Behavioral Science (2).ppt
- 1. Behavioral sciences SOCIOLOGY And ANTHROPOLOGY ” 5/22/2023 1
- 2. Module outcome • The learner will be able to apply knowledge of sociology and anthropology in delivery of health services 5/22/2023 2
- 3. Module Competence: • This module is designed to enable the learner apply knowledge of sociology and anthropology in assisting patients / clients to promote health, prevent illness, manage and rehabilitate patients. : 5/22/2023 3
- 4. Module content • Basic concepts and terminology • Man and culture • socialization process, • social stratification ,social change, social mobility, social institutions, family, religion • peace building, conflict resolution, negotiation • socio-cultural beliefs and practices affecting health 5/22/2023 4
- 5. • The term 'sociology' can be traced to Auguste Comte in 1837. He combined the Latin word for society (socio) with the Greek word for science (logy) thus identifying an area of study that pertained to the science of society. • Sociology is the study of social life, social change, and the social causes and consequences of human behaviour 5/22/2023 5
- 6. Sociology is about people. It is about how people interact and why they behave as they do. According to Akinsola (1983) sociology is explained as a social science that deals with the organisation of societies, people’s patterns of behaviour within the social structure, and how these social structures are arranged in the society. Anthropology is divided primarily into physical anthropology and cultural anthropology. 5/22/2023 6
- 7. Anthropology is the classification and analysis of humans and their society, descriptively, culturally, historically, and physically. Its unique contribution to studying the bonds of human social relations has been the distinctive concept of culture. It has also differed from other sciences concerned with human social behaviour (especially sociology) in its emphasis on data from non-literate peoples and archaeological exploration. 5/22/2023 7
- 9. Importance of sociology • The study of sociology has great value in modern complex society: Sociology studies society in a scientific way: we need scientific knowledge about human society in order to achieve progress in various fields Sociology improves our understanding of society:social institutions,social groups,their functions and changes in trends etc.help us to lead an effective meaningful social life. 5/22/2023 9
- 10. Sociology helps us become broad minded: sociology has impressed upon its students to overcome their prejudices, misconceptions, egoistic ambitions and class and religious hatreds, it makes our life richer, meaningful and fuller. Sociology enlightens us regarding the major social institutions: social institutions decide the strength and weakness of the society. institutions play a vital role in our social life. 5/22/2023 10
- 11. Sociology helps us to solve social problems: the study of sociology will help us iden social problems and suggest measures to solve them. Social planning-social planning has been made easier by sociology, its regarded as t vehicle for social reform and re-organization. It is very useful for law makers: lawmakers need to know the background of inform and formal laws of the society through the study of sociology. 5/22/2023 11
- 12. Use of sociology in healthcare sector. • Sociology helps the healthcare workers to know the culture and social life of patients.it is important to know peoples culture and beliefs especially in a country with diverse tribes and religions. • Personal adjustments: knowledge in sociology helps the healthcare workers adjust to situations in the hospital environment and enhances relations with colleagues and patients. 5/22/2023 12
- 13. • Healthcare services: medical sociology is extremely useful.for the entire health care services..recognition of social forces in health,change in cognitive process, • Disease prevention-when healthcare workers know the social background of the patients its easier to offer disease prevention techniques. • Improve the quality of treatment-through the knowledge of social- psycholgical problems of patients. 5/22/2023 13
- 14. • Support government in various schemes of social planning-eg family health,HIV aids programmes,drug abuse rehabilatation. • Care for special groups in the society • Understand the relationship betweeen various elements of social life. 5/22/2023 14
- 15. I. Auguste Comte: (1798 – 1857) The Father of Sociology 5/22/2023 15
- 16. AUGUSTE COMTE (Cont…) •He lived during the years following the French revolution. •He was keen to establish sociology as a science and he arrogantly saw it as the “queen of the sciences” •His followers wore jackets with buttons at the back so that other people had to button or unbutton them. This involved some form of social interactions. 5/22/2023 16
- 17. Cont… • He described three stages of historical development: a. Stage 1 • This is where the human mind is ruled by religions, myths, superstitions and delusions. • This is the primitive stage which is not regarded as possible today. • However, a few pockets of this is found in some African societies where gods are still worshipped. 5/22/2023 17
- 18. Cont… STAGE 2 •It was marked by philosophical thinking in the society. •Each individual started thinking beyond his family but more on a collective order e.g. state. STAGE 3 •This is when man reached rational and scientific level of thinking and action. •It is called positive or scientific stage. 5/22/2023 18
- 19. II. Karl Max (1818 – 1883) •Reviewed/criticized capitalism and promoted socialism. •He described the concept of class and the social relationship. •He described two classes: The proletariat - poor/working class and, the Bourgeoisie - ruling class who owned production. He stated that a gap exists between the two groups (the proletariat and the bourgeoisie). 5/22/2023 19
- 20. Cont… BOURGIESIES PROLITERIAT Owned means of Production e.g. money, land They produced labor, Land, tenants Boss – superordination (superiority, class/rank) Workers, surbordination Control political power because of economic power Were followers 5/22/2023 20
- 21. Cont… •Karl Max argued that: Power belonged to the masses and must be seized by them through use of force and have socialist societies where there is public ownership of property. The relationship between the two classes is characterized by struggle, conflict and tension. Class conflict is inevitable where there is private ownership of land. •Karl Max theory was used to organize states such as Russia, Ethiopia and Tanzania 5/22/2023 21
- 22. III. MAX WEBER – 1864 – 1920 • He believed that man could determine his destiny by his beliefs, values and ideas, but not economic forces. He described the value which derives from discipline and denial in the pursuit of one’s goal. He came up with some related statements in “inner worldly ascetism” e.g. any legal occupation is good in the sight of God. Profit made from legal occupation is legitimate. (austere person - somebody who is self-denying and lives with minimal material comforts) 5/22/2023 22
- 23. IV. EMILE DURKHEIM – (1858-1917) •He was the first professor of Sociology •He was keen in to demonstrate that sociology was a science. •He believed e.g. that social phenomena can be measured and that even if it is not possible to undertake laboratory experiments with human beings corporative studies which serve a similar purpose can be undertaken. 5/22/2023 23
- 24. Cont… He succeeded in showing that suicide rates differ very significantly between social groups (even though suicide is personal), e.g. that members of some religious groups are more prone to suicide than others. He found that suicide rates are co-related to social factors such as loneliness and economic well being. 5/22/2023 24
- 25. Others •Piel (1977) explained how relationships between individuals or groups function, and how changing circumstances and relationships influence these. E.g.: A family = School child + college student + father + mother: a social system & if any one of them is affected, then the whole family is disturbed. 5/22/2023 25
- 26. Terminolgy • Norms-standards that govern behaviour in roles. Socially accepted patterns of behaviour • Mores- stronger social norms receiving severe punishment e.g. adultery • Laws- written socially confirmed rules and regulations of conduct which are punishable • Sanctions-form of direct social control that uses rewards and punishment to encourage conformity to social norms 26 5/22/2023
- 27. • Role. involves relationships between people, patterns of behaviour and rights and duties associated with a particular position. Everyone has more than one role • Values -usually inferred from observed behaviour. • Folkways-customary practices that are considered appropriate behaviour but are not rigidly enforced. • Socialization-the process by which new members of a society are taught to participate in that society learn their roles and develop a self image. • Stratification-a pattern where scarce resources,such as wealth income,and power are distributed unequally among the members of a society 5/22/2023 27
- 28. A example of system of roles held by an individual 5/22/2023 28
- 29. • Re socialization-a process occurring in social institutions designed to undo the effects of previous socialization and teach an individual new and different beliefs and attitudes and behavior pattern • Anomie-a situation in which social norms either do not exist or have become ineffective • Acculturation-a process in which immigrant minority group are expected to adopt the dominant culture of the host county 5/22/2023 29
- 30. Definition Cont… •Sociology studies of social rules and processes (changes) that bind and separate people not only as individuals, but as members of voluntary associations, professional bodies (e.g.NNAK), groups, and institutions. •Areas studied in sociology can range from the analysis of brief contacts between anonymous individuals on the street to the study of global social interaction. 5/22/2023 30
- 31. Definition: The word sociology was coined by French thinker Auguste Comte in 1838 (from Latin: socius, "companion"; and the suffix - ology, "the study of“). Sociology is thus defined as “the scientific study of society, including patterns of social relationships, social interaction, and culture 5/22/2023 31
- 32. SOCIOLOGY •Sociology is the study of social life, social change, and the social causes and consequences of human behaviour. •It includes culture passed down through generations And •Civilization which is associated with cities and being educated. 32 5/22/2023
- 33. ANTHROPOLOGY Definition: •Classification and analysis of humans and their society. •Includes: Descriptive Cultural Historical and Physical aspects of humankind. 5/22/2023 33
- 35. Cont… Defination;the study of human societies and cultures and their development Study of human biological and physiological characteristics and their evolution. Anthropology can be divided into: Physical, and Cultural anthropology. 5/22/2023 35
- 36. Sociology and anthropology SOCIOLOGY ANTHROPOLOGY SIZE DEALS WITH LARGE MODERN INDUSTRIALIZED SOCIETIES AS THE GROUP OF STUDY STUDIES PRIMITIVE, ILLITERATE, SIMPLE COMMUNITIES. TYPE OF STUDY ONLY STUDIES A PART OF THE LARGE SOCIETY STUDIES ALL SOCIAL INTERACTIONS AND RELATIONSHIPS WITHIN THE SMALL SOCIETAL GROUP 5/22/2023 36
- 37. Anthropology •It is the classification and analysis of humans and their society, descriptively, culturally, historically and physically •It relies on data from non literate people. 5/22/2023 37
- 38. Man and culture • Aristotle the ancient Greek philosopher declared long time ago that man I a social animal, he who does not need society should be either a beast or an angel! A man is a product of group life, it is the group that socializes him.it is the group life that will make a man a coward or a self sacrificing hero..a law abiding citizen or a criminal,it is this man-society relationship that forms the central theme of sociological inquiry. 5/22/2023 38
- 39. • The relationship between man and society is one of the most profound problems we have to tackle, it takes us to a more fundamental question of relation between the individual and society. The question is what do we owe each other? • 1.man depends on society Is observed that everyone breathe, live and work 5/22/2023 39
- 40. • like millions around them.in the society and individual is surrounded and encompassed by culture, a societal force, he conforms to norms, occupy statuses and play roles within the society. Social life is an intrinsic need for man.emotional,material and intellectual developments are impossible without society. • There two theories that explain the relationship between man and society 5/22/2023 40
- 41. • 1.the social contract theory. • 2.the organismic theory of society. • According to the social contract theory all men are born free and equal. Individuals precedes society. Society came into existence because of an agreement entered into by individuals. the main proponents of this theory are Thomashobbes,John locke and J Rousseau 5/22/2023 41
- 42. • A} thomas hobbes(1588-1679) he was an english thinker,he opined that society came into being as a means for the protection of men against the consequences of their own nature. He claims that man was solitary,poor,nasty,brutish and short. Man in his state of nature was not at all social, he says that all men were selfish,cunning,egoistic,brutal,as. 5/22/2023 42
- 43. • these things become intolerable men entered in to a contract to ensure security and certainty of life and property. The agreement was each for all and all for each. • B) john locke He was an english philosopher,he believed that man in his natural state enjoys liberty,freedom.but there was no sytem of law and justice.hence corruption and degeneration of man upset him. 5/22/2023 43
- 44. • There was an ill condition full of fears and continual danger,in order to get rid of this fear.man entered in to social social contract.this led to governmental contract in order to releive the ill condition. • J.J. Rousseau(1712-1778) ,a french writer in his book “the social contract” wrote that man in his state of nature was a “noble savage” he was leading a life of primitive simplicity and idyllic hapinness,he was unaware of wrongs and rights. 5/22/2023 44
- 45. • As populaion grew these things disapeared property institutionsdestroyed equality.man thought of mine and thine thuscame rich and rich led to war,conflict and murdes,this led to emergent of soiety according to him.. • TASK 1 Read about the criticism levelled against the social contact theory. -read about the organismic theory and its limitations. 5/22/2023 45
- 46. • Man lives as member of a social group,isolated he ceases to exist,we depend on society not livelihood,but for life itself society not only controls our movements but structures of society become the structures of our own consciousness • SOCIETY. Society is one of the most inclusive concepts in sociological literature. 5/22/2023 46
- 47. • Definations: • macIver and page,society is a sysstem of of usages and procedures of authority and mutual aid of many groupings and divisions of controls of human behavior and liberties,this complex system is the web of social relationships and its always changing. • G.D.H COLE, society is the complex of organized associations and instittions within community. 5/22/2023 47
- 48. • Proff.Gidding society is the union itself, the organization, the sum of formal relations in which associating individuals are bound together • Characteristics of a society 1.Society consists of people,without people there is no social relationships, no life at all. 2.interaction,its when the people in a group interact that they become a society 5/22/2023 48
- 49. • 3.society is a group of groups, it consists of various groups and subgroups, • 4.likeness or similarities, the principle of likeness is essential for society.it exists among those who resemble one another in some degree, in body and mind, likeness denote similarities. • 5.difference-society consists not only likeness it has differences, and these are on the basis of age,sex,religion,education,,occupation and variouss aspects. 5/22/2023 49
- 50. • 6.absract- society is intangible, we can only conceive it and understand its existence, society is not a thing but a process of associating. • 7.system of control-human behavior needs certain checks to keep it within certain limits, so that healthy social life is a continued. Society has its own way of social control. • 8.complex-society and human behavior are both complex 5/22/2023 50
- 51. • 9.cooperation and division of labour • 10.culture • 11.society is dynamic • 12.non human being too have society • 13.gregarious nature of man. • TASK : • Read about social groups and community 5/22/2023 51
- 52. • -definition of group, community • -elements of community • -difference btn society and community • -read about association • -characteristics of association • institution and its characteristics • Difference btn institution and association. 5/22/2023 52
- 53. SOCIALIZATION PROCESS • Socialization is the process of learning group norms, habits and ideals • the things that a child needs to know in order to function as a confirmed member of society. • The following factors are important in this process • 1.imitation-coping the acts of others, either consciously or unconsciously,spontanoeus or deliberate, through this a child learns social behavior patterns, children have great capacity to imitate they do it indiscriminately 5/22/2023 53
- 54. • 2.suggestion-this is a process of communication in which the suggested i.e. a is accepted without logical grounds a child lacks the ability to think and reason hence highly suggestible. • 3.identification-as the child grow they begin to identify with the people around them, and these are usually things that satisfy the child's need.as the child grows the areas of identification increases 5/22/2023 54
- 55. • 4.language-languge is the medium of expression ,in the beginning the child utters meaningless words but gradually the skill of language is acquired. Thus in the process of learning, language is important. • Phases or forms of socialization • 1.primary socialization 5/22/2023 55
- 56. • 2.anticipatory socialization • 3.Secondary socialization. • 4.developmental socialization • 5.re socialization • Primary socialization-takes place in infancy and childhood, it's the most crucial stage of socialization. The basic behavior pattern of a child is learnt at this stage. 5/22/2023 56
- 57. • The child internalizes many of the socially accepted values,attitudes,beleifs, and behavior patterns of his culture. This stagee has three sub stages • 1-the oral-where child builds up definite expectations about feeding time, and learns to signal pressing needs for care. • 2- the anal stage begins more or less after a year of infancy 5/22/2023 57
- 58. • Here the child is trained to take care of themselves such as toilet training. • 3-the oedipal stage begins roughly from the fourth year and goes up to puberty, all the roles prescribed according to sex are internalized by the child. The child identifies with the social roles. 5/22/2023 58
- 59. • Secondary socialization starts from the latter stage of childhood up to maturity. Socialization is a continuous process that takes place throughout the individuals life. • Anticipatory socialization, is learning that is described towards a persons future role anticipatory socialization makes the individual expect their own participation in a social situation by watching how others would behave in that situation. 5/22/2023 59
- 60. • Developmental socialization-as the individual grow he changes and moulds themselves according to the standards and the needs of the society.he identifies himself with the society,also 5/22/2023 60
- 61. 5/22/2023 61 • It is a process by which a person is introduced to be part of society into which one was born and learns its culture. •Primary socialization – learnt from parents and extended family on acceptable behaviour. •Secondary socialization – from peers(age mates ), school, neighbours and by watching adults. • other agents of socialization- the family, media such as Television, newsprint
- 62. Agents of socialisation • Family- primary • Social institutions- schools, religious organisations, government and hospitals • Peers, school friends and neighbours • Electronic and printed media- books, magz, journals, tv, radio, computer etc 5/22/2023 62
- 63. Aims of Socialisation: 1. To instil discipline (for example, don't walk in front of a moving car). 2. To develop aspirations and ambitions (for example, I want to be a nun, rock star, great sociologist). 3. To develop skills (for example, reading, driving and so on). 4. To enable the acquisition of social roles (for example, male, student and so on). 5/22/2023 63
- 64. Other forms of classification NaturalSocialisation PlannedSocialisation Naturalsocialisationoccurswheninfantsand youngstersexplore,playanddiscoverthesocialworld aroundthem. Plannedsocialisationoccurswhenotherpeopletakeactions designedtoteachortrainothers-frominfancyon. Naturalsocialisationiseasilyseenwhenlookingatthe youngofalmostanymammalianspecies(andsome birds). Plannedsocialisationismostlyahumanphenomenon;and allthroughhistory,peoplehavebeenmakingplansfor teachingortrainingothers. 5/22/2023 64
- 65. Positive socialisation is the type of social learning that is based on pleasurable and exciting experiences. We tend to like the people who fill our social learning processes with positive motivation, loving care, and rewarding opportunities. Negative socialisation occurs when others use punishment, harsh criticisms or anger to try to 'teach us a lesson'; and often we come to dislike both negative socialisation and the people who impose it on us. Deliberate socialisation refers to the socialisation process whereby, there is a deliberate and purposeful intent to convey values, attitudes, knowledge, skill and so on. Examples of deliberate socialisation include School situation and Parents telling a child to always say 'please' 5/22/2023 65
- 66. SOCIAL INSTITUTIONS • Institutions are organisations, or mechanisms of social structure, governing the behaviour of two or more individuals. 5/22/2023 66 • Institutions are organisations, or mechanisms of social structure, governing the behaviour of two or more individuals. • Social institutions are organs, which perform some of the functions that benefit society, for example, the government and schools
- 67. Social institutions The family Types- nuclear, extended, blended, single parent, child headed and composition Functions of the family – reproduction, sexual gratification, support, nurturing, educational, economic, spiritual Individual roles of each family member in health care provision Family in the changing society-fewer children, working mothers, increased life expectancy due to better health 67 5/22/2023
- 68. Family • This is the primary social group,it is the basic unit of human society.family is found in every society including the primitive ones,rural and even in urban areas.family is the cradle of socialization of the child. • Meaning • Family-elliot and merril-the biological ,social, unit composed of wife ,husband and children. 5/22/2023 68
- 69. • -durable asssociation of husband and wife with or without or of a mn or woamn alone,with children. • -is a group defined by a sex relationship sufficiently precise and enduring to provide for the procreation and upbringing of children. • -a set of persons related by blood.marriage or adoption who share the primary responsibility for reproduction and caring for members of society. 5/22/2023 69
- 70. characteristics There general and distinctive characteristics of the family. 1.The general characteristics of the family.. -a mating relationship: the whole existence of the family depends on mating,relationship either short term or long-term -a form of mariage-the relationship s established thru the institution of marriage.it may be 5/22/2023 70
- 71. monogamous or poly gamous. 1.A system of nomenclature 2.Economic provisions 3.A common habitation Read about the distinctive characteristics of the family 5/22/2023 71
- 72. Functions of the family • The functions are divided into primary and secondary functions • 1 essential or primary functions - a)stable satisfaction of sexual need;-sex gratification I the first essential function of a family,sex relations between husband and wife are regarded as legitimate by society.it also avoids uncertainty and sexual rivalry, it also develops sexual harmony and better personality adjustments. 5/22/2023 72
- 73. • B)procreation and rearing-a human child is unable to survive on its own after birth.it requires the help of its parent prolonged infancy. Family alone can lay basic foundation for the individual personality effectively. • C) provision of a home..-children are nurtured and brought up at homes, there is a strong desire felt by both men and women. even parents who work outside are dependent on homes 5/22/2023 73
- 74. • For comfort, protection and peace. Home sweet home. • D)socialization function-the family is the agent of socialization.thisis the process whereby one internalizes the norms of ones group so that a distinct self emerges,unique to the individual.the family indoctrine he child with he values,morals,beleifs, and ideals of the society. • E) Nurturing children 5/22/2023 74
- 75. • E)affection function-man has physically as well as mental needs.it is the family that provides the mental or emotional satisfaction. • Secondary functions of family. • A) economic functions-its an economic unit fulfilling the economic need of the family.but now due to industrializaion the centre has moved from family to factory. • B) Legal function 5/22/2023 75
- 76. • C)educational functions-the family provides the basis for the formal learning. inspite of the changes the family still gives the child his basic training in the social attitudes and habits which are important in participation in the society. • D)religious functions • E) recreational functions. 5/22/2023 76
- 77. Basic needs of the family. • The family being the most important social institution fulfills very vital needs such as: • -affection function -sex • -procreation -religion • -upbringing of the children -socialization A healthy family requires -healthy parents 5/22/2023 77
- 78. -healthy children -healthy children -good house -employment of parents -education of parent -healthy neighborhood -good recreation -standard of life. Good nutrition,interpersonl reltionships and environment as well as the need for family planning and family education.the family shuold be able to take care of the children ,adolescents 5/22/2023 78
- 79. • Youth,adults, and the aged. • The two broad ctegories of needs met by family includes • 1.physical needs-health,food,house,household amenities • 2.socio cultural-psychological needs- education,socialization,recreation,plus moral and spiritual needs. • Centripetal tendency. 5/22/2023 79
- 80. Types of families • 1.matriarchal • -mother centered or dominated family. The mother is the family head and exercises authority. She is the owner of the property and head of the household. All other members are subordinated to her. Its the earliest form of family. • They are common among the eskimos,some indian tribe. 5/22/2023 80
- 81. Characteristics of matriarchal family • -descent, heritance and succesion,traced through the mother, its matrilineal.daughters inherit the mothers property.they succeed their mothers and their sons • Matrilocal-this means after marriage the wife stays back in her mothers house. The husband pays occasional visits to the wife's house. He is only treated as a privileged visitor,he is only given a secondary position. 5/22/2023 81
- 82. • Exercise of power-mother exercises authority nd power in the family.she is the head of the family and her decisions are final. • The family structure.-it bringss together kinsmen from the wifes family,her mother ,grandma her children and bothers. This type of family is usually associated with exogamy. 5/22/2023 82
- 83. 2.Patriarchal family • This is also known as the father centered family or father dominated family. The father r the eldest man is the head of the family and he exercises authority. He is the owner and administrator f the family property. On all family matters his voice and opinion is final. • Characteristics -1.descent,inheritance and succession are recognized through the male line. 5/22/2023 83
- 84. • Patriarchal families are patrilineal in characters, because the descent is traced through the males line. Its only the male children who inherit property and in some instances the eldest son enjoys some special rights. We also succeeds his father after his death. Children are recognized as belonging to the father. 5/22/2023 84
- 85. • 2.residence-they are patrilocal in residence,sons continue to stay with the father in his own house even after their marriages. Only the wives come and join them. • 3.authority-the father and the eldest member of the family is the dominant member. He dictates the terms for other members and they are all subordinate to him. Its of note though that both patriarchal and matriarchal families are diminishing. 5/22/2023 85
- 86. • There is a new system of equalitarian families where the father and mother enjoy equal status and opportunities. 5/22/2023 86
- 87. Nuclear family. • This is the universal social phenomenon.it consists of the husband, wife, and heir children. Soon after their marriage the children leave their parental homes and establish their own separate households. the nuclear family is free from elders, since there is a physical distance between the parent and their children. A nuclear family is mostly independent since there is minimal interdependence with their parents. 5/22/2023 87
- 88. Functions of modern nuclear family • 1.stable satisfaction of sexual need-it’s the family that serves as the executive means of provision of the sexual needs through the institution of marriage. • 2.procreation and upbringing of children-the family is regarded as the proper authority to produce children and bring up children. This is because the family is the one equipped to bring up children and offer the right physical care. 5/22/2023 88
- 89. • 3.socialization of the children-the family remains as the main agent of socialization of the new child.the child develops a self and its personality mainly in the family.the child picks the social norms,values and ideals. • 4.provision of home.-the home is a happy place for both the parents and the children to live and grow.here affection,love and sympathy are found.. 5/22/2023 89
- 90. Recent trends in the modern nuclear family • The structure and functions of the family have changed in the last century. The family picture has been altered and affected by various factors includding, social,economic,educational,legal,cultural,scientific and technological. lets look at the specific causes. • 1. industrialization-with the industrial revolution in the 18th century the factories took the role of production and the family as a consumer. 5/22/2023 90
- 91. • 2.urbanization-this goes in hand with industrialization where cities grow in size and in number. Family is cut to size, they are the smallest and home ties weakest. Trends towards disorganization are set in motion. • 3.democratic ideals-democracy assures equality and provides liberty to all women now play not only domestic roles but also economic and political roles. they have become property 5/22/2023 91
- 92. • Owners and business managers. • 4.declining influence of mores and religious believes-religion and morality are slowly losing ground. Family members are more secular in outlook. The religious functions of he family have diminished. • 5.the spirit of individualism and romantic love-the spirit of individualism and romanticism have destroyed the family authority. 5/22/2023 92
- 93. • Romanticism have brought the idea of free choice of mate on the basis of love. Marriage has become easily dissoluble as it is started by just mutual consent. • 6.economic independence of women • 7.decline in birth rate • 8.divorce • 9.parental youth conflict • 10.provide better status for women. 5/22/2023 93
- 95. • SINGLE PARENT FAMILY • (SOURCE STANDARD NEWSPAPER) 95 5/22/2023
- 96. Institution of Marriage Types-civil, religious, monogamous, polygamy, polyandry, intermarriage, arranged child marriage, group marriage, trial marriage, wife inheritance ROLE OF MARRIAGE Companionship Promotes peace Legal recognition Financial security 96 5/22/2023
- 97. Social institutions •Political– manifestos which affect health of citizens. Political parties influence Govt policies. Trade unions lobby for better working conditions •Economic- cost sharing, national health budget, NGOs and CBOs, NHIF, medical insurance policies, improve health infrastructure 97 5/22/2023
- 98. Social institutions •Educational– secondary socialization, personal devt, custodial function, health included in curriculum for a healthy nation •Health care institutions-traditional medicine(herbs, magic, divination) • private hospitals ( offer quality care) • public hospitals hospitals( Level 2-5 h) Have high level of expertise & variety of services 98 5/22/2023
- 99. Social institutions •Religious– mosques, churches, temples, mountains • Role-uphold beliefs , reduction of stress, unity of group members, improving morals, offer comfort and support to members, restores faith • faith based organizations e.g mission hospitals , CHAK, Catholic secretariat in provision of health services 99 5/22/2023
- 100. Social mobility • The ability to move up or down the social level • The amount of mobility in a society depends on two factors: • i.The rules governing how people gain or keep their position may make mobility difficult or easy • Ii.Structural changes in society 5/22/2023 100
- 101. Types of Social Mobility • Vertical Social Mobility • This refers to the ability of the individual to move up the social ladder, thereby raising their social status and role.eg a nurse moving from KRCHN to a professor in nursing 5/22/2023 101
- 102. • Horizontal Social Mobility • This refers to the type of social mobility where the individual maintains the same status • For example a general nurse who trains as a midwife but has no change in salary. This nurse maintains the same status although their role may have changed 5/22/2023 102
- 103. • Other types of social mobility • - structural • - exchange mobility 5/22/2023 103
- 104. Factors that can affect the individual's chances of moving up the social ladder • Community Size • Number of Siblings • Mother Dominance • Late Marriage • Few Children • Discuss how this factors affect social mobility?? 5/22/2023 104
- 105. The Concept of Social Mobilisation • Social mobilisation is an approach and tool that enables people to organise for collective action, by pooling resources and building solidarity required to resolve common problems and work towards community advancement. 5/22/2023 105
- 106. • It empowers women and men to organise their own democratically self-governing groups or community organisations which enable them to initiate and control their own personal and communal development, as opposed to mere participation in an initiative designed by the government or an external organisation 5/22/2023 106
- 107. The Key Elements of Social Mobilisation Organisational Development • Organisational development is a process in which community members and, especially the poor, form their own groups or organisations based on common development interests and needs that are best served by organising themselves as a group. 5/22/2023 107
- 108. • Capital Formation for Development through Community Savings • Capital formation (through mobilisation of savings) enhances a community organisation's power to realise its full potential. 'Savings generated by individual members are the assets of the community organisation and are the first step towards their self-reliance' (Pandey 2002). • Accumulated savings can be used for internal credit with interest, to enable individual members to engage in income generation activities whilst at the same time, accumulating the organisation's capital base. 5/22/2023 108
- 109. • Training for Human Resource Development • Community members can maximise their potential not only by organising themselves but also by upgrading their existing skills to better manage new inputs and establish effective links with local government and other actors. 5/22/2023 109
- 110. • Socio-economic Development • Socio-economic development initiatives are a great incentive for community members to organise themselves. 5/22/2023 110
- 111. The Benefits of Social Mobilisation • Poverty Alleviation • Promoting Democratic Governance • Environmental conservation • Conflict Prevention • Others? 5/22/2023 111
- 112. Cultural beliefs, practices, social changes and effects on health What is culture? • Explain Any food taboos that are practiced in your culture • How did people get treatment in your culture • Identify cultural practices which improved health • Describe any practices which have a negative effect on health 112 5/22/2023
- 113. What is culture? It is group of socially transmitted: • Behaviour patterns, • Values, • Arts, • Beliefs • Symbols • And all products of human works & thought. 113 5/22/2023
- 114. culture • Artifacts Daily Nation newspaper 114 5/22/2023
- 115. The two components of culture are: Non-material culture - these are things that are observed through the behaviour of societal members. Material culture - these are the physical things in society.eg type of clothing, ornaments, types of houses four various forms of non-material culture, they are listed below. Language, mores, norms and laws 5/22/2023 115
- 116. Cultural practices & beliefs •A belief is a personal conviction. •It may relate to: •Food taboos •Breastfeeding •Bottle-feeding •Pregnancy •Marriage •How do these affect the health of the society you live in? 116 5/22/2023
- 117. Elements of Culture (Paradigm=Model) 117 5/22/2023
- 118. ;Material life Language Social interactions Religion Education Values The main characteristics of culture are that: It is learned It is shared It is an adaptation It is a dynamic system changing constantly 5/22/2023 118
- 119. Rural urban migration What are its health effects on country The family Individual community 119 5/22/2023
- 120. SOCIAL CHANGE • This is the transformation of culture and social institutions over time e.g. coming in contact with Europeans led to change in health seeking behaviour. social Changes affecting health are: education • Population growth • Industrialisation • Nutrition – adopting refined foods 5/22/2023 120
- 121. Social change • The law of nature is change.sociaetyi is not a static phenomenon it is a dynamic entity.chnage has ocurd in all societies and t all times.chng is any observable difference or alteration in any phenomenon over period of time. • Definitions: • ;-social change is any alteration that occur in social organization that is the structure and functions of society. 5/22/2023 121
- 122. • -variations or modifications in any aspect of social process, pattern or form. • Characteristics of social change • -social change is a universal phenomenon:-no society remains ompletely static.changes hpens in all aspects including the population,technologoes,material eequipment,institutional structures and functions undergo reshaping. 5/22/2023 122
- 123. • The speed of change differs from society to society • -social change is community change-it is social and not individual • -speed of social change is not uniform-social change occurs in all societies the speed varies, in some its fast in others its slow. • -it occurs as an essential law of nature. 5/22/2023 123
- 124. • -the nature and speed of social change is affected by and related to time factor • -it shows chain reaction sequence-society being made up of interrelated parts. Hence change in one reacts in others until he whole system changes • -definite prediction of social change is not possible- 5/22/2023 124
- 125. • -it is a form of replacement • -results from the interaction of a number of factors. • Factors of social change • 1.geographical factor • 2.biological factor • 3.technological factor • 4.cultural factors 5/22/2023 125
- 126. geographical /physical ones includes, changes in the planet, like earthquakes,famine,floods,volcanoes Biological ones includes-these includes heredity, selection of the qualities, social attitudes and interests as sex relations,mariage and racial intermixes. Technological factors include-rise to economic istitutions,,social institutions,social values. 5/22/2023 126
- 127. • Cultural factors-there is the material culture and non material culture-a CHANGE IN ONE AFFECTS THE OTHER ONE. 5/22/2023 127
- 128. Theories of social change Evolution and Differentiation Early sociologists were concerned chiefly with the origins of society and the transformations necessary to reach the type of society that people are now experiencing. Since Darwin's ideas of biological evolution were gaining acceptance at this time, the theory of societal evolution also became popular. Theories of structural differentiation take humankind somewhat further than the evolutionism from which they are derived. The basic idea is that as societies develop, they become characterised by increased separation and specialisation. Equilibrium and Conflict The equilibrium and conflict theory maintains that the basic function of any society is to maintain equilibrium (stability, order) and eliminate conflicts that may arise in the process of change. Conflict may arise mainly during the process of adjustment to forced change, when consensus is imperfect or among people who were inadequately socialised so that they do not fully share the consensus of the majority. The equilibrium theory is better for explaining gradual, long-term change such as the Industrial Revolution and changes applying to the society as a whole, than in accounting for the more sudden political revolution and smaller endogenous changes where conflict often plays an obvious part. Modernisation The modernisation theory assumes that change is synonymous with improvement of social conditions, for the benefit of societies. Modernisation is the process by which agricultural societies were transformed into industrial societies. Modernisation theorists tend to see only the front end of the process of social change (what the modern society should look like) and ignore the traditional end of the process. Nevertheless, some attention must be given to modernisation theories because they are so prevalent and because they alert us to ways of examining long-term change. 5/22/2023 128
- 129. HOW TO INITIATE SOCIAL CHANGE 5/22/2023 129
- 130. Types of social change • Evolution • The term evolution refers to slow or gradual change, which occurs with very low human effort, with almost unnoticeable changes in social structure. Examples are language, marriage patterns, child rearing practices and so on. • Revolution • This term refers to a rapid and deliberate change, which can radically change a society's way of doing things. Revolutions are planned for a specific purpose and are initiated by direct human action. For example, the Russian revolution and in East Africa, the Ugandan revolution that brought a new political system under President Idi Amin. • • Reform • This term refers to a deliberate effort by humans to alter the society's way of doing things. Reforms apply lesser force than revolutions and their effects are much more extensive than revolution. An example is the changes that occurred when Kenya's educational system switched from the 7-4-2 to the 8-4-4 system of education. These changes have influenced the whole education institution in this country so that all institutions of higher learning have had to re-do their curriculum. In addition, other colleges and universities, which accepted Kenyan students based on the old 7-4-2 system, have also re-adjusted their entry requirements to cater for the new system. You must have noticed this widespread type of social change. 5/22/2023 130
- 131. Process of change • Diffusion • Innovation • Inventions • Discovery 5/22/2023 131
- 132. Basic steps of implementing change 5/22/2023 132
- 133. SOCIAL STRATIFICATION • It is process which ranks members of society according to wealth, prestige, power, sex, age and ethnic origin • In African societies, members are ranked according to sex, age, ethnic origin and occupation (Peil 1977). Status may be: ascribed/born with e.g Prince Achieved/acquired.eg President 5/22/2023 133
- 134. Social stratification • Stratification is the process by which the individuals and groups are ranked more or less enduring hierarchy of status. • Difference is the law of nature., every society is stratified in one way or the other.no two individuals are exactly alike.diverstity and inequality are inherent in every society. Hence human society is stratified everywhere. 5/22/2023 134
- 135. The Conflict Theory of Stratification draws largely on the writings of Karl Marx, he saw society as divided into two major groups (capitalists and proletarians or workers) who are inevitably in conflict. Whereas Marx was particularly concerned only with the economic or market hierarchy, which he termed class, Max Weber suggested that people are also stratified according to status (prestige or lifestyle) and power. These three hierarchies may be closely related, but this is not necessarily so. Marx assumed that those with a high economic position would also have power, but rich businessmen often have less power than higher civil servants on moderate salaries; clergymen and teachers usually have higher status than either wealth or power - though this was more likely some time back. 5/22/2023 135
- 136. Characteristics of social stratification. • Its social-biological traits do not determine social superiority or inferiority until they are socially recognized and given importance. For example a manager is chosen on the basis of their education,training,skills,experience and personality. • Its universal-the difference between rich and poor is found everywhere 5/22/2023 136
- 137. • Stratification is ancient-it has been around for ages- • Its diverse in its form-its not uniform,it differs from region to region • Its consequential-these are life chances and life styles. Chances refers to thins like,infant mortality,physicl and mental illness,longevity,divorce,disertion.life chances are not voluntary 5/22/2023 137
- 138. • Lifestyles are,mode of houses,education,recreation means,relationship between parents and children • Functions of stratification • -provides for the placement and motivation of individuals to effect he performance of their necessary social duties. 5/22/2023 138
- 139. • -provides a system of rewards and inducements to members for carrying for carrying out various duties associated with various posts • The rewards usually economic,prestige,leisure are built into the social positions so that being unequal they result in inequality of positions. • Stratification sets apart the various positions of 5/22/2023 139
- 140. • A society in a hierarchy of statuses levels that regulate the relationship between the people within a society. 5/22/2023 140
- 141. peace building and conflict resolution The learners will be able to : • Define conflict • Identify factors that contribute to conflict • state the values of conflict • Discuss types of conflicts • Explain causes of conflict • Discuss Conflict resolution • Outline the negotiation process 141 5/22/2023
- 142. Peace and conflict resolution • peace – state of harmony. It is the presence of cultural and economic understanding and unity • Conflict resolution- process that includes negotiation, mediation, diplomacy and creative peace building. Formal complaint through an ombudsman resolves disputes 142 5/22/2023
- 143. What is conflict? • Stephen Robbins states that conflict “refers to all kinds of opposition or antagonistic interaction. It is based on scarcity of power, resources or social positions, and differing value structures.” • According to Prowler conflict is defined as a fight, struggle with others or groups also as a collision or clashing of opposed principles 143 5/22/2023
- 144. Values of a conflict • Spotlights problems that require attention • Forces clarification • Forces leaders to look for solutions • Stimulates interest and curiosity • Creates new ideas • Many improve practice and standards • May foster better working relationships • Forces leaders to consider alternative view • May foster creativity 144 5/22/2023
- 145. Factors that contribute to conflict • During the process of adjustment to forced change • When various groups are not in agreement • When some society groups feel left out when change is being implemented 145 5/22/2023
- 146. Causes of conflicts • Gender conflict • Different expectations or role pressures • Divergent goals • Self esteem or status threat • Personality clashes • Insufficient resources • An individual or group trying to control the other 146 5/22/2023
- 147. Conflict can be healthy when used • To understand • To clarify expectations and roles • To strengthen relationship • Conflict is more a sign of a group’s health than a symptom of disease. Indifference threatens the growth o f a relationship more than conflict 147 5/22/2023
- 148. Destructive conflict can lead to: • Slowing down of the decision making process • Hostility between individuals/groups • Poor communication by deliberately withholding information • Destruction of emotional and physical wellbeing • Psychosomatic disorders e.g. anxiety, stress and burnout • Substance abuse as a means of escaping stressful situations 148 5/22/2023
- 149. Destructive conflict can lead to • Transfers or resignations • Waste of time and resources trying to resolve conflict • No flexibility or cooperation among staff • The “US” and “THEM” situation • Unresolved problems etc 149 5/22/2023
- 150. TYPES OF CONFLICTS INTRA PERSONAL • Conflict between oneself e.g. • Medical staff have many roles such as -Manager, teacher, counselor, researcher, care giver etc -Has to collaborate with other members of the health team -Conflicts can occur due to work overload creating conflicting priorities 150 5/22/2023
- 151. Types of conflict ct INTERPERSONAL • Involves two or more persons who have differing attitudes, goals or behavior • INTRA GROUP -Involves some or all group members affecting their performance • INTER GROUP- Clashes between groups • INTER ORGANIZATIONAL CONFLICTS • between organizations 151 5/22/2023
- 152. Ways of resolving conflicts at a government level • Appointing a commission • Elections to change the leaders • Meeting with concerned persons. 5/22/2023 152
- 153. The negotiation process • Has 3 phases- • The information- understand the problem • The competitive – get the best possible deal • The cooperative phase- focus on joint interest of both parties 153 5/22/2023
- 154. Conflict resolution styles • Fight In a fight, two or more people are aggressive with one another. Fighting can be done with words, weapons or fists. Following a battle of some description there will be a winner and a loser, or both may lose. • Flight In a flight situation, one party walks away from the conflict. The problem is left unresolved and there may be a winner and a loser. Common 'flight' language includes 'never mind', 'just forget it' and 'whatever'. • Flow In a flow situation both people walk away from the conflict satisfied with the solution which they have reached together. Conflict resolution encourages everyone to 'go with the flow' and create solutions! 5/22/2023 154
- 155. Skills needed to resolve conflict peacefully • Be an active listener • Look and listen to the other persons feelings • Look for anger cues and triggers • Maintain good eye contact • Use a calm voice • Make sure you have cooled down before trying to work out things 155 5/22/2023
- 156. Conflict resolution techniques AVOIDING • A conflict management technique in which the individual don’t say anything to their partner .They avoid arguments altogether. ACCOMODATING. • An unassertive cooperation tactic used in conflict management when individuals neglect their own concerns in favour of others concerns. SUPPRESION • A technique used to manage conflict in which one party is eliminated through transfer or termination. 156 5/22/2023
- 157. Conflict management techniques WITHDRAWAL • The removal of at least one party from the conflict, making it impossible to resolve the situation. SMOOTHING • Managing conflict by complimenting one’s opponent, downplaying differences and focusing on minor areas of agreement. FORCING • A conflict management technique that forces an immediate end to conflict but leaves the cause unresolved. 157 5/22/2023
- 158. CONFLICT RESOLUTION -OPTIONS WIN – WIN Both parties apply problem solving techniques to resolve differences. /COLLABORATION • All parties work together to solve a problem. LOSE – LOSE • On attempt to compromise both parties lose some face but neither has lost to the other./ COMPROMISE- rewards are divided between both parties. WIN - LOSE • One party feels cheated/devalued at the expense of the other. CONCENSUS • A conflict strategy in which a solution that meets everyone’s needs COMPETING • An all out effort to win, regardless of the cost. 158 5/22/2023
- 159. COUNSELING • This is a process of enabling individuals to know themselves and their current situation and possible future situations in order that they make substantial contributions to the society and to solve his own problems through a face to face personal relationship with the counselor. • Defination: • An acccepting,trusting and safe relationship 5/22/2023 159
- 160. • In which clients learn to discuss openly what worries and upsets them, to define precise behavior goals to acquire esssential social skills and to develop the courage and self confidence to implement desired new behaviors. • A professional guidance in resolving personal conflicts and emotional problems. 5/22/2023 160
- 161. Principles of counselling • Respect-the ability of the counselor lies in communicating to the client the belief that every person posses an inherent strength and capacity, the right to choose their own alternatives and make own decisions • Authenticity- counselors should posses genuineness, honesty,and simplicity and avoid superiority feeling. 5/22/2023 161
- 162. • Non possessive warmth-demonstration of concern,interest,and value for others and a deep concern for the well being of other person. • Non judgmental attitude-avoid bias making assumptions or judgment client. • Accurate understanding of the client-precise evaluation of the perceptual and cognitive behavior of the individual. 5/22/2023 162
- 163. • Recognizing the clients potential-recognize the strength and abilities of the client. • Confidentiality-maintain confidentiality and develop trust. Avoid revealing clients identity, personal details, and other information without consent. 5/22/2023 163
- 164. Types of counseling. • 1.individual counseling- • This is a one to one helping relationship between the counselor and the counseled. • It focuses on an individuals need for growth and adjustiment,problem solving, and decision making. This requires highly trained and skilled counselors .it also requires certain personality traits that exhibit understanding, 5/22/2023 164
- 165. • Warmth,humanes and positive attitude towards the client. • Group counseling-its used for individuals who haven't responded well to the individual counseling. The group interaction helps the individuals to gain insight into his problems by listening to others discussing their difficulties. Group counseling not only helps the individual to change. 5/22/2023 165
- 166. • It also enhances his desire and ability to help others faced with distressing life circumstances. • Phases of counseling. 1.Appointment and establishing relationship 2.Asssesment 6.termination and follow up 3.Diagnosis 4.Setting goals 5intervention 5/22/2023 166
- 167. • Appointment and establishing-fix appointment according to the convenience of the counselee. the counselor should take all possible efforts to establish rapport and build relationship of confidence, trust and mutual appreciation.it helps the client to express himself without inhibitions and resistance. • Asssesment-this is the data collection phase, 5/22/2023 167
- 168. • Analysis of data and clarification of expectations. The counselee is encouraged to talk about his problems and ventilate his feelings, whereas the counselor asks questions,colletcs information,observes and possibly helps the counselee to clearly state his problem. 5/22/2023 168
- 169. • Diagnosis-the counselor diagnose the problem of the individual and decides he areas of intervention. • Setting goals-the counselor explains to the individual what is possible, the set goals provides a direction to the counselee and counselor. Goals may be immediate ,short term or long term. Short term goals lead to attainment of long-term goals. 5/22/2023 169
- 170. • Intervention-explain to the individual how the set goals can be achieved. The interventions employed will depend upon the technique used by the counselor. The main aspect in this phase includes developing insight and putting it to work. This process of clarifying and gaining insights leads to decision making and planning courses of action. However the individual alone is responsible for the decisions they make. 5/22/2023 170
- 171. • Termination and follow up-successful termination is a an important aspect of counseling it should be done without destroying the achievements gained and should be done in a phased manner covering few sessions.this will prevent the development of a feeling of sense of loss in the counselee. Follow up appointments, planning for the next sessions if needed should also be carried out. 5/22/2023 171
- 172. Attributes and skills required for a consellor. • Pre training attributes:a person with awreness of needs,feelings,personal strengths,and weaknesses acts as a good counselor • sensitivity –the abilty to udersand an individual acts as a good counsellor. • Open mindedness • Objectivity • Trustworthiliness 5/22/2023 172
- 173. • Approachability, be friendly, have positive attitude, about others and approachable without a feeling of apprehension. • Good psychological health. • Guidelines for successful counseling. • A very careful scheduling of the counseling sessions should be done.make appointmets to save time 5/22/2023 173
- 174. • Provide privacy and maintain confidentiality • Know the client before he/she comes for the session,gather data from different sources Know your own personality ,this prevents your opinions or attitudes from afecting the objectivity of your perception of clients problem -be a good listener 5/22/2023 174
- 175. Techniques or approaches to counseling. • There three approaches to counseling based on the nature of the counseling process and the role of the counselor. • 1.directive • 2.non directive • 3.Eclectic counseling Directive or counselor centered counseling-here the counselor is active and directs the individual in 5/22/2023 175
- 176. • Making decisions and finding solutions to problems.the counselor does nt forcethe individual but directs the process of thinking of counselee by informing,explaining,interpreting,and advising. However the decision has to be made by the counselee. • Non directive counseling- here the counselee is 5/22/2023 176
- 177. • Is guided to use his own inner resources to solve the problem.in this approach, the counselee plays a predominant role. • Eclectic-the strategy arises out of the appropriate knowledge of individual behavior and a combination of directive and other approaches. Irrespective of the differences, all approaches should have developmental, preventive and remedial values. 5/22/2023 177
- 178. Areas of counseling. • Counseling about risks: It involves giving information about a problem -provide an opportunity for reflection Help to work out ways of reducing this impact -Counseling to relieve stress -interpersonal counseling-focused on change in life events, sources of persistent distress in the family or place 5/22/2023 178
- 179. • Marriage guidance and counseling-this is directed towards helping couples to talk constructively about problems in their relationship,understand each others point of view and to identify positive aspects of the relationship, as well as those causing conflicts • Bereavement counseling- focuses on working through the stages of grief,i.e denial,extreme sadness,coming to terms with the loss. 5/22/2023 179
- 180. • Problem solving counseling-the client is helped to do the following- • List problems causing distress • Consider course of action to solve each problem • Select on problem and try out the course of action that appear most practical • Review the results • Choose another problem for action if the first 5/22/2023 180
- 181. • Succeeds • Choose another course of action, if the first has not succeeded. • Crisis intervention-helps individuals adapt to immediate effect of severe life events.while acquiring better ways of deleaing with future stressful circumstances.these includes,rape,divorce,unexpected bereavement,natural disaters. 5/22/2023 181
- 182. Purpose of guidance and counseling • Aid the individual in identification of his abilities,aptitudes,interests and attitudes • Assisting the individual to understand, accept and utilize these traits • Help one recognize their aspirations in the light of his traits • Provide the individual with the opportunities for learning areas of occupation and educational endeavors. 5/22/2023 182
- 183. • Aid the individual in the development of value senses. • Help the develop his potential to their optimum • Assist the individual in obtaining experience, which will assist him in the making of free and wise choices. • Aid the individual in becoming more self driven. 5/22/2023 183
- 184. • The GATHER approach to Conseling entails • Greet-the person • Ask-ask how can I help you • Tell –tell them any relevant information • Help-help them to make decisions • Explain-explain any misunderstanding • Return-return for follow up or referral. 5/22/2023 184
- 185. • SOLER • S-sit squarely • O-open posture • L-lean forward • E-eye contact • R-relax 5/22/2023 185
- 186. The end •Work hard Thank you •And prepare for exams revise 186 5/22/2023