Basics of Hydraulic Systems 1st Edition Qin Zhang

Basics of Hydraulic Systems 1st Edition Qin Zhang
download pdf
https://ebookultra.com/download/basics-of-hydraulic-systems-1st-edition-
qin-zhang/
Visit ebookultra.com today to download the complete set of
ebook or textbook!

We have selected some products that you may be interested in
Click the link to download now or visit ebookultra.com
for more options!.
Hydraulic Control Systems 2nd Edition Noah D. Manring
https://ebookultra.com/download/hydraulic-control-systems-2nd-edition-
noah-d-manring/
Nuclear Systems Volume I Thermal Hydraulic Fundamentals
Second Edition Kazimi
https://ebookultra.com/download/nuclear-systems-volume-i-thermal-
hydraulic-fundamentals-second-edition-kazimi/
Nuclear Systems Volume I Thermal Hydraulic Fundamentals
2nd Edition Neil E. Todreas
https://ebookultra.com/download/nuclear-systems-volume-i-thermal-
hydraulic-fundamentals-2nd-edition-neil-e-todreas/
Trust and Economics The Co evolution of Trust and Exchange
Systems 1st Edition Yanlong Zhang
https://ebookultra.com/download/trust-and-economics-the-co-evolution-
of-trust-and-exchange-systems-1st-edition-yanlong-zhang/

Design of Hydraulic Gates 2nd Edition Erbisti
https://ebookultra.com/download/design-of-hydraulic-gates-2nd-edition-
erbisti/
Restructured Electric Power Systems Analysis of
Electricity Markets with Equilibrium Models 1st Edition
Xiao-Ping Zhang
https://ebookultra.com/download/restructured-electric-power-systems-
analysis-of-electricity-markets-with-equilibrium-models-1st-edition-
xiao-ping-zhang/
Focused Ion Beam Systems Basics and Applications 1st
Edition Nan Yao
https://ebookultra.com/download/focused-ion-beam-systems-basics-and-
applications-1st-edition-nan-yao/
Electron paramagnetic resonance investigations of
biological systems by using spin labels spin probes and
intrinsic metal ions Part A First Edition Qin
https://ebookultra.com/download/electron-paramagnetic-resonance-
investigations-of-biological-systems-by-using-spin-labels-spin-probes-
and-intrinsic-metal-ions-part-a-first-edition-qin/
Uncertainty in Geographical Information Research
Monographs in Geographic Information Systems 1st Edition
Jingxiong Zhang
https://ebookultra.com/download/uncertainty-in-geographical-
information-research-monographs-in-geographic-information-systems-1st-
edition-jingxiong-zhang/

Digital Instant Download
Author(s): Qin Zhang
ISBN(s): 9781420070989, 1420070983
Edition: 1
File Details: PDF, 12.51 MB
Year: 2009
Language: english

Hydraulics
Training Manual 1
BASIC HYDRAULICS AND HYDRAULIC PLUMBING

TABLE OF CONTENTS
Section Page
Subcourse Overview ................................................. i
Administrative Instructions ....................................... iv
Grading and Certification Instructions ............................ iv
Lesson 1: Basic Hydraulics ....................................... 1
Practice Exercise ..................................... 19
Answer Key and Feedback ............................... 22
Lesson 2: Hydraulic Plumbing .................................... 25
Practice Exercise ..................................... 69
Answer Key and Feedback ............................... 71
Appendix A: Proof Testing of Hose Assemblies ...................... 72
Appendix B: Glossary .............................................. 73
Examination ....................................................... 78
Student Inquiry Sheet
iii AL0907

THIS PAGE IS INTENTIONALLY LEFT BLANK
iv AL0907

LESSON 1
BASIC HYDRAULICS
STP TASK: 551-758-1071
OVERVIEW
LESSON DESCRIPTION: In this lesson you will learn the definition of
hydraulics, its basic applications and
characteristics, and the types of hydraulic
fluid used.
LEARNING OBJECTIVE:
ACTION: After this lesson you will demonstrate a knowledge of
the principles of hydraulics, its characteristics and
applications, and the fluids used in the system.
CONDITIONS: You will study the material in this lesson in a
classroom environment or at home.
STANDARD: You will correctly answer all the questions in the
practice exercise before you proceed to the next
lesson.
REFERENCES: The material contained in this lesson was derived from
the following publications, FM 1-509, FM 10-69, and TM
1-1500-204-23 Series
INTRODUCTION
Hydraulics has proven to be the most efficient and economical system
adaptable to aviation. First used by the ancient Greeks as a means
of elevating the stages of their amphitheaters, the principles of
hydraulics were explained scientifically by the seventeenth century
scholars Pascal and Boyle. The laws
1 AL0907

discovered by these two men regarding the effects of pressure and
temperature on fluids and gases in confined areas form the basis of
the principle of mechanical advantage; in other words, the "why and
how" of hydraulics.
This chapter explains to you the basic applications of hydraulics in
Army aviation and the characteristics of these systems. The
explanations include detailed definitions of the terminology peculiar
to hydraulics with which you must be familiar to fully understand
this subject.
In aviation, hydraulics is the use of fluids under pressure to
transmit force developed in one location on an aircraft or other
related equipment to some other point on the same aircraft or
equipment. Hydraulics also includes the principles underlying
hydraulic action and the methods, fluids, and equipment used in
implementing those principles.
HYDRAULIC AND HYDRAULICS
The word "hydraulic" is derived from two Greek words: "hydro" meaning
liquid or water and "aulos" meaning pipe or tubing. "Hydraulic,"
therefore, is an adjective implying that the word it modifies is in
some major way concerned with liquids. Examples can be found in the
everyday usage of "hydraulic" in connection with familiar items such
as automobile jacks and brakes. As a further example, the phrase
"hydraulic freight elevator" refers to an elevator ascending and
descending on a column of liquid instead of using cables and a drum.
On the other hand, the word "hydraulics" is the generic name of a
subject. According to the dictionary "hydraulics" is defined as a
branch of science that deals with practical applications (such as the
transmission of energy or the effects of flow) of a liquid in motion.
USES OF HYDRAULICS ON ARMY AIRCRAFT
On fixed-wing aircraft, hydraulics is used to operate retractable
landing gear and wheel brakes and to control wing flaps and propeller
pitch. In conjunction with gases, hydraulics is used in the
operation of--
• Rotor and wheel brakes.
• Shock struts.
• Shimmy dampers.
• Flight control systems.
2 AL0907

• Loading ramps.
• Folding pylons.
• Winch hoists.
CHARACTERISTICS OF HYDRAULIC SYSTEMS
Hydraulic systems have many desirable features. However, one
disadvantage is the original high cost of the various components.
This is more than offset by the many advantages that make hydraulic
systems the most economical means of power transmission. The
following paragraphs discuss some of the advantages of hydraulic
systems.
Efficiency. Discounting any losses that can occur in its
mechanical linkage, practically all the energy transmitted through a
hydraulic system is received at the output end -- where the work is
performed. The electrical system, its closest competitor, is 15
percent to 30 percent lower in efficiency. The best straight
mechanical systems are generally 30 percent to 70 percent less
efficient than comparable hydraulic systems because of high inertia
factors and frictional losses. Inertia is the resistance to motion,
action, or change.
Dependability. The hydraulic system is consistently reliable.
Unlike the other systems mentioned, it is not subject to changes in
performance or to sudden unexpected failure.
Control Sensitivity. The confined liquid of a hydraulic system
operates like a bar of steel in transmitting force. However, the
moving parts are lightweight and can be almost instantaneously put
into motion or stopped. The valves within the system can start or
stop the flow of pressurized fluids almost instantly and require very
little effort to manipulate. The entire system is very responsive to
operator control.
Flexibility of Installation. Hydraulic lines can be run almost
anywhere. Unlike mechanical systems that must follow straight paths,
the lines of a hydraulic system can be led around obstructions. The
major components of hydraulic systems, with the exception of power-
driven pumps located near the power source, can be installed in a
variety of places. The advantages of this feature are readily
recognized when you study the many locations of hydraulic components
on various types of aircraft.
Low Space Requirements. The functional parts of a hydraulic
system are small in comparison to those of other systems; therefore,
the total space requirement is comparatively low.
3 AL0907

These components can be readily connected by lines of any length or
contour. They can be separated and installed in small, unused, and
out-of-the-way spaces. Large, unoccupied areas for the hydraulic
system are unnecessary; in short, special space requirements are
reduced to a minimum.
Low Weight. The hydraulic system weighs remarkably little in
comparison to the amount of work it does. A mechanical or electrical
system capable of doing the same job weighs considerably more. Since
nonpayload weight is an important factor on aircraft, the hydraulic
system is ideal for aviation use.
Self-Lubricating. The majority of the parts of a hydraulic system
operate in a bath of oil. Thus, hydraulic systems are practically
self-lubricating. The few components that do require periodic
lubrication are the mechanical linkages of the system.
Low Maintenance Requirements. Maintenance records consistently
show that adjustments and emergency repairs to the parts of hydraulic
systems are seldom necessary. The aircraft time-change schedules
specify the replacement of components on the basis of hours flown or
days elapsed and require relatively infrequent change of hydraulic
components.
FORCE
The word "force," used in a mechanical sense, means a push or pull.
Force, because it is a push or pull, tends to cause the object on
which it is exerted to move. In certain instances, when the force
acting on an object is not sufficient to overcome its resistance or
drag, no movement will take place. In such cases force is still
considered to be present.
Direction of Force. Force can be exerted in any direction. It
may act downward: as when gravity acts on a body, pulling it towards
the earth. A force may act across: as when the wind pushes a boat
across the water. A force can be applied upwards: as when an athlete
throws (pushes) a ball into the air. Or a force can act in all
directions at once: as when a firecracker explodes.
Magnitude of Force. The extent (magnitude) of a given force is
expressed by means of a single measurement. In the United States,
the "pound" is the unit of measurement of force. For example, it
took 7.5 million pounds of thrust (force) to lift the Apollo moonship
off its launch pad. Hydraulic force is measured in the amount of
pounds required to displace an object within a specified area such as
in a square inch.
4 AL0907

PRESSURE
The word "pressure," when used in conjunction with mechanical and
hydromechanical systems, has two different uses. One is technical;
the other, nontechnical. These two uses can be easily distinguished
from each other by the presence or absence of a number. In technical
use, a number always accompanies the word "pressure." In
nontechnical use no number is present. These definitions are further
explained in the following paragraphs.
Technical. The number accompanying pressure conveys specific
information about the significant strength of the force being
applied. The strength of this applied force is expressed as a rate
at which the force is distributed over the area on which it is
acting. Thus, pounds per square inch (psi) expresses a rate of
pressure just as miles per hour (mph) does of speed. An example of
this is: "The hydraulic system in UH-1 aircraft functions at 1500
psi."
Nontechnical. The word "pressure," when used in the nontechnical
sense simply indicates that an unspecified amount of force is being
applied to an object. Frequently adjectives such as light, medium,
or heavy are used to remove some of the vagueness concerning the
strength of the applied force.
PRESSURE MEASUREMENT
When used in the technical sense, pressure is defined as the amount
of force per unit area. To have universal, consistent, and definite
meaning, standard units of measurement are used to express pressure.
In the United States, the pound is the unit of measurement used for
force, and the square inch is the unit for area. This is comparable
with the unit of measurement used for speed: the mile is the unit of
measurement for distance, and the hour is the measurement for time.
A pressure measurement is always expressed in terms of both units of
measurement just explained: amount of force and unit area. However,
only one of these units, the amount of force, is variable. The
square inch is used only in the singular -- never more or less than
one square inch.
A given pressure measurement can be stated in three different ways
and still mean the same thing. Therefore, 50 psi pressure, 50 pounds
pressure, and 50 psi all have identical meanings.
5 AL0907

Examples of Pressure Measurement. A table with a 10-inch by 10-
inch flat top contains 100 square inches of surface. If a 100-pound
slab of exactly the same dimensions is placed on the table top, one
pound per square inch pressure is exerted over the entire table
surface.
Now, think of the same table (100 square inches) with a 100-pound
block instead of the slab resting on its top. Assume this block has
a face of only 50 square inches contacting the table. Because the
area of contact has been cut in half and the weight of the block
remains the same, the pressure exerted on the table doubles to 2 psi.
As a final example, suppose a long rod weighing 100 pounds with a
face of 1 square inch is balanced upright on the table top. The
pressure now being exerted on the table is increased to 100 psi,
since the entire load is being supported on a single square inch of
the table surface. These examples are illustrated in Figure 1-1.
Force-Area-Pressure Formulas. From the preceding discussion, you
can see that the formula to find the pressure acting on a surface is
"pressure equals force divided by area." If "P" is the symbol for
pressure, "A" the symbol for area, and “F" the symbol for force, the
formula can be expressed as follows:
By transposing the symbols in this formula, two other important
formulas are derived: one for area; one for force. Respectively,
they are--
However, when using any of these formulas, two of the factors must
be known to be able to determine the third unknown factor.
6 AL0907

Figure 1-1. Measuring Pressure.
7 AL0907

The triangle shown in Figure 1-2 is a convenient memory device for
the force-area-pressure formulas. It helps you recall the three
factors involved: F, A, and P. Because the F is above the line in
the triangle, it also reminds you that in both formulas indicating
division, F is always divided by one of the other two factors.
Figure 1-2. Relationship of Force, Area, and Pressure.
TRANSMISSION OF FORCE
Two means of transmitting force are through solids and through
liquids. Since this text is on hydraulics, the emphasis is on
fluids. Force transmission through solids is presented only as a
means of comparison.
Transmission of Force Through Solids. Force applied at one point
on a solid body follows a straight line undiminished to an opposite
point on the body. This is illustrated in Figure 1-3.
Transmission of Force Through Confined Liquids. Applied forces
are transmitted through bodies of confined liquids in the manner
described by Pascal's Law. This law of physics, formulated in the
seventeenth century by the French mathematician Blaise Pascal,
states: pressure applied to any part of a confined liquid is
transmitted without change in intensity to all parts of the liquid.
This means that wherever it is applied on the body of liquid, pressure
pushes equal force against every square inch of the interior surfaces
of the
8 AL0907

liquid's container. When pressure is applied to a liquid's container
in a downward direction, it will not only act on the bottom surface;
but on the sides and top as well.
Figure 1-3. Transmission of Force Through Solids.
The illustration in Figure 1-4 helps to better understand this
explanation. The piston on the top of the tube is driven downward
with a force of 100 psi. This applied force produces an identical
pressure of 100 psi on every square inch of the interior surface.
Notice the pressure on the interior surface is always applied at
right angles to the walls of the container, regardless of its shape.
From this it can be seen that the forces acting within a body of
confined liquid are explosive in pattern. If all sides are equal in
strength, they will burst simultaneously if sufficient force is
applied.
9 AL0907

Figure 1-4. Transmission of Force Through
Confined Liquids.
CHARACTERISTICS OF FLUIDS
The vast difference in the manner in which force is transmitted
through confined liquids, as compared with solid bodies, is due to
the physical characteristics of fluids -- namely, shape and
compressibility. Liquids have no definite shape; they readily and
instantly conform to the form of the container. Because of this
characteristic the entire body of confined fluid tends to move away
from the point of the initial force in all directions until stopped
by something solid such as the walls of the container. Liquids are
relatively incompressible. That is, they can only be compressed by
approximately 1 percent of their volume. Because liquids lack their
own shape and are incompressible, an applied force transmitted
through a body of liquid confined in a rigid container results in no
more compression than if it were transmitted through solid metal.
10 AL0907

Movement of Fluid Under Pressure. Force applied to a confined
liquid can cause the liquid to move only when that force exceeds any
other force acting on the liquid in an opposing direction. Fluid
flow is always in the direction of the lowest pressure. If the
opposing forces are equal, no movement of fluid takes place.
Fluid under pressure can flow into already filled containers only
if an equal or greater quantity simultaneously flows out of them.
This is an obvious and simple principle, but one that is easily
overlooked.
Effects of Temperature on Liquids. As in metals, temperature
changes produce changes in the size of a body of liquid. With the
exception of water, whenever the temperature of a body of liquid
falls, a decrease (contraction) in size of the body of fluid takes
place. The amount of contraction is slight and takes place in direct
proportion to the change in temperature.
When the temperature rises, the body of liquid expands. This is
referred to as "thermal expansion." The amount of expansion is in
direct proportion to the rise in temperature. Although the rate of
expansion is relatively small, it is important; some provision is
usually necessary in a hydraulic system to accommodate the increase
in size of the body of liquid when a temperature rise occurs.
MECHANICAL ADVANTAGE
By simple definition, mechanical advantage is equal to the ratio of a
force or resistance overcome by the application of a lesser force or
effort through a simple machine. This represents a method of
multiplying forces. In mechanical advantage, the gain in force is
obtained at the expense of a loss in distance. Discounting
frictional losses, the percentage gain in force equals the percentage
loss in distance. Two familiar applications of the principles of
mechanical advantage are the lever and the hydraulic jack. In the
case of the jack, a force of just a pound or two applied to the jack
handle can raise many hundreds of pounds of load. Note, though, that
each time the handle is moved several inches, the load is raised only
a fraction of an inch.
Application in Hydraulics. The principle used in hydraulics to
develop mechanical advantage is simple. Essentially it is obtained
by fitting two movable surfaces of different sizes to a confining
vessel, such as pistons within cylinders. The vessel is filled with
fluid, and force (input) is applied to
11 AL0907

the smaller surface. This pressure is then transferred, by means of
the fluid, to the larger surface where a proportional force (output)
is produced.
Rate. The rate mechanical advantage is produced by hydraulic
means is in direct proportion to the ratio of the size of the smaller
(input) area to the size of the larger (output) area. Thus, 10
pounds of force applied to one square inch of surface of a confined
liquid produces 100 pounds of force on a movable surface of 10 square
inches. This is illustrated in Figure 1-5. The increase in force is
not free, but is obtained at the expense of distance. In this case,
the tenfold increase in output force is gained at the expense of a
tenfold increase in distance over which the initial force is applied.
Figure 1-5. Hydraulics and Mechanical Advantage.
THE ROLE OF AIR IN HYDRAULICS
Some hydraulic components require air as well as hydraulic oil for
their operation. Other hydraulic components do not, and instead
their performance is seriously impaired if air accidentally leaks
into the system.
Familiarization with the basic principles of pneumatics aids in
understanding the operation of both the hydraulic components
requiring air as well as those that do not. It aids, also, in
understanding how air can upset the normal operation of a hydraulic
system if it is present in the system where it must not be.
12 AL0907

Air. When used in reference to hydraulics, air is understood to
mean atmospheric air. Briefly, air is defined as a complex,
indefinite mixture of many gases. Of the individual gases that make
up atmospheric air, 90 percent or more is oxygen and nitrogen.
Some knowledge of the physical characteristics of air is quite
important to this instruction. Because the physical properties of
all gases, including air, are the same, a study of these properties
is made with reference to gases in general. It is important to
realize, however, though similar in physical characteristics, gases
differ greatly in their individual chemical composition. This
difference makes some gases extremely dangerous when under pressure
or when they come in contact with certain substances.
Air and Nitrogen. Air and pure nitrogen are inert gases and are
safe and suitable for use in hydraulic systems.
Most frequently the air used in hydraulic systems is drawn out of the
atmosphere and forced into the hydraulic system by means of an air
compressor. Pure nitrogen, however, is available only as a
compressed bottle gas.
Application in Hydraulics. The ability of a gas to act in the
manner of a spring is important in hydraulics. This characteristic
is used in some hydraulic systems to enable these systems to absorb,
store, and release fluid energy as required. These abilities within
a system are often provided by means of a single component designed
to produce a springlike action. In most cases, such components use
air, even though a spring might be equally suitable from a
performance standpoint. Air is superior to a spring because of its
low weight and because it is not subject to failure from metal
fatigue as is a spring. The most common use of air in hydraulic
systems is found in accumulators and shock struts.
13 AL0907

Malfunctions Caused by Air. In general, all components and
systems that do not require gases in their operation are to some
extent impaired by the presence of air. Examples are excessive
feedback of loud noises from flight controls during operation, and
the failure of wheel and rotor brakes to hold. These malfunctions
can be readily corrected by "bleeding the system": a controlled way
of allowing the air to escape. The process is explained in detail in
the -20 TMs of the particular aircraft involved.
FLUIDS USED IN HYDRAULICS
Two general types of fluids can be used in the operation and
maintenance of hydraulic systems and equipment: vegetable-base and
mineral-base. Although both types of fluids possess characteristics
suitable for hydraulic use, they are not interchangeable, nor are
they compatible as mixtures. At present, only mineral base fluids
are used for the maintenance and operation of hydraulic systems and
self-contained hydraulic components of Army aircraft. Despite this,
vegetable-base hydraulic fluids cannot be left entirely out of this
discussion.
In the past, some Army aircraft have used vegetable-base fluids for
hydraulic system maintenance and operation. Also, all known brake
systems in automotive vehicles are currently being operated on
vegetable-base fluid. It is quite possible that a supply of this
type of fluid may erroneously fall into the aviation supply system.
Therefore, maintenance personnel must be familiar with both types of
fluids so they can recognize the error and avoid use of the improper
fluid. Moreover, knowledge of the effects of using the improper
fluid and the corrective action to take if this occurs is as
important as knowledge of the system itself.
Rubber parts of hydraulic systems are particularly sensitive to
incorrect fluids. The rubber parts used in systems operating on
vegetable-base fluids are made of natural rubber; those operating on
mineral-base fluids are made of synthetic rubber. Both types of
rubber are seriously damaged by contact with the wrong type of fluid.
Vegetable-Base Hydraulic Fluids. Vegetable-base hydraulic fluids
are composed essentially of castor oil and alcohol. These fluids
have an easily recognized pungent odor, suggestive of their alcohol
content.
There are two types of vegetable-base hydraulic fluids that
aviation personnel can be issued in error; aircraft and automotive
types. Their descriptions follow:
14 AL0907

• The aircraft vegetable-base fluid is colored with a blue dye
for identification and is designated MIL-H-7644.
• The vegetable-base hydraulic fluid currently used for
automotive hydraulic systems is amber in color. The military
designation of this fluid is MIL-F-2111.
Remember: Neither of these fluids are acceptable for use in
aircraft hydraulic systems, and are NOT to be used in hydraulic jacks
or other aircraft ground-handling equipment.
Mineral-Base Hydraulic Fluids. Three categories of mineral base
hydraulic fluids are used in Army aviation today: operational,
preservative, and cleaning.
Operational Fluid. During extreme cold weather the operational
fluid now used in aircraft hydraulic systems and components is MIL-H-
5606. This fluid is colored with a red dye for identification and
has a very distinctive odor. MIL-H-83282 is to be used in components
and systems as prescribed in TB 55-1500-334-25.
Preservative Fluid. Preservative fluid contains a special
corrosion-inhibiting additive. Its primary purpose is to fill
hydraulic components as a protection against corrosion during
shipment or storage. Designated as MIL-H-6083A, preservatite fluid
is very similar to operational fluid in viscosity, odor, and color.
Operational fluid, MIL-H-5606, and preservative fluid, MIL-H-6083A,
are compatible but not interchangeable. Therefore, when preparing to
install components preserved with 6083A, the preservative fluid must
be drained to the drip point before installation, and the components
refilled with operational fluid. The preservative fluid, 6083A, need
not be flushed out with 5606. When using MIL-H-83282, the
preservative must be flushed as prescribed in TB 55-1500-334-25.
Cleaning Fluid. TM 55-1500-204-23-2 contains a list of authorized
cleaning agents and details their use in hydraulic systems and
components. Because of constant improvement of cleaning agents,
changes to the basic technical manual are printed and distributed as
necessary. For that reason, always refer to the current technical
manual and its latest changes, for the authorized cleaning agent to
be used on types of hydraulic systems and components.
Table of Fluid Uses. The following table is a brief summary of
the permissible uses of mineral-base hydraulic fluids.
15 AL0907

Table 1-1. Uses of Mineral-Base Hydraulic Fluids.
Corrective Action Following Improper Servicing. If a hydraulic
system or component is erroneously serviced with vegetable-base
fluid, the system must be drained immediately and then flushed with
lacquer thinner: military specification MIL-T-6094A. Following this,
the components of the system must be removed and disassembled to the
extent necessary to remove all seals. The components are washed,
seals are replaced with new ones, and the system is reassembled for
return to operation.
HANDLING OF FLUIDS
Trouble-free operation of hydraulic systems depends largely on the
efforts made to ensure the use of pure hydraulic fluid in a clean
system. Bulk containers of fluids must be carefully opened and
completely closed immediately after dispensing any fluid. After
dispensing, unused fluid remaining in gallon and quart containers
must be disposed of according to TM 10-1101. Dispensing equipment
must be absolutely clean
16 AL0907

Random documents with unrelated
content Scribd suggests to you:

The Project Gutenberg eBook of Moorish Remains in
Spain

This ebook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United
States and most other parts of the world at no cost and with
almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away
or re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License
included with this ebook or online at www.gutenberg.org. If you
are not located in the United States, you will have to check the
laws of the country where you are located before using this
eBook.
Title: Moorish Remains in Spain
Author: Albert Frederick Calvert
Release date: June 18, 2019 [eBook #59776]
Most recently updated: January 24, 2021
Language: English
Credits: Produced by Chuck Greif and the Online Distributed
Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net (This file
was
produced from images available at The Internet
Archive)
*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK MOORISH
REMAINS IN SPAIN ***

Contents:
Cordova
Seville
Toledo
Moorish Ornament
List of Illustrations
List of Coloured Plates
(In certain versions of this etext [in
certain browsers] clicking on the
image will bring up a larger
version.)
(etext transcriber's note)
MOORISH REMAINS IN SPAIN

CORDOVA.
THE MOSQUE.
Vertical Section of the Dome and Cupola of the Mihrab.

MOORISH
REMAINS
IN SPAIN
BEING A BRIEF RECORD OF
THE ARABIAN CONQUEST OF THE
PENINSULA WITH A PARTICULAR
ACCOUNT OF THE MOHAMMEDAN

ARCHITECTURE AND DECORATION
IN CORDOVA, SEVILLE & TOLEDO
BY ALBERT F. CALVERT
LONDON: JOHN LANE, THE BODLEY HEAD
NEW YORK: JOHN LANE COMPANY, MCMVI
E. Goodman and Son, Phœnix Printing Works, Taunton.

DEDICATION
TO HIS MAJESTY KING ALFONSO XIII.
Sire,
The great interest Your Majesty has evinced in the Moorish Monuments
which adorn Your Majesty’s loyal and noble country, and the gracious
appreciation with which You were pleased to regard my work on The
Alhambra, inspired me with the presumption to solicit the honour of Your
Majesty’s August Patronage for this volume, which is humbly dedicated to
Your Majesty agreeably to Your Majesty’s gracious permission, by
Your Majesty’s humble Servant,
Albert F. Calvert.

T
PREFACE
HE inception of my work on The Alhambra, to which this book is
designed to be the companion and complementary volume, was due to
the disappointing discovery that no such thing as an even moderately
adequate souvenir of the Red Palace of Granada, “that glorious sanctuary of
Spain,” was in existence. It was written at a time when I shared the very
common delusion that the Alhambra was the only word in a vocabulary of
relics which includes such Arabian superlatives as the Mosque at Cordova,
the Gates and the Cristo de la Luz of Toledo, and the Alcazar at Seville. I
had then to learn that while the Alhambra has rightly been accepted as the
last word on Moorish Art in Spain, it must not be regarded as the solitary
monument of the splendour and beauty with which the Arabs stamped their
virile and artistic personality upon Andalus.
In the course of frequent and protracted visits to Spain I came to realise
that the Moors were not a one-city nation; they did not exhaust themselves
in a single, isolated effort to achieve the sublimely beautiful. Before the
Alhambra was conceived in the mind of Mohammed the First of Granada,
Toledo had been adorned and lost; Cordova, which for centuries had
commanded the admiration of Europe, had paled and waned beside the
increasing splendour of Seville; and the “gem of Andalusia” itself had been
wrested from the Moor by the victorious Ferdinand III. But each in turn had
been redeemed from Gothic tyranny by the art-adoring influence of the
Moslem. Their dominion, their politics, and their influence is a tale of a day
that is dead, but it survives in the monuments of their Art, which exist to the
glory of Spain and the wonder of the world. The Arabian sense of the
beautiful sealed itself upon Cordova, and made the city its own; it blended
with the joyous spirit of Seville; it forced its impress upon the frowning
forehead of Toledo. To see the Alhambra is not to understand the wonders
of the Alcazar; the study of Moorish wizardry in Toledo does not reveal,
does not even prepare one, for the bewildering cunning of the Mosque in
Cordova.
In Cordova—this gay, vivacious overgrown village, which gleams serene
in a setting of vineyards and orange groves—the spirit of the Moors still
breathes. Rome wrested the city from Carthage; the Goths humbled it to the

dust. But, under the Moors, Cordova became the centre of European
civilisation, the rival of Baghdad and Damascus as a seat of learning, the
Athens of the West, and second only in sanctity to the Kaaba of Mecca. Its
Cathedral first came into being as a temple of Janus; it has been both a
basilica and a mosque. But the magic art of the Mohammedan, which
effaced the imprint of the Roman spear, has survived the torch of the Holy
Inquisition, and to-day Cordova is the most exquisitely beautiful Moorish
monument in Spain.
In Seville, on the spot where Roman, Visigoth, and Moslem have each in
turn practised their faith, the Cathedral bells now hang above the Arabian
tower of the mosque, and the spire of the temple of the faithful has become
the world-famous Giralda, which dominates the city. Moorish fountains and
patios are found at Malaga, and Granada, and Toledo, but one comes to “La
Tierra de Maria Santisima” to see them at their loveliest, while the Alcazar
is perhaps the best preserved and most superbly-decorated specimen of the
Moorish citadel-palace that Europe has to show.
Menacing, majestic, and magnificent in its strength and splendid
isolation, Toledo, guarded by its Moorish masonry, a rock built upon a rock,
has been described by Padilla as “the crown of Spain, the light of the world,
free from the time of the mighty Goths.” The light of the world has
dwindled in the socket of modern progress, the Moor has left his scars upon
the freedom of the Goth; but Toledo, which was old when Christianity was
born, presents an epitome of the principal arts, religions, and races which
have dominated the world for the last two thousand years.
In the three cities of Cordova, Seville, and Toledo, in which the hand of
the Moor touched nothing that it did not beautify, I have found the
supplement to the art wonders that I attempted to describe in my book upon
the Alhambra; and, encouraged by the cordiality of the welcome extended
to that volume in Spain and America, as well as in this country, I have
followed the course which I therein adopted, of making the letterpress
subservient to the illustrations. While immersed in authorities, and tempted
often by the beauties of the scenes to indulge the desire to emotionalise in
words, I have never permitted myself to forget that my purpose has been to
present a picture rather than to chronicle the romance of Spanish-Morisco
art.

For the historical data, and some of the descriptions contained in this
book, I have levied tribute on a large number of authors. Don Pascual de
Gayángos, the renowned translator of Al-Makkari; the Handbook and the
Gatherings of Richard Ford; William Stirling-Maxwell’s Don John of
Austria; The History of the Conquest of Spain, by Henry Coppeé;
Washington Irving’s Conquest of Granada; Miss Charlotte Yonge’s
Christians and Moors in Spain; Stanley Lane-Poole’s The Moors in Spain;
the writings of Dr. R. Dozy, of Leipsic; Muhammed Hayat Khan’s Rise and
Fall of the Muslim Empire in Spain; Hannah Lynch’s Toledo; Walter M.
Gallichan’s Seville; The Latin-Byzantine Monuments of Cordova;
Monumentos Arquitectonicos de España; Pedro de Madrazo’s Sevilla—
these, and many less important writers on Spain, have been consulted.
But with this wealth of literary material to hand, I have remembered that
it is my collection of illustrations, rather than on the written word, that I
must depend. From the nature of Arabian art, and the characteristic
minuteness of the details of which Morisco decoration is composed, lengthy
descriptions of architecture, unaccompanied by illustrations, become not
only tedious but positively confusing to the reader, while, on the other hand,
a sufficiency of illustrations renders exhaustive descriptions superfluous. I
have striven to do justice to the subject in this direction, not without hope of
achieving my purpose, but with a vast consciousness of the fact that, neither
by camera, nor brush, nor by the pen, can one reflect, with any fidelity, the
effects obtained by the Moorish masters of the Middle Ages. In their art we
find a sense of the mysterious that appeals to one like the glint of moonlight
on running water; an intangible spirit of joyousness that one catches from
the dancing shadows of leaves upon a sun-swept lawn; and an elusive key
to its beauty, which is lost in the bewildering maze of traceries and the
inextricable network of designs. The form, but not the fantasy, of these
fairy-like, fascinating decorations may be reproduced, and this I have
endeavoured to do.
A. F. C.
“Royston,” Hampstead, N. W.
1905.

LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS
CORDOVA
Page
The Mosque—Principal Nave of the Mihrab 9
The Mosque—Entrance to the Mihrab 10
Gates of Pardon 11
View of the City and Bridge South of the Guadalquivir 12
General View of the Interior of the Mosque 12
Façade and Gate of the Almanzor 13
View of Interior of the Mosque 961-967 14
The Mosque—Plan in the Time of the Arabs 786-796, 961-
967, 988-1001, 1523-1593 15
The Mosque—Plan in its Present State, 786-796, 961-967,
988-1001, 1523-1593 16
Ancient Arab Tower, now the Church of St. Nicholas de
la Villa 25
Orange Court in the Mosque, Moorish Style, Built 957, by
Said Ben Ayout 26
Exterior of the Mosque 27
The Mosque—Section of the Mihrab 28
The Mosque—Portal on the North Side, Moorish Style,
Built Under Hakam III., 988-1001 45
Exterior View of the Mosque 47
Exterior Angle of the Mosque 49
The Exterior of the Mosque 51
The Bridge 55
View of the Mosque and the Bridge 57
Section of the Mosque of Cordova on the Line of the Plan
l. m. 59
Section of the Mosque of Cordova on the Line of the Plan
n. o. 59
The Gates of Pardon 61

A View in the Garden Belonging to the Mosque 65
The Mosque—Lateral Gate 67
Interior of the Mosque, or Cathedral 69
Interior of the Mosque, Moorish Style, Built 961-967.
Under Hakam II. 71
The Mosque 75
The Mosque—Interior View 77
Interior View of the Mosque 79
The Mosque—General View of the Interior 81
The Central Nave of the Mosque—961-967 85
The Mosque—Chief Entrance 87
Interior View of the Cathedral 89
Interior of the Mosque—Lateral Nave 91
Interior of the Mosque—East Side 91
The Mosque—Detail of the Gate 95
The Mosque—Façade of the Almanzor 95
View in the Mosque—961-967 97
The Mosque—A Gate on one of the Lateral Sides 99
The Mosque—Side of the Captive’s Column 101
Mosque, North Side—Exterior of the Chapel of St. Pedro 105
General View of the Interior of the Chapel of the Masura
and St. Ferdinand 107
Detail of the Chapel of Masura 109
The Mosque—Elevation of the Gate of the Sanctuary of
the Koran 111
The Mosque—Gate of the Sanctuary of the Koran 115
The Mosque—Mosaic Decoration of the Sanctuary, 965-
1001 117
The Mosque—Right-hand Side Gate Within the Precincts
of the Maksurrah 119
The Mosque—Section of the Cupola of the Mihrab 121
The Mosque—Dome of the Sanctuary 125
The Mosque—Roof of the Chapel of the Masura and St.
Ferdinand 127
Villaviciosa Chapel 129

The Mosque—Detail of the Hall of Chocolate 131
Entrance to the Vestibule of the Mihrab 135
Mihrab or Sanctuary of the Mosque 137
The Mosque—Arch and Front of the Abd-er-Rahman and
Mihrab Chapels 139
Entrance to the Chapel of the Mihrab 141
View of the Interior of the Mihrab Chapel 145
The Mosque—Details of the Interior of the Chapel of the
Mihrab 147
The Mosque—Marble Socle in the Mihrab 149
Basement Panel of the Façade of the Mihrab 151
The Mosque—Front of the Trastamara Chapel 155
General View of the Chapel of Villaviciosa 157
North Angle of the Chapel of Villaviciosa 159
Villaviciosa Chapel 161
The Mosque—Chapel of Villaviciosa 165
Arab Tribune, To-day the Chapel of Villaviciosa, Left Side 167
Ancient Inscription of the Time of Khalifate, Found in an
Excavation 169
The Mosque—Chapel of Trastamara, South Side 171
The Mosque—Detail of the Trastamara Chapel 171
The Mosque—Interior of the Mihrab 175
The Mosque—Arab Arcade Above the First Mihrab 175
The Mosque—Details, Arches of the Mihrab 177
The Mosque—Detail of the Mihrab 177
The Mosque—Exterior of the Chapel of the Mihrab 179
The Mosque—Gate of the Sultan 179
Principal Entrance to the Mosque 181
The Mosque—Detail Near the Mihrab 181
The Gates of Pardon 185
The Bishop’s Gate 185
The Mosque—Pilasters and Arabian Baths 187
Inscriptions and Arabian Chapters 191

The Mosque—A Cufic Inscription in the Place
Appropriated to the Performance of Ablutions 193
Arabic Inscriptions 195
A Cufic Inscription on the Additions Made to the Mosque,
by Order of the Khalif Al-Hakam 197
The Bridge Across the Guadalquivir, with a View of the
Cathedral (Mezquita). The Scene as it Appeared in 1780.
From Antigüedades Arabes de España. Madrid, 1780, fol. 201
View of Cordova Cathedral (Mezquita), as it Appeared in
1780. From Antigüedades Arabes de España. Madrid, 1780,
fol. 203
Wall of the Mosque 205
Façade of the Mihrab 207
The Mosque—Arch of one of the Gates 211
The Mosque—Lattice 213
The Mosque—Ornamental Arched Window 217
The Mosque—Capitals of the Entrance Arch 219
Details of the Frieze 221
Plan 221
Keystone of Ornamental Arch 221
Details of the Cornice 223
Capital of Arch 227
Side View of the Cornice 227
Bases 227
East Façade, Without the Portico 229
SEVILLE
Façade of the Alcazar 241
Alcazar—Gates of the Principal Entrance 243
Façade of the Alcazar 247
Chief Entrance to the Alcazar, Moorish Style, Built
Under Don Pedro I. the Cruel, 1369-1379 249
Alcazar—Principal Façade 253
Interior Court of the Alcazar 255
Alcazar—Arcade in the Principal Court 259
Alcazar—View of the Interior 261

Alcazar—Court of the Dolls 265
Alcazar—Court of the Dolls, Moorish Style, Built 1369-
1379 267
Alcazar—The Court of the Dolls 271
Alcazar—Right Angle of the Court of the Dolls 273
Alcazar—Upper Part of the Court of the Dolls 279
Alcazar—Upper Portions of the Court of the Dolls 283
Alcazar—The Little Court 289
Alcazar—View in the Little Court 291
Alcazar—View of the Hall of Ambassadors from the
Little Court 295
Alcazar—Hall of Ambassadors 297
Alcazar—Interior of the Hall of Ambassadors 301
Alcazar—The Hall of Ambassadors 303
Alcazar—Throne of Justice 307
Alcazar—Hall of Ambassadors 307
Alcazar—Façade of the Court of the Virgins 309
Alcazar—Interior of the Court of the Virgins, Moorish
Style, Built 1369-1379 313
Alcazar—General View of the Court of the Hundred
Virgins 315
Alcazar—Court of the Hundred Virgins 319
Alcazar—Court of the Virgins 321
Alcazar—Gallery in the Court of the Hundred Virgins 325
Alcazar—The Sultana’s Apartment and Court of the
Virgins 327
Alcazar—Entrance to the Sleeping Saloon of the
Moorish Kings 331
Alcazar—Dormitory of the Kings 333
Alcazar—The Dormitory 337
Alcazar—Front of the Sleeping Saloon of the Moorish
Kings 339
Alcazar—Sleeping Saloon of the Moorish Kings 339

Alcazar—Room of the Infanta 343
Alcazar—Columns where Don Fadrique was Murdered 345
Alcazar—Gate of the Hall of San Fernando 349
Alcazar—Gallery of Hall of San Fernando 349
Alcazar—Hall in which King San Fernando Died 351
Alcazar—Room of the Prince 355
Alcazar—View of the Gallery from the Second Floor 357
Tower of the Giralda 361
Details of the Giralda Tower 363
Court of the House of Pilatos 367
Court of the House of Pilatos 369
House of Pilatos—View in the Court by the Door of the
Chapel 373
House of Pilatos—Chapel 375
Gallery of the House of Pilatos 376
Gallery of the Court of the House of Pilatos 381
Court of the Palace of Medina-Cœli 385
TOLEDO
Santa Maria la Blanca—Interior, 1100-1150 395
The Gate of Blood 399
Interior of Santa Maria la Blanca 405
Gate of the Sun 409
Door of the Hall of Mesa 413
Exterior of the Chapel of Christo de la Vega 413
Ancient Gate of Visagra 419
Castle of St. Servando 419
Moorish Sword 423
Arab Fragment at Tarragona 429
Ancient Arabian Baths at Palma, Majorca 435
MOORISH DESIGNS AND ORNAMENTS
Designs and Ornaments 447-
494
Description of the Plates—Hexagonal Family 495-
586

LIST OF COLOURED PLATES
Plate.Description.
Frontispiece—Vertical Section of the Dome and
Cupola of the Mihrab. Cordova.
I. Shell-like Ornaments in the Cupola of the Mihrab.
Cordova.
II. Shell-like Ornaments in the Cupola of the Mihrab.
Cordova.
III. Shell-like Ornaments in the Cupola of the Mihrab.
Cordova.
IV. Part of the Ornamentation and Keystone of one of the
Lower Arches, which gives Light to the Dome.
Cordova.
IV. Ring of the Cupola.
V. Curvilineal Triangles, resulting from the Intersection
of the Arches sustaining the Dome. Cordova.
V. Setting of the Arches sustaining the Dome. Cordova.
VI. Ornament running below the Cupola. Cordova.
VI. Setting of one of the Lower Arches, which gives Light
to the Dome. Cordova.
VII. Curvilineal Triangles, resulting from the Intersection
of the Arches sustaining the Dome.
VII. Architrave of one of the Arches sustaining the Dome.
Cordova.
VIII. Details of the Gate of the Maksurrah. Cordova.
IX. Arches of the Portal of the Mihrab. Cordova.
X. Detail of the Framing of the Side Gate. Cordova.
X. Detail of the Window placed over the Side Door.
Cordova.
X. Detail of the Framing of the Arch of the Mihrab.
XI. Windows in an Alcove.
XII. Arab Vase of Metallic Lustre.

XIII. Details of the Arches.
XIV. Centre Painting on a Ceiling.
XV. Divan.
XVI. Detail of an Arch.
XVII. Gate of the Murada.
XVIII. Details of the Mihrab.
XVIII. Detail of one of the Arches of the Cupola.
XVIII. Mosaic Keystones of the Great Arch of the Mihrab.
XIX. Details, Villaviciosa Chapel and Mihrab.
XX. Details of the Interior of the Mosque.
XXI. Details of the Interior of the Mosque.
XXII. Details of Moorish Work.
XXIII. Details, Villaviciosa Chapel and Mihrab.
XXIV. Details of Moorish Work.
XXV. Frieze in the Hall of Ambassadors. Seville.
XXV. Stucco Work in the Hall of Ambassadors. Seville.
XXV. Mosaic in the Large Court. Seville.
XXV. Mosaic in the Large Court. Seville.
XXVI. Hall of Ambassadors—Details. Seville.
XXVII. Hall of Ambassadors—Details. Seville.
XXVIII. Hall of Ambassadors—Details. Seville.
XXIX. Blank Window.
XXX. Soffit of Arch.
XXXI. Cornice at Springing of Arch of Doorway at one of the
Entrances.
XXXII. Borders of Arches.
XXXIII. Borders of Arches.
XXXIV. Border of Arches.
XXXV. Ornament in Panels on the Wall.
XXXVI. Bands, Side of Arches.
XXXVII. Bands, Side of Arches.
XXXVIII. Ornaments on Panels.
XXXIX. Ornaments on Panels.
XL. Ornaments on Panels.

XLI. Ornaments on Panels
XLII. Frieze in the Upper Chamber, House of Sanchez.
XLIII. Cornice at Springing of Arches in a Window.
XLIV. Panels on Walls.
XLV. Spandrils of Arches.
XLVI. Spandrils of Arches.
XLVII. Spandrils of Arches.
XLVIII. Plaster Ornaments, used as Upright and Horizontal
Bands enclosing Panels on the Walls.
XLIX. Blank Window.
L. Rafters of a Roof over a Doorway, now destroyed,
beneath the Tocador de la Reyna.
LI. Band at Springing of Arch at the Entrance to one of
the Halls.
LII. Panelling of a Recess.
LIII. Blank Window.
LIV. Ornaments on the Walls, House of Sanchez.
LV. Ornament in Panels on the Walls.
LVI. Ornaments in Spandrils of Arches.
LVII. Mosaic Dado in a Window, &c.
LVIII. Mosaic Dados on Pillars.
LIX. Mosaic Dados on Pillars.
LX. Mosaics.
LXI. Mosaic Dado round the Internal Walls of the Mosque.
LXII. Painted Tiles.
LXIII. Mosaics.
LXIV. Mosaics.
LXV. Ornaments in Panels.
LXVI. Ornament over Arches at one of the Entrances.
LXVII. Ornament on the Walls.
LXVIII. Ornament in Panels on the Walls.
LXIX. Small Panel in Jamb of a Window.
LXX. Small Panel in Jamb of a Window.
LXXI. Panel in the Upper Chamber of the House of Sanchez.

LXXII. Spandril from Niche of Doorway at one of the
Entrances.
LXXIII. Lintel of a Doorway.
LXXIV. Capital of Columns.
LXXV. Capital of Columns.
LXXVI. Capital of Columns.
LXXVII. Socle of the Entrance Arch to the Ante-chapel.
LXXVIII. Socle of the Entrance Arch to the Chapel.
LXXIX. Detail of the Tiles of the Altar.
LXXX. Socle in the Interior of the Chapel.
LXXXI. Socle in the Interior of the Chapel.
LXXXII. Mosaics from various Halls.
LXXXIII. Mosaics from various Halls.
LXXXIV. Part of Ceiling of a Portico.
MOORISH REMAINS IN SPAIN

T
INTRODUCTORY
HE conquest of Spain by the Moors, and the story comprised in the
eight centuries during which they wielded sovereignty as a European
power, forms a romance that is without parallel in the history of the
world. Under Mohammedan rule Spain enjoyed the first and most
protracted period of comparative peace and material prosperity she had ever
known. She had been plundered by Carthage and Phœnicia, ground beneath
the iron heel of Rome, devastated and enslaved by those Christianised but
corrupt barbarians, the Visigoths. All the evils and demoralisation arising
from successive waves of bloody conquest and decadent voluptuousness
had been sown in the breast of Spain. The squandered might of Carthage
had left the country a prey to the vigorous Roman; the degenerate Roman
had been banished by the rugged, victorious Goth, who, after two centuries
of security and sensual ease, was to be made subject to the warlike and
enlightened Moor. Once more the land was to be overrun and the face of the
country was to be scarred with fire and the sword; once more the people
were to learn to serve new masters and conform to new laws. Of a truth the
last state must have seemed worse than the first to the Romanised
Spaniards. Carthage had brought chains, but it had also introduced artificers
and a form of Government; the Roman eagles had been accompanied by
Roman engineers and road-builders; the Goths erected upon the broken
altars of mythology temples to the living God. But it now seemed that the
whips of ancient foes were to be replaced by the scorpions of their new
taskmasters; the Christianity which the East had sent them was to be
uprooted by the Eastern infidels.
Such must have been the prospect before Spain, and even before the rest
of Europe, when Tarik returned in 710 to Ceuta, from a marauding
expedition upon the coast of Andalusia, and reported to Musa, the son of
Noseyr, the Arab Governor of North Africa, that the country was ripe for
conquest and well worth the hazard of the cast. Twenty years later the
Moslems had overrun Spain, captured Bordeaux by assault and advanced to
the conquest of Gaul. It is passing strange to reflect that these far-reaching,
epoch-making events had not been undertaken as the result of a deep-laid
scheme of national expansion or religious enterprise. According to tradition

the foundation of the Moslem supremacy in Spain was instigated by the
hatred of a single traitor, Count Julian, the Governor of Ceuta, and his
treachery was inspired by the dishonour of one young girl—Julian’s
daughter, Florinda.
At the beginning of the eighth century, when the Moors had extended
their possessions up to the walls of Ceuta, which was held for Roderick,
King of Spain, by Count Julian, the Count, in accordance with the custom
among the Gothic nobility, had sent his daughter to the Court of Roderick,
at Toledo, to be educated among the Queen’s gentlewomen in a manner
befitting her rank and lineage. The rest is the old story of a beautiful,
unprotected girl, a lascivious guardian, and a father thirsting for vengeance.
So far Count Julian had defended Ceuta against the Moors with unbroken
success, now he came to Toledo to relieve the king of the custody of his
daughter, and repay the breach of trust which Roderick had committed by
making a compact with the king’s enemies. On the eve of his departure
from the capital, the king requested the Count to send him some hawks of a
special variety that he desired for hunting purposes, and the vengeful noble
pledged himself to supply his master with hawks, the like of which he had
never seen.
But Count Julian found the Saracenic hawks less keen for the hunting he
had in view than he expected. That old bird of prey, Musa, listened to the
alluring tales of the richness and beauty of Spain, but doubted the good
faith of his long-time enemy, who proposed that the Moors should invade
this promised land in Spanish ships, lent to them for the purpose. But the
love of conquest and the lust of loot, which had inspired and sustained the
Arab arms in all their territorial campaigns, overcame the natural hesitancy
of the Moorish Governor, and in 710 Musa despatched Tarik with a small
expedition to spy out the state of the Spanish coast. So successful was the
mission, and so rich the plunder they brought back, that in the following
year he adventured an army of 7,000 men under Tarik for the spoliation of
Andalusia. Tarik, who landed at the rock of Gibraltar—Gebal Tarik, which
still bears his name—captured Carteya, and encountered the army of
Roderick, who had hurried from the North of his dominions to repel the
invaders, on the banks of the Guadalete.
Washington Irving, in the Conquest of Spain, has related, in his
brilliantly picturesque style, the old legend of the prophecy of Roderick’s
overthrow and the mystery surrounding his death. The king was proof

against the solemn warnings of the old warders of the tower of Hercules,—
the tower of “jasper and marble, inlaid in subtle devices, which shone in the
rays of the sun,”—wherein lay the secret of Spain’s future, sealed by a
magic spell, and guarded by a massive iron gate, and secured by the locks
affixed to it by every successive Spanish king since the days of Hercules.
Roderick came not to set a new lock upon the gate, but to burst the bolts of
the centuries and reveal the mystery that his predecessors had gone down
into their graves without solving. All day long his courtiers urged him
vainly against his own undoing, and the custodians laboured at the rusty
locks, and at evening he entered the mighty, outer hall, rushed past the
bronze warder, penetrated the inner chamber, and read the inscription
attached to the casket, which Hercules had deposited in the gem-encrusted
tower. “In this coffer is the mystery of the Tower. The hand of none but a
King can open it; but let him beware, for wonderful things will be disclosed
to him, which must happen before his death.” In a moment the lid is prized
open, the parchment, folded between plates of copper, is brought into the
light of day, and the king has read the motto inscribed upon the border:
“Behold, rash man, those who shall hurl thee from thy throne and subdue
thy Kingdom.”
Beneath the motto is drawn a panorama of horsemen, fierce of
countenance, armed with bows and scimitars. As the king gazes
wonderingly upon the picture, the sound of warfare rushes on his ear, the
chamber is filled with a cloud, and in the cloud the horsemen bend forward
in their saddles and raise their arms to strike. Amazed and terrorised,
Roderick and his courtiers drew back and “beheld before them a great field
of battle, where Christians and Moors were engaged in deadly conflict.
They heard the rush and tramp of steeds, the blast of trump and clarion, the
clash of cymbal, and the stormy din of a thousand drums. There was the
flash of swords and maces and battle axes, with the whistling of arrows and
hurling of darts and lances. The Christian quailed before the foe. The
infidels pressed upon them, and put them to utter rout; the standard of the
Cross was cast down, the banner of Spain was trodden under foot, the air
resounded with shouts of triumph, with yells of fury, and the groans of
dying men. Amidst the flying squadrons, King Roderick beheld a crowned
warrior, whose back was turned towards him, but whose armour and device
were his own, and who was mounted on a white steed that resembled his
own war horse, Orelia. In the confusion of the fight, the warrior was

dismounted and was no longer to be seen, and Orelia galloped wildly
through the field of battle without a rider.”
The vision he had witnessed in the Tower of Hercules must have
recurred to Roderick when he saw the Moorish army encamped against him
by the waters of the Guadalete, but he must have noted its numbers with
surprise, and contemplated his own host with complacency. For Tarik, even
with his Berber reinforcements, only counted 12,000 men, and nearly four
score thousand slept beneath the standard of Spain. If ever prophecy was
calculated to be found at fault it must have seemed to be so that day, and
Tarik published his estimate of the enormity of the odds that were against
him when he cried to his army of fatalists, “Men, before you is the enemy,
and the sea is at your backs. By Allah, there is no escape for you, save in
valour and resolution.” But valour and resolution belonged to the Spaniards
as well as to the Moors; and, but for the action of the kinsmen of the
dethroned King Witiza, who deserted to the side of the Saracens in the
midst of the seven day battle, the Moorish conquest would have been
delayed, if not even entirely abandoned. But Witiza’s adherents turned the
tide of battle against Roderick, the Spaniards broke and fled, and Orelia
galloped riderless through the field. Tarik, in a single encounter, had won all
Spain for the infidels.
Without hesitation, and in defiance of the commands of Musa, who
coveted the glory that his lieutenant had so unexpectedly won, Tarik
proceeded to make good his mastery of the entire Peninsula. He despatched
a force of seven hundred horsemen to capture Cordova; Archidona and
Malaga capitulated without striking a blow; and Elvira was taken by storm.
City after city surrendered to the victorious invaders, and the principles of
true chivalry, which the Moors invariably observed, reconciled the
vanquished Spaniards to their new conquerors. The common people
welcomed the promise of a new era, while the nobles fled before the
advancing armies, and abandoned the country to the enemy. With the
surrender of Toledo, Tarik had added a new dominion to the crown of
Damascus. Musa left Ceuta in 712 with 18,000 men to join Tarik at Toledo,
taking Seville, Carmona, and Merida en route. The meeting of the Governor
and his General at the capital revealed the first flash of that fire of personal
jealousy and internecine conflict which kept Spain in a blaze throughout the
eight centuries of the Moorish occupation.

To the intrepid warriors, who were bred to war and trained to the
business of conquest, the Pyrenees represented, not a bar to further
progress, but a bulwark from which they were to advance to the subjugation
of Europe. The total defeat of the Saracens under the walls of Toulouse by
the Duke of Aquitana in 721 turned their course westwards; and after
occupying Carcasonne and Narbonne, raiding Burgundy and carrying
Bordeaux by assault, they suffered a decisive defeat at the hands of the
Franks, under Charles Martel, at the Battle of Tours in 733. The tide of
Arabian aggression was arrested and rolled back; and although the Moors
repulsed the Frankish invasion of Spain under Charlemagne, a bound had
been put upon their empire-building ambitions, and they set themselves
resolutely to accomplish the pacification of the kingdom they had already
won. It is the boast of the Northern Spaniards, the hardy mountaineers of
Galicia and Leon, of Castile and the Biscayan provinces, that they were
never subject to Moslem rule. There is good warrant for their claim, and in
truth the independence of the North was maintained, but the fact remains
that the Moors had no desire for those bleak and unfruitful districts; and so
long as the savage Basques did not disturb the security of Arabian tenure in
the fertile South, they were left in the enjoyment of their dreary, frozen
fastnesses, and their wind-swept, arid wastes.
The Moors had made themselves secure in the smiling country that,
roughly speaking, lies South of the Sierra de Guadarrama; and here, with a
genius and success that was unprecedented, they organised the Kingdom of
Cordova. “It must not be supposed,” writes Mr. Stanley Lane-Poole, “that
the Moors, like the barbarian hordes who preceded them, brought
desolation and tyranny in their wake. On the contrary, never was Andalusia
so mildly, justly, and wisely governed as by the Arab conquerors. Where
they got their talent for administration it is hard to say, for they came almost
direct from their Arabian deserts, and their rapid tide of victories had left
them little leisure to acquire the art of managing foreign nations. Some of
their Counsellors were Greeks and Spaniards, but this does not explain the
problem; for these same Counsellors were unable to produce similar results
elsewhere; all the administrative talent of Spain had not sufficed to make
the Gothic domination tolerable to its subjects. Under the Moors, on the
other hand, the people were on the whole contented—as contented as any
people can be whose rulers are of a separate race and creed—and far better
pleased than they had been when their sovereigns belonged to the same

religion as that which they nominally professed. Religion was, indeed, the
smallest difficulty which the Moors had to contend with at the outset,
though it had become troublesome afterwards. The Spaniards were as much
pagan as Christian; the new creed promulgated by Constantine had made
little impression among the general mass of the population, who were still
predominantly Roman. What they wanted was—not a creed, but the power
to live their lives in peace and prosperity. This their Moorish masters gave
them.”
The people were allowed to retain their own religion and their own laws
and judges; and with the exception of the poll tax, which was levied only
upon Christians and Jews, their imposts were no heavier than those paid by
the Moors. The slaves were treated with a mildness which they had never
known under the Romans or the Goths, and, moreover, they had only to
make a declaration of Mohammedanism—to repeat the formula of belief,
“There is no God but God, and Mohammed is His Prophet”—to gain their
freedom. By the same simple process, men of position and wealth secured
equal rights with their conquerers. But while the Moors thus practised the
science of pacification, they were unable to conquer their own racial
instincts, which found their vent in jealous blood feuds and ceaseless
internal conflicts. In the field the Arabs were a united people; under stress
of warfare their rivalries were forgotten; but the racial spirit of the
conquerors reasserted itself when the stress of conquest gave place to
“dimpling peace,” and government by murder created constant changes in
the administration. The Arabs and the Berbers, though they may be
regarded as one race in their domination of Spain, were two entirely distinct
and fiercely hostile tribes. The Berbers of Tarik had accomplished the
conquest of Spain, but the Arabs arrived in time to seize the lion’s share of
the spoils of victory; and when the Berber insurrection in

Welcome to our website – the ideal destination for book lovers and
knowledge seekers. With a mission to inspire endlessly, we offer a
vast collection of books, ranging from classic literary works to
specialized publications, self-development books, and children's
literature. Each book is a new journey of discovery, expanding
knowledge and enriching the soul of the reade
Our website is not just a platform for buying books, but a bridge
connecting readers to the timeless values of culture and wisdom. With
an elegant, user-friendly interface and an intelligent search system,
we are committed to providing a quick and convenient shopping
experience. Additionally, our special promotions and home delivery
services ensure that you save time and fully enjoy the joy of reading.
Let us accompany you on the journey of exploring knowledge and
personal growth!
ebookultra.com

Basics of Hydraulic Systems 1st Edition Qin Zhang

More Related Content

Similar to Basics of Hydraulic Systems 1st Edition Qin Zhang (20)

Recently uploaded (20)

Basics of Hydraulic Systems 1st Edition Qin Zhang