Best Practices in Quantitative Cross-Cultural Research (updated in March 2011)
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The document discusses best practices in quantitative cross-cultural research, focusing on influential models by Hofstede, Trompenaars, and Schwartz. It critiques Hofstede's model for ignoring within-country cultural diversity and emphasizes the need for comprehensive measurement of cultural dimensions. Additionally, it outlines research methodologies, including factor analysis and social dilemma, and highlights the importance of intercultural sensitivity in business leadership.
Best Practices in Quantitative Cross-Cultural Research (updated in March 2011)
- 1. Hangzhou, March 2011 Prof. Dr. Hora Tjitra, Zhejiang University Best Practices in Cross-Cultural Research Quantitative Research Methodologies (6/6)
- 2. Building the Global Competence for Asian Leaders Three Classical Comparative Studies in Cross-Cultural Management and Psychology 2 Hofstede (1984) Trompenaars & Hampden-Turner (1997) Schwartz (1999) • Culture is the collective programming of the mind which distinguishes the members of one category of people from another (Hofstede,1984) . • Clearly,Hofstede’s cultural framework has provided the catalyst for many studies throughout the social sciences,and has helped shape marketing thought.(Jeffrey Blodgett & Aysen Bakir & Gregory Rose, 2008). • However Hofstede model ignores the existence of substantial within-country cultural heterogeneity,his measures are not valid,and culture changes over time rather than being static as suggested by the dimensions (e.g.,Sivakumar & Nakata, 2001). • Trompenaars & Hampden-Turner(1997) believed cultures can be distinguished according to solutions chosen for specific problems,then have developed a model of culture with seven dimensions. • Contrary to the approaches of Hall and Hofstede,Trompenaars and Hampden- Turner do not focus on interaction or cultural status quo only,but mix the two areas,coming up with advice for intercultural business situations next to classifying specific cultures. • However Trompenaars and Hampden- Turner‘s research was criticized from several perspectives,research sample, methodology,and no database (Hofstede,1996). • Schwartz (1999) define values as conceptions of the desirable that guide the way social actors (e.g.organizational leaders,policy-makers,individual persons) select actions,evaluate people and events,and explain their actions and evaluations. • The seven value types are postulated to form three bipolar dimensions that express the contradictions between the alternative resolutions to each of the three issues just described:Autonomy versus Conservatism,Hierarchy versus Egalitarianism,Mastery versus Harmony. • Many of the respective studies have been influenced by Schwartz’(1992) values theory.Following his theoretical reasoning,values can be classified according to their motivational content. (Wolfgang Bilsky,2004) .
- 3. Best Prac*ces in Quan*ta*ve Cross-‐Cultural Research 3 14 years in Germany 7 years in China Born and grew up in Indonesia Prof.Dr.Hora Tjitra - Cross-cultural and Business Psychology Dipl.-Psych.,Technical University of Braunschweig Organizational Psychology and Human Resource Management Dr.Phil.,University of Regensburg Intercultural Psychology and Strategic Management Executive Education,INSEAD HR Management in Asia
- 4. Best Prac*ces in Quan*ta*ve Cross-‐Cultural Research Outline 1 Hofstede - Factor Analysis 5 2 Trompenaars - Social Dilemma 8 3 Schwartz - Small Space Analysis 15 4 Bennet - Intercultural Development Inventory 22 5 Process Model of Quantitative Research 28 4
- 5. The Classical Cross-Cultural Value Study: The Five Hofstede Cultural Dimensions Building the Global Competence for Asian Leaders 5 Long – Short Term Orientation Uncertainty Avoidance Quantity-Quality of life Power Distance Hofstede Cultural Dimensions Individualism – Collectivism • Conducted between 1968 and 1972 • Respondents were 117.000 employees of IBM in 53 countries • Using Factor Analysis
- 6. Best Prac*ces in Quan*ta*ve Cross-‐Cultural Research 6 Hofstede’s Methods and Research Question • What are the components of culture, a small set of dimensions or characteris3cs, that enable us to classify culture-‐in-‐the-‐large (at a na3onal level)? And do na3ons differ and can they be clustered into culturally-‐similar na3ons? • What he didn’t ask: Can we capture culture in a small set of dimensions? Is culture stable? Is it a characteristic of individuals? Do people enact culture or have it set on them? • Late 60s, ques,onnaires were distributed to thousands of IBM employees worldwide • The results were subjected to factor analysis • Questions were based on prior work on culture by Inkeles and Levinson (a sociologist and psychologist) • They answered the questions about work modes, methods, and meanings on desirable and desired situations and characteristics
- 7. Best Prac*ces in Quan*ta*ve Cross-‐Cultural Research 7 Some Results of the Study
- 8. Building the Global Competence for Asian Leaders The Seven Dimensions of Trompenaars 8 Neutral versus Emotional Universalism versus Particularism Individualism versus Communitarianism Specific versus Diffuse Achievement versus Ascription Sequential versus Synchronic Internal versus External Control 1 2 7 6 5 4 3
- 9. Best Prac*ces in Quan*ta*ve Cross-‐Cultural Research 9 Research Methods: Social dilemma Social Dilemma, a dilemma or paradox that commonly results from Collec,ve Ac,on. The Prisoner's Dilemma( PD): is a short parable about two prisoners who are individually offered a chance to rat on each other for which the "raEer" would receive a lighter sentence and the "raEee" would receive a harsher sentence. The problem results from the fact that both can play this game and if both do, then both do worse than they would had they kept silent.
- 10. Best Prac*ces in Quan*ta*ve Cross-‐Cultural Research 10 Universalism and Particularism in different countries The story of Stouffer and Toby Switzerland Canada USA Sweden United Kingdom Australia Netherlands Germany Czech Rap France Sigapore Japan India China Russia Korea Venezuela 97 93 93 92 91 91 90 87 83 73 69 68 54 47 44 37 32 Friends has no/some right and would not to help
- 11. Best Prac*ces in Quan*ta*ve Cross-‐Cultural Research 11 Universalism VS Particularism Consistency Systems, standards&rules Uniform procedures Demand clarity Universalism（普遍主义） 1 2 Particularism（特殊主义） Flexibility Pragmatic(重实效的） Make exceptions "It depends" At ease with ambiguity
- 12. Best Prac*ces in Quan*ta*ve Cross-‐Cultural Research 12 Specific VS Diffuse Public Public Specific Relationship （专一型关系） Private Private Diffuse Relationship （扩散型关系） Public Danger Zone Private Private
- 13. Best Prac*ces in Quan*ta*ve Cross-‐Cultural Research 13 Achievement VS Ascription What You Do Who You Are STATUS Family Age Sex Education
- 14. Best Prac*ces in Quan*ta*ve Cross-‐Cultural Research 14 The result of time orientation in different countries USA JPN UK FRA SPA GER Think of the past, present and future as being in the shape of circles.Please draw three circles represententing past, present and future.Arrange these circles in any way you want that best show how you feel about the relationship of the past, present and the future. You may use defferent size circles.
- 15. Best Prac*ces in Quan*ta*ve Cross-‐Cultural Research 15 Cross-cultural studies on basic human values by the Israelis Psychologist Shalom Schwartz •Text •Text • 1988-‐1992 • 86 samples drawn from 41cultural group in 38 na<ons • Smallest space analysis Individual- level analyses Culture-level analyses individual- level culture model Country- level culture model
- 16. Best Prac*ces in Quan*ta*ve Cross-‐Cultural Research 16 Research method: Smallest space analysis (SSA) The most basic form of MDS, mul3dimensional scaling, represent empirical rela3onships in a set of data as points in space with the aim of making aspects of the data that may be obscured in the original matrix more apparent. The use of MDS is par3cularly favored as, unlike factor analysis, it makes no assump3on that the dimensions or structures are linear. The SSA procedure begins by calcula3ng the associa3on coefficients between pairs of items or variables. It then represents the items as points in an n-‐dimensional Euclidean space such that the rank of the distances between the points is the inverse of the rank of the inter-‐item associa3on coefficients. Thus, the closer together two points are in the space, the higher their posi3ve associa3on or greater their similarity.
- 17. Best Prac*ces in Quan*ta*ve Cross-‐Cultural Research 17 Universalism Schwartz’s individual-level model wisdom World of beautyUnity with nature Broadminded v Equality Protec;ng environment Inner r harmony Social jus;ce World at peace True friendship responsible Loyal Mature love Meaning in life helpful honest Forgiving Spiritual life Benevolence Obedient Politeness Self-‐discipline Honor parents conformity Detachment Humble Devout Respect for tradi;on Moderate Accep;ng por;on in life Tradition healthy Family security Social order Clean Reciproca;on of favors Sense of belonging Na;onal security Security Social recogni;on Preserving public image wealth Authority Social power Power Intelligent Capable successful Ambi;ous Influen;al Achievement Pleasure Enjoying life Hedonism Varied life Exi;ng life Daring Stimulation Self-‐respect Choosing own goals Crea;vity Curious Independent Freedom Self-direction
- 18. Best Prac*ces in Quan*ta*ve Cross-‐Cultural Research 18 The Ten Dimensions power Social status and pres3ge, control or dominance over people and resources Achievement Personal success through demonstra3ng competence according to social standards Hedonism Pleasure and sensuous gra3fica3on for oneself Stimulation Excitement, novelty, and challenge in life Self-direction Independent thought and ac3on choosing, crea3ng, and exploring Universalism Understanding, apprecia3on, tolerance, and protec3on for the welfare of all people and for the nature Benevolence Preserva3on and enhancement of the welfare of people with whom one is in frequent personal contact Tradition Respect for/commitment to/acceptance of the customs and ideas that tradi3onal culture or religion imposes on the self Conformity Restraint of ac3ons/inclina3ons/impulses likely to upset or harm others and to violate social expecta3ons or norms Security Safety, harmony, and stability of society, of rela3onship and of self
- 19. Building the Global Competence for Asian Leaders Schwartz’s Country-Level Seven-Dimension Model 19 Harmony Conserva-sm Egalitarian commitment Intellectual autonomy Affec-ve autonomy Mastery Hierarchy Intellectual Autonomy Affective Autonomy Hierarchy Egalitarianism Mastery Harmony Conservatism Emphasizes maintaining the status quo,propriety,and restraint of actions or inclinations Emphasizes the desirability of individuals pursuing their own their own ideas and intellectual directions independently Emphasizes the desirability of individuals pursuing affectively positive experience Emphasized transcendence of selfish interests in favor of voluntary commitment to promoting the welfare of others Emphasized transcendence of selfish interests in favor of voluntary commitment to promoting the welfare of others Emphasizes getting ahead through active self-assertion Emphasizes fitting harmoniously into the environment
- 20. Best Prac*ces in Quan*ta*ve Cross-‐Cultural Research 20 Mean importance of Culture-level value dimensions in some countries Conserva<sm Affec<ve Autonomy Intellectual Autonomy Hierarchy Mastery Egalitarian Commitmen t Harmony Highest Israel-‐Druze France Switzerland (Fr) China China Portugal Italy China 3.97 (21) 3.32 (20) 4.27 (15) 3.70 (1) 4.73 (1) 4.49 (33) 3.71 (28) Germany 3.42 (33) 4.03 (4) 4.75 (5) 2.27 (23) 4.07 (22) 5.37 (7) 4.42 (10) USA 3.90 (23) 3.65 (11) 4.20 (16) 2.39 (19) 4.34 (5) 5.03 (14) 3.70 (29) Israel-Jews 4.08 (16) 3.62 (13) 4.31 (14) 2.69 (14) 4.06 (23) 4.78 (29) 3.01 (36) Lowest Switzerland (Fr) Slovakia Singapore Italy Finland Thailand Isra_Jews
- 21. Best Prac*ces in Quan*ta*ve Cross-‐Cultural Research 21 Lessons Learned from the Schwart’s National Level Value Studies His data do not support a view of the United States as a highly individualist nation Samples from Western European nations are the most individualist nations China is not a prototypical collectivist society and the notion of China as a culture that legitimates hierarchical differentiation is supported Singapore is closest to the pure Hofstede conception of collectivism.
- 22. Best Prac*ces in Quan*ta*ve Cross-‐Cultural Research 22 Ignorance Ethnocentric Ethnorelative “Munich is nothing different than Bangalore.“ “Why do the people talk and behave so differently like I do?” “In principle all human beings are the same: all of them must eat, drink and sleep.” “The more cultures I know, the beDer I can make combinaEon.” “I feel like being a member of the culture!” “I feel at home wherever I go cause I know how the things going there.” Defense Trivialize Acceptance Adaptation Integration Development Model of Intercultural Sensitivity (DMIS) from Bennet
- 23. Best Prac*ces in Quan*ta*ve Cross-‐Cultural Research 23 IDI – IDI is a statistically highly reliable, cross- culturally valid measure of intercultural competence developed by Hammer and Bennett based Development Model of Intercultural Sensitivity (DMIS). – The IDI is a 50-item, theory-based paper and pencil instrument that assesses the major stages of intercultural competence as conceptualized in the DMIS theory. – The instrument is easy to complete, and it can generate a graphic profile of an individual's or groups' predominant stage of intercultural development and textual interpretation of that stage and associated transition issues. – Ques<ons are answered in five scales: – 1=disagree – 2=disagree somewhat more than agree, – 3=disagree some and agree some – 4=agree somewhat more than disagree – 5=agree. Intercultural Development Inventory (IDI)
- 24. Best Prac*ces in Quan*ta*ve Cross-‐Cultural Research 24 Altshuler’s Research • Expanding the use of the IDI to a new populaEon, medical providers • Describing normaEve standards for the medical providers group • TesEng the predicEve value of demographic characterisEcs on the IDI Research Objective Research design Month 1 measurement Month 2 measurement Month 3 measurement Month 4 measurement Month 5 measurement Group 1- Didactic & Behavioral Rehearsal SP Encounter IDI Didactic & Behavioral Rehearsal SP Encounter IDI SP Encounter Group 2 – Behavioral Rehearsal SP Encounter SP Encounter IDI Behavioral Rehearsal IDI SP Encounter Group 3 – Control SP Encounter SP Encounter IDI SP Encounter
- 25. Best Prac*ces in Quan*ta*ve Cross-‐Cultural Research 25 Results(1): Intercultural Sensitivity Measurement (1) Group profile of intercultural sensitivity… (2) demographic predictors of intercultural sensitivity… Item Denial Defense Minimization Acceptance Cognitive adaptation Behavioral adaptation DD AA M(SD) 2.09( 0.85) 2.48(1.05) 4.5(1.08) 5.44(0.84) 4.77(0.98) 4.69(0.68) 2.28 4.86 •There is no gender difference •There is no region difference •The gender difference reached significance for the post-‐training AA scale (female M = 5.43; male M = 4.67; t = 2.27; p = 0.03).
- 26. Best Prac*ces in Quan*ta*ve Cross-‐Cultural Research 26 Results(2): Effects of Intercultural Training (3) effect of intercultural training on the six IDI sub-scales through pre/post- training analysis (4) effect of intercultural training through analysis using three factor scores (DD; Minimization; AA) Item Denial Defense Minimization Acceptance Cognitive adaptation Behavioral adaptation DD AA Total pre 2.09 2.48 4.5 5.44 4.77 4.69 2.28 4.86 Group 1 Pre 1.82 2.24 4.61 5.56 5.28 4.94 2.03 5.26Group 1 Post 1.97 2.21 4.38 5.72 5.21 4.89 2.09 5.27 Group 2 Pre 2.28 2.84 4.53 5.23 4.31 4.36 2.56 4.63Group 2 Post 2.44 2.97 4.52 4.86 4.57 4.63 2.71 4.69 Group 3 Post 2.12 2.62 4.76 5.34 4.50 4.62 2.37 4.82
- 27. Best Prac*ces in Quan*ta*ve Cross-‐Cultural Research 27 Results(3): Case study (5) case profiles of individual trainee participants… • Participants #2, The most representaEve cases of intercultural sensiEvity were assessed as scoring low on DD, low on MinimizaEon, and high on AA. • Participant #18, Low intercultural competence individuals had a configuraEon of scores which were high on DD, high on MinimizaEon, and low on AA. • Participant #14, The trainee who exhibited the greatest movement toward intercultural sensiEvity following the training intervenEon •Participant #17, Who exhibited a substanEal ‘‘retreat’’ following training by adopEng a more ethnocentric worldview.
- 28. Best Prac*ces in Quan*ta*ve Cross-‐Cultural Research 28 Process Model of Quantitative Research Ideas, Title, Questions, and Objectives Expose (1-6 Pages) Literature Research Development of Research Instruments Pilot Study & (?) Modification Data Collection & Analyzing Report Research Design & Project Plan Literature Research Proposal
- 29. Best Prac*ces in Quan*ta*ve Cross-‐Cultural Research 29 Expose,Research Proposal & Article Title Subtitle 1. Objectives 2. Ideas / Background (Why) 3. Questions (Hypotheses) 4. Theories (Why) 5. Method 6. Expected Results 7. Application 8. References
- 30. Best Prac*ces in Quan*ta*ve Cross-‐Cultural Research 30 International Project References in the Research Areas of Culture Diversity,Talent Development,and Strategic Change 14 years in Germany Born and grew up in Indonesia 8 years in China • Building Global Competence for Asian Leaders: Comparative study on intercultural sensitivity of Chinese, Indonesian and Singaporean international assignees. • Applying Social Medias (Web 2.0) in Learning & Development. • International Employability:Development of Intercultural Competence of German and Chinese Young Professionals. • Cross-Cultural Learning Behavior: Effectiveness of the Western Technology Transfer and Learning Approaches in China. • Comparative Studies of Chinese-Indonesian Intercultural Competence and Sensitivity. • Dynamic Decision Making in Chinese and Multinational Teams. • Intercultural Perspectives of International Post-Merger Integration in Europe. • Intercultural Synergy in Professional Team. • ...
- 31. Best Prac*ces in Quan*ta*ve Cross-‐Cultural Research 31 Cross-Cultural Research Methodology - Quantitative Research Method (Lecture Series) 1. Quan;ta;ve Methods • Introduc;on • Our Research • What is Science 3. Scales & Reliability • Intercultural Competence (1) • Scales & Variables • Reliability Analysis 5. Sta;s;cal Analysis • Hypothesis Tes;ng • Inference Sta;s;c • SPSS Introduc;on 2. Research Design & Validity • Complex Problem Solving • Designing Quant. Research • Good Quality -‐ Validity 4. Survey Research • Intercultural Competence (2) • Ques;onnaire Design • Sampling Method 6. Research Ar;cles • Basic structure of ar;cles • Understanding Scien;fic Journals
- 32. Thank You Contact us via … Mail: hora_t@mac.com Follow: twitter@htjitra Website: http://horatjitra.com Zhejiang University, Hangzhou (China)