Various
machines on a network communicate with each other using this common protocol language. Without these
protocols in place, it would be difficult for your iPhone to access a web page that is essentially stored on
a Linux server.
The nature of data decides the type of network protocol it needs to adopt. For example, transmission control
protocol/internet protocol (TCP/IP) is used to connect to the internet, while file transfer protocol (FTP) is used
for sending and receiving files to and from a server. Similarly, Ethernet protocol is used for connecting one
computing device to another.
4. Topology: Network topology defines how the network is wired together and highlights the network’s
structure. This is important because variables such as distance between communicating devices can impact its
data transfer speed, thereby affecting overall network performance.
What is TCP/IP Protocol, how it works:
TCP/IP Reference Model is a four-layered suite of communication protocols. It was developed by the DoD
(Department of Defence) in the 1960s.
It is named after the two main protocols that are used in the model, namely, TCP and IP. TCP stands for
Transmission Control Protocol and IP stands for Internet Protocol.
The four layers in the TCP/IP protocol suite are:
• Host-to- Network Layer −It is the lowest layer that is concerned with the physical transmission of
data. TCP/IP does not specifically define any protocol here but supports all the standard protocols.
• Internet Layer −It defines the protocols for
logical transmission of data over the network.
The main protocol in this layer is Internet
Protocol (IP) and it is supported by the protocols
ICMP, IGMP, RARP, and ARP.
• Transport Layer − It is responsible for error-
free end-to-end delivery of data. The protocols
defined here are Transmission Control Protocol
(TCP) and User Datagram Protocol (UDP).
• Application Layer − This is the topmost layer
and defines the interface of host programs with
the transport layer services. This layer includes
all high-level protocols like Telnet, DNS, HTTP, FTP, SMTP, etc.

a) The Network Interface Layer: Network Interface Layer is this layer of the four-layer TCP/IP model. This
layer is also called a network access layer. It helps you to defines details of how data should be sent using
the network. It also includes how bits should optically be signalled by hardware devices which directly
interfaces with a network medium, like coaxial, optical, coaxial, fibre, or twisted-pair cables. This layer
defines how the data should be sent physically through the network. This layer is responsible for the
transmission of the data between two devices on the same network.
b) Internet Layer: An internet layer is a second layer of TCP/IP layers of the TCP/IP model. It is also known
as a network layer. The main work of this layer is to send the packets from any network, and any computer
still they reach the destination irrespective of the route they take. The Internet layer offers the functional
and procedural method for transferring variable length data sequences from one node to another with the
help of various networks.
Layer-management protocols that belong to the network layer are:
• Routing protocols
• Multicast group management
• Network-layer address assignment.
c) Transport Layer: Transport layer builds on the network layer in order to provide data transport from a
process on a source system machine to a process on a destination system. It is hosted using single or
multiple networks, and also maintains the quality-of-service functions.
It determines how much data should be sent where and at what rate. This layer builds on the message which
are received from the application layer. It helps ensure that data units are delivered error-free and in sequence.
Transport layer helps you to control the reliability of a link through flow control, error control, and
segmentation or de-segmentation.
The transport layer also offers an acknowledgment of the successful data transmission and sends the next data
in case no errors occurred. TCP is the best-known example of the transport layer.
Important functions of Transport Layers:
• It divides the message received from the session layer into segments and numbers them to make a
sequence.
• Transport layer makes sure that the message is delivered to the correct process on the destination machine.
• It also makes sure that the entire message arrives without any error else it should be retransmitted.
d) Application Layer: Application layer interacts with an application program, which is the highest level of
OSI model. The application layer is the OSI layer, which is closest to the end-user. It means the OSI
application layer allows users to interact with other software application.
Application layer interacts with software applications to implement a communicating component. The
interpretation of data by the application program is always outside the scope of the OSI model.
Example of the application layer is an application such as file transfer, email, remote login, etc.
The function of the Application Layers are:
• Application-layer helps you to identify communication partners, determining resource availability, and
synchronizing communication.
• It allows users to log on to a remote host
• This layer provides various e-mail services
• This application offers distributed database sources and access for global information about various
objects and services.

Differences between OSI and TCP/IP models
Introduction to IP Address
The IP address stands for Internet Protocol address is also called IP number or internet address. It helps you
to specify the technical format of the addressing and packets scheme. An IP address is a numerical label
assigned to the devices connected to a computer network that uses the IP for communication. IP address act
as an identifier for a specific machine on a particular network. It also helps you to develop a virtual connection
between a destination and a source. Most networks combine TCP with IP.
A. There are mainly four types of IP addresses:
• Public,
• Private,
• Static
• Dynamic.
Among them, public and private addresses are based on their location of the network private, which should be
used inside a network while the public IP is used outside of a network. Let us see all these types of IP address
in detail.
a) Public IP Addresses: A public IP address is an address where one primary address is associated with your
whole network. In this type of IP address, each of the connected devices has the same IP address.
b) Private IP Addresses: A private IP address is a unique IP number assigned to every device that connects
to your home internet network, which includes devices like computers, tablets, smartphones, which is used
in your household. It also likely includes all types of Bluetooth devices you use, like printers or printers,
smart devices like TV, etc. With a rising industry of internet of things (IoT) products, the number of private
IP addresses you are likely to have in your own home is growing.
c) Dynamic IP address: Dynamic IP addresses always keep changing. It is temporary and are allocated to a
device every time it connects to the web. Dynamic IPs can trace their origin to a collection of IP addresses
that are shared across many computers. Dynamic IP addresses are another important type of internet
protocol addresses. It is active for a specific amount of time; after that, it will expire.
d) Static IP Addresses: A static IP address is an IP address that cannot be changed. In contrast, a dynamic IP
address will be assigned by a Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol (DHCP) server, which is subject to
change. Static IP address never changes, but it can be altered as part of routine network administration.
Static IP addresses are consistent, which is assigned once, that stays the same over the years. This type of
IP also helps you procure a lot of information about a device.

B. Types of Website IP Addresses
Two types of website IP Addresses are 1) Share IP Address 2) Dedicated IP Address
a) Shared IP Addresses: Shared IP address is used by small business websites that do not yet get many
visitors or have many files or pages on their site. The IP address is not unique and it is shared with
other websites.
b) Dedicated IP Addresses: Dedicated IP address is assigned uniquely to each website. Dedicated IP
addresses helps you avoid any potential backlists because of bad behavior from others on your server.
The dedicated IP address also gives you the option of pulling up your website using the IP address alone,
instead of your domain name. It also helps you to access your website when you are waiting on a domain
transfer.
C. Version of IP address
Two types of IP addresses are 1) IPV4 and 2) IPV6.
a) IPV4: IPv4 was the first version of IP. It was deployed for production in the ARPANET in 1983. Today
it is the most widely used IP version. It is used to identify devices on a network using an addressing
system. The IPv4 uses a 32-bit address scheme allowing to store 2^32 addresses, which is more than 4
billion addresses. To date, it is considered the primary Internet Protocol and carries 94% of Internet traffic.
b) IPV6: It is the most recent version of the Internet Protocol. Internet Engineer Taskforce initiated it in
early 1994. The design and development of that suite is now called IPv6. This new IP address version is
being deployed to fulfill the need for more Internet addresses. It was aimed to resolve issues which are
associated with IPv4. With 128-bit address space, it allows 340 undecillion unique address space.
D. IP Address Classification Based on Operational Characteristics
a) Unicast addressing: Unicast addressing is the most common concept of an IP address in the Unicast
addressing method. It is available in both IPv4 and IPv6. This IP address method refers to a single
sender/receiver. It can be used for both sending and receiving the data. In most cases, a Unicast address
is associated with a single device or host, but a device or host that may have more than one unicast address.
b) Broadcast addressing: Broadcasting addressing is another addressing method available in IPv4. It allows
you to manage data to all destinations on a network with a single transmission operation. The IP address
255.255.255.255 is mostly used for network broadcast. Moreover, limited directed-broadcast uses the all-
ones host address with the network prefix. IPv6 does not provide any implementation and any broadcast
addressing. It replaces it with multicast to the specially defined all-nodes of the multicast address.
c) Multicast IP addresses: Multicast IP addresses are used mainly for one-to-many communication.
Multicast messages are mostly sent to the IP multicast group address. In this, routers forward copies of
the packet out to every interface with hosts subscribed to that specific group address. Only the hosts that
require receiving the message will process the packets. All other hosts on that LAN will discard them.
d) Anycast addressing: In anycast addressing the data, the stream is not transmitted to all receivers.
However, just the one that the router decides is closest to the network. This IP addressing comes as a
built-in feature of IPv6. In IPv4, it is implemented by using the Border Gateway Protocol by using the
shortest-path metric. This method is widely used for global load balancing and is also used in distributed
DNS systems.

Subnet Mask:
Subnetting is the practice of dividing a network into two or smaller networks. It increases routing
efficiency, which helps to enhance the security of the network and reduces the size of the broadcast domain.
IP Subnetting designates high-order bits from the host as part of the network prefix. This method divides a
network into smaller subnets.
It also helps you to reduce the size of the routing tables, which is stored in routers. This method also helps you
to extend the existing IP address base & restructures the IP address.
• It helps you to maximise IP addressing efficiency.
• Extend the life of IPV4.
• Public IPV4 Addresses are scarce.
• IPV4 Subnetting reduces network traffic by eliminating collision and broadcast traffic and thus
improves overall performance.
• This method allows you to apply network security policies at the interconnection between subnets.
• Optimized IP network performance.
• Facilitates spanning of large geographical distances.
• Subnetting process helps to allocate IP addresses that prevent large numbers of IP network addresses
from remaining unused.
A subnet mask is a 32 bits address used to distinguish between a network address and a host address in IP
address. A subnet mask identifies which part of an IP address is the network address and the host address.
They are not shown inside the data packets traversing the Internet. They carry the destination IP address,
which a router will match with a subnet.
Two types of subnet masks are:
• The default Subnet Mask is the number of bits which is reserved by the address class. Using this default
mask will accommodate a single network subnet in the relative class.
• A Custom Subnet Mask can be defined by an administrator to accommodate many Network
The subnet mask is used by the router to cover up the network address. It shows which bits are used to
identify the subnet.
Every network has its own unique address, like here, class B network has network address 172.20.0.0, which
has all zeroes in the host portion of the address.
Example IP address: 11000001. Here 1st
and 2nd
bits are 1, and the 3rd
bit is 0; hence, it is class C.

Above example shows how IP addresses should be deconstructed, which makes it simple for Internet routers
to find the right Network to route data into. However, in a Class A network there could be millions of
connected devices, and it could take some time for the router to find the right device.
Methods of Subnet Masking
We can subnet the masking process in two ways: Straight or Short-cut.
1) Straight
You should use the binary notation method for both the address and the mask and then apply the AND
operation to get the block address.
2) Short-Cut Method
• In case the byte in the mask is 255, you need to copy the byte in the destination address.
• When the byte in the mask is 0, then you need to replace the byte in the address with 0.
• When the byte in the mask is neither 255 nor 0, then you should write the mask and the address in
binary and use the AND operation.
• In case if the extracted network address matches the local network ID, and the destination is located
on the local Network. However, if they do not match, the message must be routed outside the local
Network.
Class Default subnet mask No. of networks No. of host per network
A 255.0.0.0 256 16,777,214
B 255.255.0.0 65,536 65,534
C 255.255.255.0 16,77,216 126

Week 03
Day 03 Session
Industrial Automation Communication Protocols
Communication protocols is what we call the digital message formats and rules required to exchange messages
in or between computers and instruments. This is required in process automation.
The following are the few examples of communication protocols, its uses and its makers in the field of process
automation:
1) Modbus PEMEX: a serial communications protocol for use with its Modicons programmable logic
controllers (PLCs). Simple and robust, it has since become a de facto standard communication protocol, and
it is now a commonly available means of connecting industrial electronic devices – –Modicon/Schneider
Electric
2) Controller Area Network or CAN bus: a vehicle bus standard designed to allow microcontrollers and
devices to communicate with each other in applications without a host computer. Utilised in many network
implementations, including CANopen and DeviceNet – Bosch
3) ControlNet: an open industrial network protocol for industrial automation applications, also known as a
fieldbus – Allen-Bradley
4) DeviceNet: a network system used in the automation industry to interconnect control devices for data
exchange. - Allen-Bradley
5) DF-1 protocol: an asynchronous byte-oriented protocol that is used to communicate with most Allen
Bradley RS232 interface modules. DF1 protocol consists of link layer and application layer formats. – Allen
Bradley
6) DirectNet: used by DirectLOGIC PLCs and is used in APS vacuum controls since 1999. It is a
master/slave protocol making use of RS-232 or RS-422 physical layers with a baud rate from 300 to 38,400.
It is designed to drive a maximum of 90 PLCs on a serial line. – Automation Direct
7) Ethernet Global Data (EGD): a protocol that enables producer (server) to share a portion of its memory
to all the consumers (clients) at a scheduled periodic rate. – GE Fanuc PLCs
8) EtherNet/IP: IP stands for “Internet Protocol”. An implementation of CIP, originally. – Rockwell
Automation
9) Ethernet Powerlink: a deterministic real-time protocol for standard Ethernet. - Ethernet POWERLINK
Standardization Group (EPSG).
10) HART Protocol: (Highway Addressable Remote Transducer) – an early implementation of Fieldbus, a
digital industrial automation protocol. Its most notable advantage is that it can communicate over legacy 4-
20 mA analog instrumentation wiring, sharing the pair of wires used by the older system. – Rosemount
11) CC-Link Industrial Networks: An open industrial network that enables devices from numerous
manufacturers to communicate. It is predominantly used in machine, cell or process control applications in
manufacturing and production industries, but can also be used in facilities management, process control and
building automation. – CLPA Europe
12) FINS: provides a consistent way for PLCs and computers on various networks to communicate.
Compatible network types include Ethernet, Host Link, Controller Link, SYSMAC LINK, SYSMAC WAY,
and Toolbus. – OMRON
13) Profibus: A standard for fieldbus communication in automation technology used by Siemens. –
PROFIBUS International.
14) PROFINET IO: The basic idea of CBA is that an entire automation system can be divided into
autonomously operating subsystems.

RS232-422-485 standards
The RS-232, RS-422 and RS-485 designations refer to interfaces for digital data transmission. The RS-232
standard is better known as a normal computer COM port or serial port (although Ethernet, FireWire and USB
can also be considered as a serial port). The RS-422 and RS-485 interfaces are widely used in the industry for
connecting various equipment.
The table shows the main differences between RS-232, RS-422 and RS-485 interfaces.
Port name RS-232 RS-422 RS-485
Transfer type Full duplex Full duplex
Half duplex (2 wires),
full duplex (4 wires)
Maximum distance 15 meters at 9600 bps
1200 meters at
9600 bps
1200 meters at 9600 bps
Contacts in use
TxD, RxD, RTS, CTS,
DTR, DSR, DCD, GND*
TxA, TxB, RxA,
RxB, GND
DataA, DataB, GND
Topology Point-to-Point Point-to-Point Multi-point
Max. Number of
connected devices
1
1 (10 devices in
receive mode)
32 (with repeaters larger,
usually up to 256)
Network standards
Networking standards define the rules for data communications that are needed for interoperability of
networking technologies and processes. Standards help in creating and maintaining open markets and allow
different vendors to compete on the basis of the quality of their products while being compatible with existing
market products.
During data communication, a number of standards may be used simultaneously at the different layers. The
commonly used standards at each layer are −
• Application layer − HTTP, HTML, POP, H.323, IMAP
• Transport layer − TCP, SPX
• Network layer −IP, IPX
• Data link layer − Ethernet IEEE 802.3, X.25, Frame Relay
• Physical layer −RS-232C (cable), V.92 (modem)
Types of Standards
Standards are of two types
• De facto − The meaning of the work” De Facto” is” By Fact” or “By Convention”. These are the standards
that are followed without any formal plan or approval by any organization. They have come into existence
due to traditions or facts. For example, the HTTP had started as a de facto standard.
• De jure − The meaning of the word “De Jure” is “By Law” or “By Regulations”. These standards are
the ones which have been adopted through legislation by any officially recognized standards organization.
Most of the communication standards that are used today are de jure standards.
Standards Organizations
Some of the noted standard’s organizations are
• International Standards Organization (ISO)
• International Telecommunication Union (ITU)
• Institute of Electronics and Electrical Engineers (IEEE)
• American National Standards Institute (ANSI)
• Internet Research Task Force (IETF)
• Electronic Industries Association (EIA)

Static and Dynamic Routing principle
A router uses information contained in the internet protocol header to make various decisions; these decisions
include:
• Path determination
• Routing decision
• Load balancing
Path determination: When a router receives an IP packet through any of its interfaces, the router examines
the packet’s destination IP address, the optimal path to reach this destination is added to the routing table.
Metrics are used to determine the optimal path to reach a destination IP address through static and dynamic
routing protocols. These metrics are standard measurements or vectors that give a quantitative value measure
for the distance to a given network.
Routing decision: The primary function of a router is to forward a packet to its destination. The router
achieves this by encapsulating the IP packet with the appropriate data link frame type of the egress port. This
encapsulation happens after the router has determined the exit interface associated with the best path to
forward that packet.
Load balancing: A router can have two or more paths with equal metric and administrative distance to a
destination sub-network. When this happens, the router will forward the packet using both paths. The method
of sending data to a destination sub-network using two or more paths is called Load balancing.
Static Routing
In static routing, the routes show the path between two
routers that cannot be updated automatically. The path is
manually updated. If the changes occur on the network
side, we need to update the routing table’s changing path.
Routing tables are the tables that contain the routing
information. Static routing is easy to design and
implement, as there is not a complex path. Static routing
is the best choice when the number of routers is less as it requires manual updates. Static routing is also known
for non-adaptive routing as it does not adopt the routing path automatically.
Dynamic Routing
In dynamic routing, the routers show the path
between two routers that can be updated
automatically. Paths are automatically updated. If
the changes occur on the network side, there is no
need to update the routing path manually; routing
paths will automatically be updated. Paths between
routers are known as routing paths. When changes
occur at the network, it sends messages to a router to inform about changes. The router updates the changes
and using routing algorithm routes, i.e. routing paths are calculated and updated in the table. Dynamic routing
also is known for adaptive routing as it adopts the routing path automatically.

Comparison between Static Routing vs Dynamic Routing.
Basis of Comparison Static Routing Dynamic Routing
Configuration
Technique
In static routing, routing tables are
manually updated.
In dynamic routing, routing tables are
dynamically updated.
Bandwidth
It requires less bandwidth than
dynamic routing.
It requires more bandwidth than static
routing.
Paths/Routes
Paths are defined by administrative. Paths are updated according to the
changes in the network.
Application Area
Static Routing is implemented in a
small network.
Dynamic Routing is implemented in a
large network.
Routing Protocols
It does not use any protocol. It uses protocols like eigrp, arp, etc., to
calculate the routing operation.
Routing Algorithms
It does not use any complex routing
algorithms.
It uses complex routing algorithms.
Security Highly secure than dynamic routing Less secure than static routing.
Link Affect
If any link between routers fails, it
disturbs other routing paths.
Failure of any link between routers
does not affect other routing paths.
Network
Infrastructure
Network infrastructure is small. The network infrastructure is large.
Failure of Link
Link failure disturbs routing is in
process.
Link failure does not disturb routing is
in process.

Week 03
Day 04 Session
Concepts of Wireless Networking
Wireless networks are computer networks that are not connected by cables of any kind. The use of a wireless
network enables enterprises to avoid the costly process of introducing cables into buildings or as a connection
between different equipment locations. The basis of wireless systems are radio waves, an implementation that
takes place at the physical level of network structure.
Wireless networks operate using Radio Frequency (RF) technology, a frequency associated with radio wave
propagation within the electromagnetic spectrum. An electromagnetic field is generated when an RF current
is supplied to an antenna that can then spread through space.
A system recognized as an access point (AP) is the core of a wireless network. An access point’s primary role
is to broadcast a wireless signal sensed and tuned into by computers. Since wireless networks are typically
linked to wired networks, access points often act as a gateway to a wired network’s resources, such as an
Internet connection.
Computers need to be fitted with wireless network adapters to connect to an access point and join a wireless
network. These are mostly built right into the device, but if not, by using an add-on adapter attached to an
empty expansion slot, USB port, or, in the case of notebooks, a PC card slot, just about any computer or
notebook can be made wireless-capable.
There are four main types of wireless networks:
• Wireless Local Area Network (LAN): Links two or more devices using a wireless distribution
method, providing a connection through access points to the wider Internet.
• Wireless Metropolitan Area Networks (MAN): Connects several wireless LANs.
• Wireless Wide Area Network (WAN): Covers large areas such as neighboring towns and cities.
• Wireless Personal Area Network (PAN): Interconnects devices in a short span, generally within a
person’s reach.
Wireless networking standards
Wireless technology has evolved over a long period so has the technology associated with it. It’s always
advisable to do your own research before purchasing any of these technologies.
The most common wireless technologies in use today include:
• IEEE 802.11b-1999 (802.11b) - This technology provides transmission of up to 11Mbps and is
backward compatible.
• IEEE 802.11g-2003(IEEE 802.11g) - This is a popular technology that provides up to 54Mbps and
covers a distance of 150 feet.
• IEEE 802.11n-2009(IEEE 802.11n) - This technology aims at improving the throughput of the
frequency range between 2.4GHz and 5GHz. It uses several antennae, which in turn increases the data
rates.

Latest trends in PLC communication protocols.
Many PLC suppliers still support these older physical,
wired connections—most often based on RS-232C, RS-
422 and RS-485 connectivity—and the related proprietary
communication protocols.
When the control system requires venturing outside a
single supplier, communication standards come to the
forefront, starting at the physical layer.
The physical layer defines how to connect the upper data
link layer in the Open Systems Interconnection (OSI)
communications model within a computer to physical
devices. It is basically the hardware requirements with
schematics and specifications for successful bit-level
communication to different devices. The physical layer not
only defines items such as bit rates, transmission electrical,
light or radio signals, and flow control in asynchronous serial communication, it also defines types of cables
and the shape of connectors.
Physical layers include:
• Proprietary protocol for a barcode reader using an RS-232 point-to-point connection
• Motor drives protocol connecting multiple devices on an RS-422/485 multi-drop connection
• Printer protocol over a parallel interface
• Ethernet for connection to a plant or control network
• Universal Serial Bus (USB) for connection to keyboard
• Bluetooth for connection to a wireless microphone
A protocol is a set of rules for communication among networked devices. Some common protocols used in
the industrial arena include:
• Modbus RTU
• EtherNet/IP
• Ethernet TCP/IP
• Modbus TCP/IP
• Profinet
Using Ethernet, it’s not too difficult to interconnect several devices such as PLCs, HMIs, field I/O and valve
banks. Plus, the communication remains fast while talking to several dissimilar devices on the same cable,
due to the very high speed of Ethernet as compared to older serial networks.
Today’s physical, wired layer is moving to Ethernet for most control system communications. Wiring,
connectors and managed or unmanaged switches are now standard—with a wide variety of devices capable
of connecting to the Ethernet hardware and industry-standard networking technologies.
Most users just need to interact with the physical Ethernet layer, plugging in the cables and letting the protocols
worry about error-free communication.
Popular industrial Ethernet protocols like EtherNet/IP and a common network infrastructure allow consistent
data and communication from the HMI and desktop PCs at the information level—through the PLCs, HMIs,
servo controllers and drives at the control level—to the device level distributed I/O and field components.
And, of course, Ethernet is the portal to the Internet which allows a PLC to communicate worldwide. Some
PLCs have built-in web server capability, allowing access to it from any web browser

Fundamental Elements and Characteristics of PLC communication Protocol
Network communication protocol requires following elements:
1. Message encoding:
A source message from sender is encoded into signals or waves then transmitted through a medium wired /
wireless then received and decoded and message is passed to destination. Encoding is the process of
transforming set of Unicode characters into a sequence of bytes.
Message Source –> Encoder –> Transmitter –> Transmitter Medium –>
Receiver –>Decoder –> Message destination
2. Message formatting and encapsulation:
There is an agreed format between sender and receiver. It encapsulates information to identify sender and
receiver rightly.
A message format will depend on the type of message and the medium through which the message is
delivered. Message encapsulation is a process that is used to place one message inside another message for
transfer from the source to the destination.
3. Message size:
Here long messages must break into small pieces to travel across a network or the process of breaking up a
long message into individual pieces before being sent over the network.
Example; In mobile phone SMS limits message size to 160 normal alphabet characters. For non-alphabet
character, It needs 16 bit of data to represent them limiting size to 70 characters only.
4. Message timing:
It manages flow control. Acknowledgments response time out. This requires certain timing control
information. It checks for any delays in data passing. It includes rules like Access method, flow control,
response timeout.
5. Message delivery options:
There are different delivery options like Unicast, Multicast, Broadcast. Sending information to a single
person is referred to as a one-to-one delivery and is called unicast which implies that there is only one
destination (single destination).
Characteristics of PLC Communication Protocols
The standard protocols are used once PLC modules are connected over the network. The different types these
protocols mainly support different speed, distance & the number of connecting devices.
• Ethernet protocol baud rate is 100 Mb/s, length is Few Km and 255 nodes.
• RS-485 baud rate is 10 Kb/s, the length is 1.2 Km, and 32 nodes
• Profibus protocol baud rate is 5-12 Mb/s, the length is 15 Km and 127 nodes.
• RS-232 baud rate is 19.2 Kb/s, the length is 10m and 1 node
• MPI protocol baud rate is 19.2- 38.4 Kb/s, the length is 50 m and 32 nodes.
• PC Adapter baud rate is 9600 Kb/s, length is 15 m, and 1 node
• PPI protocol baud rate is 187.5 Kb/s, the length is 500 m, and 1 node.
• USB Adapter baud rate is 57.6 Kb/s, the length is 10 m and 1sec
• DH protocol baud rate is 230.4 Kb/s, the length is 3.048 Km, and 64 nodes
• Device Net protocol braud rate is 500 Kb/s, the length is 0.487, and 64 nodes
• Control Net protocol baud rate is5 Mb/s, the length is 30 Km

Demonstrate Peer to Peer (PLC to PLC) & PLC to PC Communication protocols
To understand the PLC's communications versatility let us first define the terms used in describing the
various systems:
ASCII: This stands for "American Standard Code for Information Interchange." As shown in Fig. 1, when the
letter "A" is transmitted, for instance, it's automatically coded as "65" by the sending equipment. The receiving
equipment translates the "65" back to the letter "A." Thus, different devices can communicate with each other
as long as both use ASCII code.
Bus topology: This is a linear local area network (LAN) arrangement, as shown in Fig. 2A, in which individual
nodes are tapped into a main communications cable at a single point and broadcast messages. These messages
travel in both directions on the bus from the point of connection until they are dissipated by terminators at
each end of the bus.
CPU: This stands for "central processing unit," which actually is that part of a computer, PLC, or other
intelligent device where arithmetic and logical operations are performed and instructions are decoded and
executed.
Daisy chain: This is a description of the connection of individual devices in a PLC network, where, as shown
in Fig. 3, each device is connected to the next and communications signals pass from one unit to the next in a
sequential fashion.
Distributed control: This is an automation concept in which portions of an automated system are controlled
by separate controllers, which are located in close proximity to their area of direct control (control is
decentralized and spread out over the system).
Host computer: This is a computer that's used to transfer data to, or receive data from, a PLC in a
PLC/computer network.
Intelligent device: This term describes any device equipped with its own CPU.
I/O: This stands for "inputs and outputs," which are modules that handle data to the PLC (inputs) or signals
from the PLC (outputs) to an external device.
Kbps: This stands for "thousand bits per second," which is a rate of measure for electronic data transfer.
Mbps: This stands for "million bits per second."
Node: This term is applied to any one of the positions or stations in a network. Each node incorporates a
device that can communicate with all other devices on the network.
Protocol: The definition of how data is arranged and coded for transmission on a network.
Ring topology: This is a LAN arrangement, as shown in Fig. 2C, in which each node is connected to two other
nodes, resulting in a continuous, closed, circular path or loop for messages to circulate, usually in one
direction. Some ring topologies have a special "loop back" feature that allows them to continue functioning
even if the main cable is severed.
RS232: This is an IEEE standard for serial communications that describes specific wiring connections, voltage
levels, and other operating parameters for electronic data communications. There also are several other RS
standards defined.
Serial: This is an electronic data transfer scheme in which information is transmitted one bit at a time.
Serial port: This the communications access point on a device that is set up for serial communications.
Star topology: This is a LAN arrangement in which, nodes are connected to one another through a central
hub, which can be active or passive. An active hub performs network duties such as message routing and
maintenance. A passive central hub simply passes the message along to all the nodes connected to it.
Topology: This relates to a specific arrangement of nodes in a LAN in relation to one another.
Transparent: This term describes automatic events or processes built into a system that require no special
programming or prompting from an operator.

PLC network options.
a) Peer-to-peer networks
Peer-to-peer networks, enhance reliability by decentralizing the control functions without sacrificing
coordinated control. In this type of network, numerous PLCs are connected to one another in a daisy-chain
fashion, and a common memory table is duplicated in the memory of each. In this way, when any PLC writes
data to this memory area, the information is automatically transferred to all other PLCs in the network. They
then can use this information in their own operating programs. With peer-to-peer networks, each PLC in the
network is responsible for its own control site and only needs to be programmed for its own area of
responsibility. This aspect of the network significantly reduces programming and debugging complexity;
because all communications occur transparently to the user, communications programming is reduced to
simple read-and-write statements.
In a peer-to-peer system, there's no master PLC. However, it's possible to designate one of the PLCs
as a master for use as a type of group controller. This PLC then can be used to accept input information from
an operator input terminal, for example, sending all the necessary parameters to other PLCs and coordinating
the sequencing of various events.
b) Host computer links
PLCs also can be connected with computers or other intelligent devices. In fact, most PLCs, from the small to
the very large, can be directly connected to a computer or part of a multi drop host computer network via
RS232C or RS422 ports. This combination of computer and controller maximizes the capabilities of the PLC,
for control and data acquisition, as well as the computer, for data processing, documentation, and operator
interface. This computer individually addresses each of its networked PLCs and asks for specific information.
The addressed PLC then sends this information to the computer for storage and further analysis. This cycle
occurs hundreds of times per second.
Host computers also can aid in programming PLCs; powerful programming and documentation software is
available for program development. Programs then can be written on the computer in relay ladder logic and
downloaded into the PLC. In this way, you can create, modify, debug, and monitor PLC programs via a
computer terminal.
In addition to host computers, PLCs often must interface with other devices, such as operator interface
terminals for large security and building management systems. Although many intelligent devices can
communicate directly with PLCs via conventional RS232C ports and serial ASCII code, some don't have the
software ability to interface with individual PLC models. Instead, they typically send and receive data in fixed
formats. It's the PLC programmer's responsibility to provide the necessary software interface.
The easiest way to provide such an interface to fixed-format intelligent devices is to use an ASCII/BASIC
module on the PLC. This module is essentially a small computer that plugs into the bus of the PLC. Equipped
with RS232 ports and programmed in BASIC, the module easily can handle ASCII communications with
peripheral devices, data acquisition functions, programming sequences, "number crunching," report and
display generation, and other requirements.
Day 05 Session:
CIE 1– Written and practice test + Assessment Review and corrective action + Industry Assignment
Day 06 Session:
Industry Class on Communication Protocol practiced in industry + Industry Assignment

Automation and Robotics Week 03 Theory Notes 20ME51I.pdf

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