Autonomy And Responsibility Online Learning As A Solution For At-Risk High School Students

Volume 29(2) 2014
Suggested Citation:
Lewis, S., Whiteside, A., & Garrett Dikkers, A. (2014). Autonomy and responsibility: Online learning as a solution for at-risk high
school students. International Journal of E-Learning & Distance Education, 29(2), 1-11. Available online at:
http://ijede.ca/index.php/jde/article/view/883/1543 1
Autonomy and Responsibility:
Online Learning as a Solution for At-Risk High School Students
S. Lewis, University of North Carolina-Wilmington
A. Whiteside, University of Tampa
A. Garrett Dikkers, University of North Carolina-Wilmington
Abstract
In this three-year, mixed methods case study, the benefits and challenges of online learning for at-risk
high school students were examined. A key finding was that at-risk students identify the benefits and
challenges of online learning to be the same. While students appreciate the opportunity to work ahead
and study at their own pace, they see it as a challenge to be responsible for their own learning and
manage their time. The authors of this paper argue that, with proper support structures in place,
students who are at-risk for dropping out can overcome challenges and find success in an online
learning environment.
Résumé
Dans cette étude de cas à méthodes mixtes, échelonnée sur une période de trois ans, les avantages et
les défis de l'apprentissage en ligne pour des élèves à risque au secondaire ont été examinés. Une des
principales conclusions était que les élèves à risque identifient que les avantages et les défis de
l'apprentissage en ligne sont les mêmes. Alors que les étudiants apprécient l'opportunité de travailler à
l’avance et d’étudier à leur propre rythme, ils le voient comme un défi d'être responsables de leur
propre apprentissage et de gérer leur temps. Les auteurs de ce document affirment qu’avec des
structures de soutien appropriées en place, les élèves qui sont à risque de décrochage peuvent
surmonter les défis et trouver le succès dans un environnement d'apprentissage en ligne.
INTRODUCTION
The findings described in this paper point to the benefits and challenges of online learning for at-risk
populations. Whether at-risk students whose personal characteristics and other circumstances may
impact their online learning experience (Barbour & Siko, 2012) can be successful in a virtual
environment is also explored. According to Hammond, Linton, Smink, and Drew (2007), while there is no
single factor that can accurately predict who is at risk for dropping out of school, students who
experience low achievement regarding school performance fall into the at-risk population. Furthermore,
researchers agree that dropout predictions increase when multiple variables regarding the individual,
family, school, and/or the community are combined (Archambault et al., 2010; Hammond, Linton,
Smink, & Drew, 2007; Rapp, Eckes, & Plurker, 2006; Tompkins & Deloney, 1994; U.S. Department of
Education, 1992; Watson & Gemin, 2008). For example, students who have experienced low
achievement and who suffer from an emotional disturbance or learning disability are more likely to
discontinue their studies than other students.

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While we know the factors that contribute to being identified as at-risk, more studies are needed to
explore the experiences of students in a virtual learning setting, especially those who are classified as
at-risk (Barbour, 2009; Cavanaugh, Barbour, & Clark, 2009; Scherer, 2006). In 2009-2010, there were an
estimated 1,816,400 enrollments in distance education courses in K-12 schools across the United States;
62% of these enrollments fall into the category of credit recovery (International Association for K-12
Online Learning, 2013). These enrollments include students taking online courses to recover credits due
to failing a course(s), most likely in a face-to-face setting.
In an attempt to highlight the potential of online learning for at-risk populations, two educational
options for at-risk students in North Carolina are discussed in this paper. Based on surveys with a
combined population of over one thousand students, we suggest that implementing scaffolds and
structures, such as measures of online readiness, student orientations, technology support, and
mentoring, provide the support needed for at-risk students to be successful in online and blended
learning environments.
BACKGROUND
In this study, the benefits and challenges of online learning for at-risk students were examined. Two
different online and blended learning environments — the North Carolina Virtual Public School (NCVPS)
and the North Carolina Performance Learning Centers (PLCs) — were evaluated and are described in the
following sections.
North Carolina Public Schools (NCVPS)
Since 2007, the NCVPS has served 175,000 middle and high school students (North Carolina Virtual
Public School, 2013a), offering over 150 Advanced Placement, Honors, Traditional, Credit Recovery (CR),
and Occupational Course of Study (OCS) course options (North Carolina Virtual Public School, 2013b). In
2012-2013, NCVPS reported the second highest student enrollment in the country at 94,716 (Watson,
Murin, Vashaw, Gemin, & Rapp, 2013). NCVPS instructors utilize the Moodle and Blackboard learning
management systems to deliver course content. The majority of student-teacher interaction is
asynchronous which provides students with flexible, continuous access to their courses and opportunity
to work at their own pace. Course structure includes “a variety of learning experiences for students,
including online discussions and collaborative projects” (Garrett Dikkers, Whiteside, & Lewis, 2013).
Since 2011, the authors of this paper, using a case study approach, have explored the experiences of
North Carolina Virtual Public School (NCVPS) CR and OCS students. Students in NCVPS-CR classes need to
“recover” credit previously lost by failing a course. OCS students have identified delays in their learning
due to an academic disability or physical impairment. OCS students work with an online NCVPS teacher
as well as a face-to-face special education teacher to complete their coursework. Both NCVPS-CR and
OCS students can experience low achievement which, when combined with other factors such as a
learning disability, leads them to be categorized as at-risk (Archambault et al., 2010; Hammond, Linton,
Smink, & Drew, 2007; Rapp, Eckes, & Plurker, 2006; Tompkins & Deloney, 1994; U.S. Department of

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Education, 2009; Watson & Gemin, 2008). For purposes of this paper, the acronym NCVPS will be used
to represent the CR and OCS students.
Performance Learning Centers
The five Performance Learning Centers (PLCs) in North Carolina serve students who have not been
successful in a traditional high school setting for a variety of reasons, including low achievement,
academic disabilities, and family variables. In 2012-2013, PLCs in North Carolina served approximately
700 students. The PLC model was developed by Communities in Schools, an organization whose mission
focuses on “surrounding students with a community of support” so that students may experience
success in school and in life (Communities in Schools, 2014). Students complete coursework in both
face-to-face and online environments “through the use of a self-paced, online curriculum” (Communities
in Schools, 2011). In a second case study, the authors evaluated the experiences of students who
attended two PLCs and engaged in online and blended learning for course credit.
BRIEF REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE
Both K-12 online learning opportunities and virtual high schools are increasing across the country
(Watson, Murin, Vashaw, Gemin, & Rapp, 2011; Picciano & Seaman, 2008). In 2013, an annual review of
online learning reported that all 50 states in the United States provide some type of online learning
opportunity for K-12 students and that 26 states partially fund state-established virtual schools (Watson,
et al., 2013).
More studies are needed to examine the quality of the high school student learning experience in the
virtual environment, especially those of lower performing and at-risk students, in order “to design
appropriate supports as this particular population of students continues to grow within virtual schools”
(Cavanaugh, Barbour, & Clark, 2009, p. 13). The International Association of K-12 Online Learning
(iNACOL) Research Committee (Archambault, et al., 2010) reports that 9% or 1.2 million high school
students in the United States drop out before graduation each year (p. 2).
As a potential solution to this monumental problem, Rose and Blomeyer suggest that virtual schools
“are well positioned to directly address the needs of at-risk learners” (as cited in Archambault et al.,
2010, p. 3). Moreover, Hupfield (2010) states that two concepts play a large role in whether students
graduate: (a) the level of quality adult-student relationships in their lives, and (b) the extent to which
they work on six key resiliency skills: building confidence, making connections, setting goals, managing
stress, increasing well-being, and understanding motivation (pp. 2-4).
The theoretical framework for this study is Bandura’s Theory of Self-Efficacy. As Bandura (1982)
suggests, “Students’ beliefs in their efficacy to regulate their learning and to master academic activities
determine their aspirations, level of motivation, and academic accomplishments” (p. 117). Additionally,
Bandura (1997) contends that “unless people believe that they can produce the desired effects by their
actions, they have little incentive to act” (p. 28). Recognizing that online learning presents a new

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landscape for students, it is important that students feel in control of this landscape and their learning in
it. At the same time, they must also take responsibility, invest in the learning process, and have specific
supports in place in order to experience success.
STUDY DESIGN
In the investigation described in this paper, the NCVPS and the PLCs provide a set of case studies. The
case study method involves interpretive inquiry focused on observing and researching a particular
phenomenon within its context. Yin (2003) defines a case study as “an empirical inquiry that investigates
a contemporary phenomenon within its real-life context, especially when the boundaries between
phenomenon and context are not clearly evident” (p. 13). Soltis (1990) speaks of the ethical importance
of this type of research because it describes cultural and social context, allows for rich assessments,
explores the effects on human agency, and provides a critique for gender, race, and other important
topics in our culture.
METHODS
In this three-year mixed methods case study, the researchers examined the benefits and challenges of
online learning for at-risk students, including whether the online environment helps or hinders their
learning experiences as well as supports structures that, when implemented, could lead to increased
student self-efficacy. Our research questions included:
1. What are the experiences of at-risk adolescent students in an online learning environment?
2. What support and other systems need to be in place for students to be successful?
Data Collection
Because the literature points to survey methods as the best approach for mid- to large-sized populations
(Babbie, 1973), the authors designed a survey for students with a mix of demographic, closed-choice,
Likert-scale, and open-ended questions. In 2012, the open-ended survey was administered to NCVPS
students (n = 220). The students were asked to identify the benefits and challenges of online learning.
Subsequent student surveys were administered in 2013 (NCVPS district-based summer school: n = 26;
PLCs: n = 63) and in 2014 (NCVPS: n = 833). NCVPS posted a link to the survey as part of an institutional
announcement in the course management system and an email was sent to teachers to encourage their
students to complete it. PLCs distributed the survey to students via email. Institutional ethics approval
from NCVPS, the PLCs, students, parents, and the authors’ universities was obtained prior to data
collection procedures.
FINDINGS
Autonomy and Responsibility
Multiple surveys of K-12 at-risk students at NCVPS and PLC schools who studied in online and blended
courses yielded the same results. Table 1 provides information about the students in each at-risk

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population who consistently identified pacing and the ability to work ahead as significant benefits, and
responsibility and time management as significant challenges of online learning. As one NCVPS student
commented, “I had to change my ways of thinking. In the past I would be motived [sic] by the teachers
in the classroom but with an online learning I had to motivate myself, which was a learning experiment
that I will use all though life.” While students appreciated the opportunity to work ahead and at their
own pace, they saw it as a challenge to be responsible for their own learning and manage their time.
One student noted the following, “You always have your work with you, and can do it at any time.”
Another student pointed out that “staying on task and turning in work on time” was a challenge. These
results align with Hurley (2002) who found that students had problems completing assignments in an
online environment because of the flexibility they had in their online courses. Similarly, Archambault et
al. (2010) identified lack of self-motivation and engagement and the need to develop students’ time
management skills as major challenges for at-risk populations.
Table 1. The Benefits and Challenges of Online Learning for At-risk Populations of Students
Benefits of Online Learning Challenges of Online Learning
Pacing Working Ahead Responsibility
Time
Management
Performance
Learning Centers
(PLC)
95.16%
n = 62
96.77%
n = 62
64.52%
n = 62
72.58%
n = 62
NCVPS District-
Based Summer
School*
92%
n = 23
80%
n = 20
68.18%
n = 15
59.09%
n = 13
NCVPS
Occupational
Course of Study
and Credit
Recovery**
61.87%
n = 695
47.34%
n = 695
59.54%
n = 646
39.94%
n = 646
Note:
Every participant did not respond to each question; therefore, n equals the number of respondents to
each question.
* 80% of students in the NCVPS District-Based Summer School Survey also identified the opportunity to
retake a course they previously failed as a significant benefit.
** 55.68% of students in the NCVPS Occupational Course of Study and Credit Recovery Survey also
identified the opportunity to graduate as a significant benefit.

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DISCUSSION
Supporting At-Risk Students in Online Environments
Online administrators and educators face a major challenge of designing support structures that
ultimately lead to student success and ease their learning challenges. According to the National Dropout
Prevention Center/Network (Smink & Schargel, 2004), there are fifteen effective strategies for
preventing students from dropping out of school. These strategies are divided into four domains: School
and Community Perspective, Early Interventions, Basic Core Strategies, and Making the Most of
Instruction. In effective online programs, strategies in each of these domains often exist and, as a result,
engage at-risk students by keeping them motivated and enabling success. Hupfield (2010) found that
quality adult-student relationships and resiliency skills also play roles in student success. The teacher's
role in the online learning process (Garrett Dikkers, Whiteside, & Lewis, 2012, 2013), coupled with
student self-efficacy, can greatly influence motivation and learning (Bandura, 1982; Dicintio & Gee,
1999). The findings from this study clearly identify a need to increase supports for at-risk students,
particularly when they study in online learning environments. These strategies need to facilitate
opportunities for self-pacing and autonomy in the learning experience while ensuring that appropriate
guidance and monitoring are in place.
Strategies for Successful Online Learning for At-Risk Students
Some of the benefits of educational technology include flexible access to learning opportunities,
improved mastery of content, improved attitudes toward learning, and access to individualized
instruction (Smink & Schargel, 2004). For example, NCVPS Credit Recovery students have access to their
online courses twenty-four hours a day, seven days a week. Learning is flexible. Students have a pacing
guide outlining a structure for success in the course; however, they may move at their own pace,
completing learning modules one or two at a time, working ahead or working more slowly than the
recommended pace.
The authors also contend that at-risk students need a strong foundation in online learning readiness and
a solid orientation to the online learning environment. Findings from several surveys used in the case
studies revealed that less than half of the student participants received any sort of support during their
first online learning experience. Of those who did receive help, most received it from a parent, relative,
or a teacher. In general, students largely took on this heavy burden themselves. Although
empowerment through perseverance is certainly important, it is more important to learn course content
than it is to troubleshoot technology issues. Moreover, it is important that students feel supported and
welcomed in the online learning environment and that technology is not a barrier to successful learning.
Adequate orientation to the learning environment and guidance in online learning readiness assists at-
risk students in making a smooth transition, and in believing that they can excel in the online learning
environment.

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Additionally, the affordances of the online environment and educational technology should match well
with the requirements of mastery learning since this approach has proven successful in online schools
(Cavanaugh, 2009). NCVPS employs mastery learning to ensure student success. Students’ prior
knowledge is determined through an online pre-assessment for each module. A student who scores an
80 or above is permitted to bypass a module. A score of 80 or greater is regarded to be a mastery
demonstration of the module’s content due, perhaps, to instruction in their face-to-face school setting.
Educational technology also provides access for students and opportunities for teachers to individualize
course content. As evidenced by this study, students excel when instructors work one-to-one with them
to confirm their mastery of content, address questions, and motivate them. In general, teachers
recognize that every student is unique and learns at his/her own pace and in personally-specific ways. If
online teachers are to individualize instruction for their students, they must have an understanding of
students’ prior knowledge and construct lessons based on this understanding. Furthermore, the authors
advocate online course modules with a mix of instructional strategies, such as audio, videos, and
discussions.
Consistent with the notion that at-risk students may require greater online support and facilitation of
their learning than other students, the authors recommend an individualized, face-to-face support
system with a dedicated coordinator who assists the at-risk learner with on-going project management
skills and continuously monitors their learning process. Cavanaugh (2009) has noted that on-site
facilitation for guided learning is a major factor that determines success for online students. As an
example, one district in the NCPVS summer school study created a school-based Virtual Academy
Coordinator position. These instructors served as the face-to-face contact for students taking online
classes during the summer session. One coordinator described her role as providing support, structure,
and motivation for students working in the lab for summer school Credit Recovery. NCVPS created a
Virtual Support Center where students or school-based eLearning Advisors (eLAs) can submit tickets for
technology help and course issues. This resource reduces student stress and limits the time spent on the
technical hassles sometimes encountered when learning online.
Finally, the researchers strongly suggest the development of a careful strategy of intervention for
students who are low-performing, under-performing, or at-risk for dropping out of school. NCVPS has
created a list of intervention strategies, including access to updated progress reports and report cards
every two weeks, mandated office hours for course instructors to offer live help, one-on-one instructor
tutoring, and peer tutoring support. Under the umbrella of peer tutoring, NCVPS instructors can
recommend that a struggling student receive a virtual buddy or a student volunteer who has committed
to work one-to-one with students whose needs reach beyond content support (A. Renfro, personal
communication, April 9, 2014). Face-to-face support coupled with the affordances of autonomy and

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personalization in online learning environments may be the formula for success for helping at-risk
students succeed.
Final Thoughts
In closing, this study suggests that online coursework may lead to increased self-efficacy in at-risk
students if adequate supports are in place to help them to succeed. Students still struggle with the
balance between the freedom of autonomy and the time management skills necessary to be successful
in an online learning environment. If the benefits of online learning are also the perceived challenges,
then at-risk students need more support to continue to transform perceived obstacles into online
opportunities. When the proper structures are in place, online and blended learning experiences can
serve as powerful solutions for at-risk students and may lead to a sharp decline in the number of future
high school dropouts.

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REFERENCES
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Authors
Somer Lewis is a National Board Certified Teacher currently serving as the Professional Development
System Director in the Watson College of Education at the University of North Carolina Wilmington,
where she also coordinates the First Years of Teaching Support Program and the National Board
Certification Support Program. E-mail: lewiss@uncw.edu
Aimee L. Whiteside serves a reviewer for the Online Learning Journal (OLJ) and as an Assessment
Coordinator for the University of Tampa, where she teaches. Her research interests include social
presence, learning environments, blended and online learning, professional writing, academic writing,
and service learning. E-mail: awhiteside@ut.edu
Amy Garrett Dikkers is Assistant Professor in Educational Leadership at the University of North Carolina
at Wilmington. Professional interests include the preparation of educational leaders and blended and
online learning in K-12 and higher education. Current research includes social presence and
incorporating community professionals into courses through technology. E-mail:
garrettdikkersa@uncw.edu
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 License.

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