Business web strategy design alignment and application 1st Edition Latif Al-Hakim
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- 5. Business web strategy design alignment and application 1st Edition Latif Al-Hakim Digital Instant Download Author(s): Latif Al-hakim, Massimo Memmola, Latif Al-hakim, Massimo Memmola ISBN(s): 9781605660257, 1605660256 Edition: 1 File Details: PDF, 9.14 MB Year: 2008 Language: english
- 7. Business Web Strategy: Design, Alignment, and Application Latif Al-Hakim University of Southern Queensland, Australia Massimo Memmola Catholic University, Italy Hershey • New York Information science reference
- 8. Director of Editorial Content: Kristin Klinger Managing Development Edtior: Kristin Roth Editorial Assistant: Rebecca Beistline Director of Production: Jennifer Neidig Managing Editor: Jamie Snavely Assistant Managing Editor: Carole Coulson Typesetter: Lindsay Bergman Cover Design: Lisa Tosheff Printed at: Yurchak Printing Inc. Published in the United States of America by Information Science Reference (an imprint of IGI Global) 701 E. Chocolate Avenue, Suite 200 Hershey PA 17033 Tel: 717-533-8845 Fax: 717-533-8661 E-mail: cust@igi-global.com Web site: http://www.igi-global.com and in the United Kingdom by Information Science Reference (an imprint of IGI Global) 3 Henrietta Street Covent Garden London WC2E 8LU Tel: 44 20 7240 0856 Fax: 44 20 7379 0609 Web site: http://www.eurospanbookstore.com Copyright © 2009 by IGI Global. All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored or distributed in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopying, without written permission from the publisher. Product or company names used in this set are for identi.cation purposes only . Inclusion of the names of the products or companies does not indicate a claim of ownership by IGI Global of the trademark or registered trademark. Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Business web strategy : design, alignment and application / Latif Al-Hakim and Massimo Memmola, editors. p. cm. Includes bibliographical references and index. Summary: "This book addresses the gap in business Web strategy through a collection of concentrated managerial issues, gathering the latest theoretical frameworks, case studies, and research pertaining to maximizing the power of the Web"--Provided by publisher. ISBN 978-1-60566-024-0 (hbk.) -- ISBN 978-1-60566-025-7 (ebook) 1. Information technology--Management. 2. Electronic commerce. 3. Internet. I. Al-Hakim, Latif, 1946- II. Memmola, Massimo. HD30.2.B88 2009 658.8'72--dc22 2008024387 British Cataloguing in Publication Data A Cataloguing in Publication record for this book is available from the British Library. All work contributed to this book set is original material. The views expressed in this book are those of the authors, but not necessarily of the publisher. If a library purchased a print copy of this publication, please go to http://www.igi-global.com/agreement for information on activating the library's complimentary electronic access to this publication.
- 9. Editorial Advisory Board Joseph Barjis University of Wisconsin—Stevens Point, USA Chiara Frigerio Catholic University, Italy Luigi Geppert Catholic University, Italy Svenja Hagenhoff University of Goettingen, Germany Kevin K. W. Ho The Hong Kong University of Science and Technology, Hong Kong Orla Kirwan National University of Ireland, Ireland Fernando Jose Barbin Laurindo University of São Paulo, Brazil Bernard Ostheimer University of Giessen, Germany Krassie Petrova Auckland University of Technology, New Zealand Mahesh Raisinghani The TWU School of Management, USA Javier Soriano Universidad Politécnica De Madrid, Spain Maria Alessandra Torsello University of Bari, Italy Jiri Vorisek University of Economics Prague, Czech Republic Vincent C. Yen Wright State University, USA Silvia Novaes Zilber The Uninove, Brazil
- 10. Table of Contents Foreword . ............................................................................................................................................xvi Preface . ..............................................................................................................................................xviii Section I Design Web Strategy Chapter I Using Patterns for Engineering High-Quality E-Commerce Applications.............................................. 1 Pankaj Kamthan, Concordia University, Canada Hsueh-Ieng Pai, Concordia University, Canada Chapter II Informing Industry via Academic Research in ICT Skill and Capability Development....................... 26 Krassie Petrova, Auckland University of Technology, New Zealand Dawn Medlin, Appalachian State University, USA Chapter III The Impact of New Trends in the Delivery and Utilization of Enterprise ICT on Supplier and User Organizations.......................................................................................................................... 46 Jiri Vorisek, University of Economics Prague, Czech Republic George Feuerlicht, University of Economics Prague, Czech Republic Chapter IV Enterprise 2.0: Collaboration and Knowledge Emergence as a Business Web Strategy Enabler. ......... 61 Javier Soriano, Universidad Politécnica de Madrid, Spain David Lizcano, Universidad Politécnica de Madrid, Spain Marcos Reyes, Telefónica I+D, Spain Fernando Alonso, Universidad Politécnica de Madrid, Spain Genoveva López, Universidad Politécnica de Madrid, Spain
- 11. Chapter V Customer Relationship Management (CRM): An In-Depth Analysis................................................... 94 Mahesh Raisinghani, TWU School of Management, USA Abdu Albur, Ministry of Education in the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia, Dhahran, Eastern Province Sue Leferink, Montana Department of Commerce, USA Thomas Lyle, PNC, USA Stephen Proctor, CSC, USA Chapter VI Different Web Strategies for Different E-Marketplaces...................................................................... 118 L. Geppert, Catholic University of Milan, Italy Section II Aligning Web Strategy to Corporate Strategy Chapter VII Trends of Web Services Adoption: A Synthesis................................................................................... 134 Vincent C. Yen, Wright State University, USA Chapter VIII Web & RFId Technology: New Frontiers in Costing and Process Management for Rehabilitation Medicine................................................................................................................. 145 Massimo Memmola, Catholic University, Italy Giovanna Palumbo, Ospedale Valduce, Italy Mauro Rossini, Ospedale Valduce, Italy Chapter IX The Web Strategy Development in the Automotive Sector................................................................. 170 Massimo Memmola, Catholic University, Italy Alessandra Tzannis, Catholic University, Italy Chapter X Adaptive Mobile Web Browsing Using Web Mining Technologies.................................................... 198 Wen-Chen Hu, University of North Dakota, USA Yanjun Zuo, University of North Dakota, USA Lei Chen, Sam Houston State University, USA Chyuan-Huei Thomas Yang, Hsuan Chuang University, Taiwan Chapter XI Integration of Public University Web Sites and Learning Management Systems............................... 208 Bernard Ostheimer, University of Giessen, Germany Axel C. Schwickert, University of Giessen, Germany
- 12. Chapter XII Innovating through the Web: The Banking Industry Case................................................................... 219 Chiara Frigerio, Universitá Cattolica del Sacro Cuore, Italy Section III Applications of Web Strategy Chapter XIII An Action Research Case Study of the Facilitators and Inhibitors of E-Commerce Adoption........... 236 Orla Kirwan, National University of Ireland, Ireland Kieran Conboy, National University of Ireland, Ireland Chapter XIV Acceptance of the Mobile Internet as a Distribution Channel for Paid Content in Germany............. 248 Svenja Hagenhoff, University of Goettingen, Germany Christian Kaspar, University of Goettingen, Germany Lutz Seidenfaden, University of Goettingen, Germany Björn Ortelbach, University of Goettingen, Germany Chapter XV Information Quality Satisfaction of Communication Portals: A Study of Central Cyber Government Office (CCGO) of the Hong Kong Government............................................................. 264 Kevin K.W. Ho, The Hong Kong University of Science and Technology, Hong Kong Chapter XVI The Evaluation of IT Investments through Real Options.................................................................... 277 Maria Alice Frontini, University of São Paulo, Brazil Fernando José Barbin Laurindo, University of São Paulo, Brazil Chapter XVII Strategic Use of the Internet and Organizational Structure for E-Business: “Celta” Case at GM Brazil. .................................................................................................................. 298 Silvia Novaes Zilber, UNINOVE, Brazil Chapter XVIII On the Use of Soft Computing Techniques for Web Personalization.................................................. 318 G. Castellano, University of Bari, Italy A. M. Fanelli, University of Bari, Italy M. A. Torsello, University of Bari, Italy Compilation of References ............................................................................................................... 340 About the Contributors .................................................................................................................... 371 Index.................................................................................................................................................... 380
- 13. Detailed Table of Contents Foreword . ............................................................................................................................................xvi Preface . ..............................................................................................................................................xviii Section I Design Web Strategy The objective of the book’s first section, which is subdivided into six chapters, is to look into the dif- ferent Web strategy planning routes in different corporate contexts, in order to obtain optimal use of the Internet’s technology potentials. Chapter I Using Patterns for Engineering High-Quality E-Commerce Applications.............................................. 1 Pankaj Kamthan, Concordia University, Canada Hsueh-Ieng Pai, Concordia University, Canada In this chapter, the authors view the development and maintenance of high-quality electronic commerce (e-commerce) applications from a Web engineering perspective. A methodology for deploying patterns as means for improving the quality of e-commerce applications is presented. To that regard, relevant quality attributes and corresponding stakeholder types for the e-commerce applications are identified. The role of development process, the challenges in making optimal use of patterns, and feasibility issues involved in doing so, are analyzed. The activities of a systematic selection and application of patterns are explored. Examples illustrating the use of patterns during macro- and micro-architecture design of business-to-consumer (B2C) e-commerce applications are given. The implications of the use of patterns in a Semantic Web context are briefly highlighted. Chapter II Informing Industry via Academic Research in ICT Skill and Capability Development....................... 26 Krassie Petrova, Auckland University of Technology, New Zealand Dawn Medlin, Appalachian State University, USA In recent years significant changes have occurred in the skill sets underpinning the undergraduate in- formation systems and information technology curricula. It is imperative that educators comprehend the needs and demands of the industry where their graduates are going to need to apply their acquired
- 14. knowledge and skills. It may be argued that employers and job recruiters also need to be aware of what skill sets and capabilities new graduates may be expected to come equipped with, in order to develop successful strategies for retaining and growing staff in an environment where the demand for profes- sionals in information and communications technologies (ICT) exceeds the supply. In this chapter, a research framework representing the dynamics of the ICT profession supply and demand of graduates with relevant skills and capabilities is used to facilitate the initiation of a dialogue between industry and academia with the objective to identify issues raised from the lack of alignment between the two and to suggest a way of using academic research results to address these issues. The discussion is supported by the findings of two relevant case studies. Chapter III The Impact of New Trends in the Delivery and Utilization of Enterprise ICT on Supplier and User Organizations.......................................................................................................................... 46 Jiri Vorisek, University of Economics Prague, Czech Republic George Feuerlicht, University of Economics Prague, Czech Republic Enterprise information systems have rapidly evolved over the last decade. We expect these changes to accelerate during this decade as a result of new trends in enterprise computing. We argue in this chapter that ICT remains strategically important to organizations in the 21st century despite the prevailing trend to outsource ICT and related business processes. We have identified a number of important trends that include the move towards the software as a service (SaaS) model for enterprise applications, increased commitment to process orientation, and emphasis on managing the relationship between business and ICT using services. These trends lead to more effective management of ICT and closer integration of ICT with entrepreneurial activities and business processes in organizations, resulting in improvements in return on investment. These trends will have dramatic impact on both the suppliers and users of ICT, and will necessitate the reevaluation of the approach to ICT education as both the composition and qualifications of ICT workforce will undergo a fundamental change. Chapter IV Enterprise 2.0: Collaboration and Knowledge Emergence as a Business Web Strategy Enabler. ......... 61 Javier Soriano, Universidad Politécnica de Madrid, Spain David Lizcano, Universidad Politécnica de Madrid, Spain Marcos Reyes, Telefónica I+D, Spain Fernando Alonso, Universidad Politécnica de Madrid, Spain Genoveva López, Universidad Politécnica de Madrid, Spain This chapter explores the Internet’s present and future potential in relation to information sharing, knowledge management, innovation management, and the automation of cross-organizational business transactions. It points out how a business Web strategy that takes into account this potential will help not only to improve the existing information sharing and knowledge management processes, but also to protect investments in technology that would otherwise have resulted in expensive failures and severe losses. The suggested approach is based on the emerging Web 2.0 vision and will help to minimize the risk of key information and knowledge being lost or simply not being available on time for the stake- holder, projects started and never finished, worse time to market, results not meeting expectations, failure
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- 16. 10. No exact census of the tribe has ever been taken, and it would not now be an easy task to take one, because the Navahoes are scattered so widely and over such a wild and rugged territory. Their low huts, built in tangled cedar-woods or in regions of scattered rocks, are often so obscurely hidden that one may ride through a cluster of a dozen inhabited houses thinking there is not an Indian within ten miles of him. When the Navahoes were held in captivity at Fort Sumner, New Mexico, from 1863 to 1867, they depended for subsistence mostly on rations supplied by the United States, and then these captives, at least, could be accurately counted. There were in 1867 7,300 in captivity.298 Owing to desertions on the one hand, and additional surrenders on the other, the numbers varied from time to time.
- 17. Fig. 4. Tánapa. 11. But while the majority of the tribe were prisoners of war, it is well known that all were not captured during General Carson’s invasion in 1863,
- 18. but that many still roamed at large while their brethren were prisoners. The count of the prisoners, therefore, does not show the strength of the tribe. Fig. 5. Hádapa (from photograph by J. K. Hillers). 12. Perhaps the most accurate census ever taken was that of 1869. “In November of 1869 a count was made of the tribe, in order to distribute among them 30,000 head of sheep and 2,000 goats. Due notice was given
- 19. months before, and the tribe was present. The Indians were all put in a large corral, and counted as they went in. A few herders, holding the small herds that they had then bunched on the surrounding hills, were not in the corral. The result of this count showed that there were less than 9,000 Navahoes all told, making a fair allowance for all who had failed to come in. At that time everything favored getting a full count; rations were issued to them every four days; they had but little stock, and, in addition to the issue of the sheep and goats, there were also two years’ annuities to be given out. The season of the year was favorable, the weather fine, and they were all anxious to get the sheep and goats and annuities.”268 13. In 1890 a count of these Indians was made as a part of the Eleventh Census of the United States.297 Before the count was begun, the writer was informed by one of the enumerators that the plan to be employed was this: The Navaho country was to be divided into a number of districts, and a special enumerator was to be sent to each district at the same time to visit each hut and take the number of each family. Whether this method was carried out, the report of the Eleventh Census does not tell us. But this plan, while probably the best that could be employed at the time with the means allotted, was very imperfect and admitted of numerous sources of error, of which two may be specified. Many huts might easily be passed unnoticed, for reasons already given, and this would make the enumeration too low. Many families might easily have been counted in more than one district, for the Navaho frequently shifts his abode, and this would make the count too high. The result of this enumeration was to give the tribe a population of 17,204 for that year. White men, living in the Navaho country at the time, generally considered the estimate excessive. If the count of 1869 be approximately correct, that of 1890 is probably not. It is not reasonable to suppose that by natural increase alone—and no other source of increment is known—the tribe should have nearly doubled in twenty-one years. It would require birth-rates much higher and death-rates much lower than those commonly found in Indian tribes to double the population in that time. The Indian mother is not prolific. 14. The Navahoes say that during their captivity they had much sickness and diminished in numbers; but nothing has been found in official reports to
- 20. corroborate such statements. All who have any intimate knowledge of the Navahoes agree that they have increased rapidly since they were restored to their ancient homes in 1869. During nearly fifteen years that the author has had opportunity to observe them, he has noticed no marked signs of physical degeneration among them. Their general health and their power of resisting disease appeared about as good in 1894 as in 1880. Consumption and scrofula, those greatest enemies of our reservation Indians, have not yet begun to trouble the Navahoes. The change from the rude hut to the close stone house, which is rapidly going on among this people, is likely to affect their health in the future, and probably not for the better. Fortunately for them they have little fancy for stoves, but prefer open fireplaces such as the Pueblos and Mexicans use. In the year 1888, while the writer was absent from New Mexico, they had an epidemic of throat disease, the precise character of which has not been ascertained. They say that about 800 people died that winter. During the winter of 1894–95 they suffered from scarcity of food,—an unusual experience for them, and the government had to assist them. An increased mortality ensued, which undoubtedly would have been much greater had it not been for the prompt action of their agent, Maj. Constant Williams, U.S.A., in securing supplies for them.
- 21. Fig. 6. Navaho man (from photograph by J. K. Hillers). RACIAL AFFINITY—APPEARANCE.
- 22. 15. The Navahoes are usually regarded by ethnologists as being, by blood as well as by language, of the Dèné or Athapascan stock, and such, probably, they are in the main. But their Origin Legend represents them as a very mixed race, containing elements of Zuñian and other Pueblo stocks, of Shoshonian and Yuman, and the appearance of the people seems to corroborate the legend. There is no such thing as a general or prevailing Navaho type. The people vary much in feature and stature. Every variety of Indian face and form may be seen among them,—tall men with aquiline noses and prominent features, such as we find among the Crows and Dakotas; dwarfish men with subdued features, such as we see among the Pueblos of New Mexico and Arizona, and every intermediate variety.
- 23. Fig. 7. Navaho man (from photograph by Hillers). 16. The countenances of the Navahoes are, as a rule, intelligent and expressive; some are stern and angry, some pleasant and smiling, others calm and thoughtful; but seldom are any seen that are dull and stupid. These characteristics are to be noted among the women as well as among the men. The social position of the Navaho women is one of great independence; much of the wealth of the nation belongs to them; they are the managers of
- 24. their own property, the owners of their own children, and their freedom lends character to their physiognomies. PORTRAITS. Fig. 8. Navaho skull, flattened at occiput. Hyperbrachycephalic. Length-breadth index, 96.93. 17. Fig. 1 is a picture of Manuelito, who for many years was the most influential chief among the Navahoes. Latterly he lost much of his influence in consequence of his intemperate habits, though he was regarded as a sage counsellor till the time of his death, which occurred in 1893. When he was gone, an old Indian, announcing his death to the writer, said: “We are now a people without eyes, without ears, without a mind.” Fig. 2 represents
- 25. another chief of much influence named Mariano, who also became addicted to drink in his old age and died in 1893. Fig. 3 shows a very intelligent and trustworthy Indian, a silversmith, known as Jake among the whites, but called by the Navahoes Náltsos Nigéhani, or Paper-carrier, because in his youth he was employed as a mail-carrier between Forts Wingate and Defiance. He it was who communicated to the author version B306 of the Origin Legend. He practised a short medicine rite, was an adept in singing sacred songs, and often led in song in the great rites. His silver-work was in great demand, and he worked hard at his trade. In 1894 he accompanied a circus through the Eastern States, with his workshop as a side-show; but the journey proved too much for him—he died of heart disease on his return to New Mexico. Fig. 4 is a portrait of a Navaho woman named Tánapa, who took her hair out of braid preparatory to standing before the camera. Fig. 5 is a woman named Hádapa, whose smiling face is introduced as a contrast to the stern brow of Tánapa. Figs. 6 and 7 are Navaho men whose names have not been recorded. The expressions of their faces are in marked contrast. CRANIA. 18. As a rule the crania of the Navahoes are brachycephalic, and very few are dolichocephalic. The shortening seems to be due to a flattening in the occipital region (fig. 8). The author is of opinion that this is caused by the use of the baby-case, with a hard, unyielding wooden back (fig. 9), in which the Navaho women carry their infants. This flattening of the Navaho occiput has been the subject of some controversy. It is true that the cradle is padded to a slight extent; but the padding consists of the bark of the cliff rose (Cowania mexicana), called by the Navaho awétsal, or baby-bed, which forms a rather rigid pillow. True, again, when the baby is carried on the mother’s back, its head often hangs forward and does not come in contact with the back of the cradle or the pillow; but most of the time the
- 26. child lies on its back, and its tender occiput is subjected to deforming pressure. Fig. 9. Navaho baby-case or cradle (after Mason). LANGUAGE. 19. The language of the Navaho undoubtedly belongs in the main to the Athapascan family. Hubert Howe Bancroft, in his “Native Races of the Pacific States” (vol. iii. p. 583),292 tells us that the Athapascans or “Tinneh”
- 27. are “a people whose diffusion is only equalled by that of the Aryan or Semitic nations of the Old World. The dialects of the Tinneh language are by no means confined within the limits of the hyperborean division. Stretching from the northern interior of Alaska down into Sonora and Chihuahua, we have here a linguistic line of more than four thousand miles in length, extending diagonally over forty-two degrees of latitude, like a great tree whose trunk is the Rocky Mountain range, whose roots encompass the deserts of Arizona and New Mexico, and whose branches touch the borders of Hudson Bay and of the Arctic and Pacific Oceans.” But the Origin Legend declares it is a mixed language (par. 395), and it is but reasonable to suppose that such a composite race cannot possess a very pure language. The various accessions to the tribe from other stocks have probably added many words of alien origin. What these additions are is not now known, and will not be known until all the languages of the Southwest have been thoroughly studied.
- 28. Fig. 10. Conical lodge with storm-door (from photograph by James Mooney). HOUSES. 20. The habitations of the Navahoes are usually of a very simple character. The most common form consists of a conical frame, made by setting up a number of sticks at an angle of about forty-five degrees. An opening is left on one side of the cone to answer as a doorway. The frame is covered with weeds, bark, or grass, and earth, except at the apex, where the smoke from the fire in the centre of the floor is allowed to escape. In the doorway an old blanket hangs, like a curtain, in place of a door. But the opening of the door is not a simple hiatus, as many descriptions would lead one to suppose. A cross-piece, forming a lintel, connects the jambs at a convenient height, and the triangular space between the lintel and the smoke-hole is filled in as shown in fig. 10. A picture in Schoolcraft’s extensive work327 (vol. iii. plate 17) is intended to represent a Navaho lodge; but it appears to have been drawn by Captain Eastman from an imperfect description. In this picture the doorway is shown as extended up and continuous with the smoke-hole. 21. Some lodges are made of logs in a polygonal form, as shown in fig. 11. Again they are occasionally built partly of stone, as shown in fig. 12. In cold weather a small storm-door or portico is often erected in front of the door (fig. 10), and an outer and an inner curtain may be hung to more effectually keep out the wind.
- 29. Fig. 11. Hut of logs. 22. Shelters.—Contiguous to the hut, the Navaho usually constructs a rude shelter of branches. Here, in fair weather, the family often cook and spend most of the day. Here, too, the women erect their looms and weave or set out their metates and grind corn, and some even choose to sleep here. Such a “corral” is shown in fig. 12.
- 30. Fig. 12. Hut built partly of stone. 23. Summer Houses.—In summer they often occupy structures more simple than even the hut described above. Fig. 13 represents a couple of summer houses in the Zuñi Mountains. A structure of this kind is built in a few hours. A couple of forked sticks are set upright in the ground; slanting poles are laid against this in the direction of the prevailing winds, so as to form a windbreak, half wall and half roof, and this is covered with grass, weeds, and earth. The ends may be similarly enclosed, or may be merely covered in with evergreen branches. One side of the house is completely open. In fig. 13 a loom is shown set up for work in one of these rude structures, the aboriginal appearance of which is somewhat marred by having a piece of old canvas lying on top. 24. Medicine-lodges.—The medicine-lodges, when erected in regions where long poles may be cut, are usually built in the form of the ordinary
- 31. hogáns (huts), though of much greater size (fig. 14). When these large lodges are constructed at low altitudes, where only stunted trees grow, they are built on a rude frame with walls and roof separate, somewhat on the same plan as the lodges formerly used by the Arickarees, Mandans, and other tribes on the Missouri, and seeming a connecting link between the Navaho hogán and the Mandan earth-lodge.184 Fig. 13. Summer houses.
- 32. Fig. 14. Medicine-lodge. 25. Sweat-houses.—The sweat-house or sudatory is a diminutive form of the ordinary hogán or hut as described in par. 20, except that it has no smoke-hole (for fire is never kindled in it), neither has it a storm-door. It is sometimes sunk partly underground and is always thickly covered with earth. Stones are heated in a fire outside and carried, with an extemporized tongs of sticks, into the sudatory. Fig. 15 poorly represents one of these structures. When ceremonially used, the frame is constructed of different materials for different ceremonies, and the house is sometimes decorated with dry-paintings.82
- 33. Fig. 15. Sudatory. 26. Modern Houses.—During the past ten years, a few of the more progressive Navahoes have built themselves rectangular stone houses, with flat roofs, glazed windows, wooden doors, and regular chimneys, such as their neighbors, the Mexicans and Pueblo Indians, build. They have had before them, for centuries, examples of such houses, and they are an imitative and docile people. The reason they have not copied at an earlier date is probably a superstitious reason. They believe a house haunted or accursed in which a human being dies.91 They abandon it, never enter it again, and usually destroy it. With such a superstition prevailing, they hesitate to build permanent dwellings. Perhaps of late years the superstition
- 34. is becoming weakened, or they have found some mystic way of averting the supposed evil. ARTS. 27. The arts of the Navahoes are not numerous. They make a very rude and inartistic pottery,—vastly inferior to that of the neighboring Pueblo tribes, —and they make but little of it. Their bows and arrows are not equal to those of the northern Indians, and, since they have both money and opportunity to purchase modern firearms, bows and arrows are falling into disuse. They do not consider themselves very expert dressers of deerskin, and purchase their best buckskins from other tribes. The women do very little embroidery, either with beads or porcupine-quills, and this little is unskilfully done. The legends indicate that in former days they stole or purchased embroideries from the Utes.
- 35. Fig. 16. Sacred basket. 28. Basketry.—They make excellent baskets, but very few of them, and have a very limited range of forms and patterns. In developing their blanket-making to the highest point of Indian art, the women of this tribe have neglected other labors. The much ruder but allied Apaches, who know nothing of weaving woollen fabrics, make more baskets than the Navahoes, and make them in much greater variety of form, color, and quality. The Navahoes buy most of their baskets and wicker water-jars from other tribes. They would possibly lose the art of basketry altogether if they did not require certain kinds to be used in the rites, and only women of the tribe understand the special requirements of the rites. Figs. 16 and 17 show the patterns of baskets almost exclusively made. These are used in ceremonies,
- 36. and are called by the author sacred baskets. A further description of them is given in a note.5 Fig. 17. Sacred basket. 29. Silver-work.—There are a few silversmiths in the tribe, whose work, considering the rudeness of their tools and processes, is very artistic. It is much sought after by white people, who admire its rude beauty. Probably the art of the smith has not existed long among the Navahoes. In a treatise entitled “Navajo Silversmiths,”307 the author described the art as it existed in 1881; but the work has improved since that time with the introduction of better tools. Then the smith built his forge on the ground and squatted to do
- 37. his work; now he builds it on an elevated frame (fig. 10), and sits on a stool or chair to work. Fig. 18 represents silver ornaments made by Jake in 1881. 30. Weaving.—It is in the art of weaving that the Navahoes excel all other Indians within the borders of the United States. In durability, fineness of finish, beauty of design, and variety of pattern, the Navaho blanket has no equal among the works of our aborigines. The author has written a treatise on “Navajo Weavers,”309 in which he describes their art as it existed some thirteen years ago. But since that treatise was written the art has changed. It has improved in one respect: an important new invention has been made or introduced,—a way of weaving blankets with different designs on opposite sides. It has deteriorated in another respect: fugitive aniline dyes, purchased from the traders, have taken the place of the permanent native dyes formerly used. In the finer blankets, yarn obtained from white traders has supplanted the yarn laboriously twilled on the old distaff. Navaho blankets are represented in figs. 1, 2, 5, 6, 7, and 12.
- 38. Fig. 18. Silver ornaments. Powder-chargers, hollow beads, buttons, bracelets. 31. The Navahoes weave diagonal cloth and diamond-shaped diagonals, and to do this a change is made in the mechanism of their simple looms. They weave belts or sashes, garters and saddle-girths, and these articles, too, require changes in the arrangement of the looms and in the methods of weaving. Fig. 20 represents an ordinary loom, with one set of healds. Fig. 21 represents a loom arranged for weaving diagonal cloth with two sets of healds. Fig. 4 shows a woman wearing a belt of native manufacture. The women depicted in figs. 5 and 21 wear dresses of Navaho cloth. Fig. 19. Woman spinning.
- 39. 32. It is not only for gain that the Navaho woman weaves her blanket. Having worn it for a time, until it has lost its novelty, she may sell it for a price that scarcely pays her for the yarn. One who possesses large herds, and is wealthy for an Indian, will weave as assiduously as her poorest neighbor. At best, the labor brings low wages. The work is done, to no small extent, for artistic recreation, just as the females of our own race embroider and do “fancy work” for mere pastime. 33. Knitting.—They knit stockings with four needles, but these stockings are devoid of heels and toes. As the needles now used are of wire and obtained from the whites, it might be thought that the art of knitting was learned from our people; but knitted leggings, made of human hair, and wooden knitting-needles, have been found in the Navaho land, in cliff- dwellings which, there is reason to believe, were abandoned before the arrival of the Spaniards. INDUSTRY. 34. It cannot be said of the Navaho men, as it is often said of the men of other Indian tribes, that they are either too proud or too lazy to perform manual labor. They are, and apparently always have been, willing to do any remunerative work. When the Atlantic and Pacific Railroad was constructed near their reservation, in 1881, much of the grading was done by Navaho laborers. The white men who worked with them, and who had the strongest antipathy to Chinese laborers, said that they liked the Indians because they were good comrades on the work and kept up prices. A stalwart man is not ashamed to wash and iron clothes for wages, which he may want only to spend in gambling. They have been employed at Fort Wingate to dig cellars and make adobes, and at the latter work proved themselves more expert than the more experienced men of Zuñi.
- 40. 35. Begging, which among other tribes is so often annoying to the white man, is little practised by the Navahoes. The few who have ever begged from the author persuaded themselves that they had some claim on him. On the whole, they are a self-supporting people, and add to the wealth of the community at large. But little government aid has been given them since they were released from captivity and supplied with stock in return for that slaughtered by our troops when their land was invaded. POETRY AND MUSIC. 36. For many years the most trusted account of the Navaho Indians of New Mexico and Arizona was to be found in a letter written by Dr. Jonathan Letherman,303 of the army, and published in the Smithsonian report for 1855. Dr. Letherman had lived three years at Fort Defiance, in the heart of the Navaho country, when he wrote this letter, and he acknowledges his indebtedness, for assistance in preparing it, to Major Kendrick, who long commanded Fort Defiance. Both the doctor and the major were men of unusual ability. The former (having changed the spelling of his name to Letterman) afterwards distinguished himself as medical director of the Army of the Potomac, and the latter was, for many years, professor of chemistry at the National Military Academy. 37. From this letter the following statement concerning the Navahoes is extracted: “Of their religion little or nothing is known, as, indeed, all inquiries tend to show that they have none.” “The lack of tradition is a source of surprise. They have no knowledge of their origin or of the history of the tribe.” “They have frequent gatherings for dancing.” “Their singing is but a succession of grunts, and is anything but agreeable.” 38. The evidence of these gentlemen, one would think, might be taken as conclusive. Yet, fifteen years ago, when the author first found himself among the Navahoes, he was not influenced in the least by the authority of
- 41. this letter. Previous experience with the Indians had taught him of how little value such negative evidence might be, and he began at once to investigate the religion, traditions, and poetic literature, of which, he was assured, the Navahoes were devoid. Fig. 20. Ordinary loom. 39. He had not been many weeks in New Mexico when he discovered that the dances to which Dr. Letherman refers were religious ceremonials, and later he found that these ceremonials might vie in allegory, symbolism, and intricacy of ritual with the ceremonies of any people, ancient or modern. He found, erelong, that these heathens, pronounced godless and legendless, possessed lengthy myths and traditions—so numerous that one can never hope to collect them all, a pantheon as well stocked with gods and heroes as that of the ancient Greeks, and prayers which, for length and vain repetition, might put a Pharisee to the blush.
- 42. 40. But what did the study of appalling “succession of grunts” reveal? It revealed that besides improvised songs, in which the Navahoes are adepts, they have knowledge of thousands of significant songs—or poems, as they might be called—which have been composed with care and handed down, for centuries perhaps, from teacher to pupil, from father to son, as a precious heritage, throughout the wide Navaho nation. They have songs of travelling, appropriate to every stage of the journey, from the time the wanderer leaves his home until he returns. They have farming songs, which refer to every stage of their simple agriculture, from the first view of the planting ground in the spring to the “harvest home.” They have building songs,6 which celebrate every act in the structure of the hut, from “thinking about it” to moving into it and lighting the first fire. They have songs for hunting, for war, for gambling, in short for every important occasion in life, from birth to death, not to speak of prenatal and post-mortem songs. And these songs are composed according to established (often rigid) rules, and abound in poetic figures of speech. 41. Sacred Songs.—Perhaps the most interesting of their metrical compositions are those connected with their sacred rites,—their religious songs. These rites are very numerous, many of them of nine days’ duration, and with each is associated a number of appropriate songs. Sometimes, pertaining to a single rite, there are two hundred songs or more which may not be sung at other rites. 42. The songs must be known to the priest of the rite and his assistants in a most exact manner, for an error made in singing a song may be fatal to the efficacy of a ceremony. In no case is an important mistake tolerated, and in some cases the error of a single syllable works an irreparable injury. A noteworthy instance of this rule is a song sung at the beginning of work on the last night of the great ceremony of the night chant. The rite is one which may cost the patron from two hundred to three hundred dollars. It has lasted eight days and nights, when four singers, after long and careful instruction by the priest, come forth painted, adorned, and masked as gods to sing this song of the atsáʻlei. Several hundred people—many from the farthest confines of the Navaho land—have come to sit up all night and witness the public ceremonies. The song is long, and is mostly made up of meaningless
- 43. or obsolete expressions which convey no idea to the mind of the singer, yet not a single vocable may be omitted, mispronounced, or misplaced. A score or more of critics who know the song by heart are listening with strained attention. If the slightest error is made it is at once proclaimed, the fruitless ceremony terminates abruptly, and the disappointed multitude disperses. 43. The songs all contain significant words; but these, for poetic requirements, are often greatly distorted, and the distortions must be kept in mind. In speaking thus, scant justice is done to the Navaho poets. Similar distortions found in an Aryan tongue with a written literature are spoken of as figures of orthography and etymology, and, although there is yet no standard of spelling for the Navaho language, we would perhaps do well to apply the same terms in speaking of the Navaho compositions. The distortions are not always left to the whim of the composer. They are made systematically, as a rule. If the language were reduced to a standard spelling, we should find that the Navaho poets have as many figures of these classes as the English poets have, and perhaps more. 44. Some of the words, too, are archaic,—they mean nothing in modern Navaho; but the priests assign traditional meanings to them, and this adds to the task of memorizing. But, in addition to the significant words, there are (as instanced above) numerous meaningless vocables in all songs, and these must be recited with a care at least equal to that bestowed on the rest of the composition. These meaningless sounds are commonly introduced in the preludes and refrains of the stanzas and in the verse endings, but they may occur anywhere in the song.
- 44. Fig. 21. Loom for weaving diagonal cloth. 45. The preludes and refrains here referred to are found, with rare exceptions, in every stanza and in every song. Although they are all either totally meaningless or only partly significant, they are the most characteristic parts of the poems, and the singer cons the preludes over when he wishes to call to mind any particular composition, just as we often remember a poem or song by means of the first line. They are rarely or never quite alike in any two songs, and great ingenuity is often displayed in giving them variety. 46. There is yet another burden laid on the memory of the singer of sacred songs, and this is the order of their arrangement. The songs of each ceremony are divided into groups which must follow one another in an established order, and each song has, in the group to which it belongs, a place that must not be changed under penalty of divine displeasure. To sing, during the progress of a rite, the sixth Song of the Whirling Sticks before the fifth song is sung, would be a sacrilege as great as to chant the syllables
- 45. óhohohó, in place of éhehehé. To remember this exact order of sequence in a set of two hundred or three hundred songs is no easy task.322 47. But it may be said: “Perhaps things were different with the Navahoes in Dr. Letherman’s day. May they not have learned from other tribes, or have themselves invented all this ceremony and song since he knew them?” The reply to this is, that it is absurd to suppose that such an elaborate system of rites and songs could have grown up among an illiterate people in the twenty-five years that elapsed between Dr. Letherman’s departure from the Navaho country and the author’s arrival there. Besides, the latter obtained his information from men of advanced age—from sixty to eighty years old —who practised these rites and sang these songs in their youth, and who in turn learned them from men of a departed generation. The shamans who conduct these ceremonies, tell these tales, and sing these songs are scattered widely over the Navaho country. Men who are scarcely acquainted with one another, and who learned from different preceptors, will sing the same sacred songs and to exactly the same tune. All the lore of the Navaho priesthood was undoubtedly extant in Dr. Letherman’s time and for ages before. 48. Songless Women.—It is remarkable that, while the Navaho men are such fruitful composers of song and such ardent singers, the women, as a rule, do not sing. Among the wild hunting tribes of the North, as the author knew them thirty years ago, the women not only had songs of their own, but they took part in the ceremonial songs of the men. The Pueblo Indian women of New Mexico, neighbors of the Navahoes, have many fine songs, the song of the corn-grinders, often heard in Zuñi, being especially wild and musical. But usually the Navaho woman is songless. The writer tried a long time to find a woman who could sing, and offered good pecuniary inducements before he got one. She came from a distance of thirty miles. She knew no songs peculiar to her sex, but her father was a medicine-man, who frequently repeated his songs at home in order to familiarize himself with them, and she gradually picked up several of them. She sang in a musical soprano with much spirit, and was one of the most pleasing singers heard in the tribe.
- 46. 49. Figures of Speech.—It is probable that all rhetorical figures of speech known to our poets may be found in these simple compositions of the Navahoes. But in many cases the allusions are to such recondite matters of symbolism, or incidents in their myths, that they could be made plain, if at all, only by a tedious recital. Thus it would not be easy to make clear in a few words why, when the goddess Estsánatlehi, in one of the songs to her honor, is spoken of as climbing a wand of turquoise, we know the poet means to say she is ascending San Mateo Mountain, in New Mexico, or why, when he speaks of her as climbing a wand of haliotis shell, he is endeavoring to tell us that she is ascending the peak of San Francisco in Arizona. Yet we may gain some idea of the meaning by referring to the myth (par. 193). 50. But some of the metaphors and similes are not so hard to understand. Here is a translation of the Dove Song, one of the gambling songs sung in the game of kĕsĭtsé:— Wos Wos picks them up (seeds), Wos Wos picks them up, Glossy Locks picks them up, Red Moccasin picks them up, Wos Wos picks them up.273 316 Here Wos Wos (Wōsh Wōsh) is an onomatope for the dove, equivalent to our “coo coo”; but it is used as a noun. Glossy Locks and Red Moccasin are figurative expressions for the dove, of obvious significance. Metaphor and synecdoche are here combined. 51. Antithesis is not an uncommon figure with the Navaho poet. Here is an instance of it in a song belonging to the mountain chant, one of the great nine-day ceremonies of the shamans:— The voice that beautifies the land! The voice above, The voice of the thunder, Among the dark clouds
- 47. Again and again it sounds, The voice that beautifies the land. The voice that beautifies the land! The voice below, The voice of the grasshopper, Among the flowers and grasses Again and again it sounds, The voice that beautifies the land. Here the great voice of the thunder above is contrasted with the feeble voice of the grasshopper below, yet both are voices that make the world beautiful. 52. Many instances of climax have been noted. One here presented is from the mountain chant. It has but two steps to the ladder:— Maid Who Becomes a Bear Sought the gods and found them, On the summits of the mountains Sought the gods and found them, Truly with my sacrifice Sought the gods and found them. Somebody doubts it, so I have heard. Holy Young Woman Sought the gods and found them, On the summits of the clouds Sought the gods and found them, Truly with my sacrifice Sought the gods and found them. Somebody doubts it, so I have heard. Maid Who Becomes a Bear (Tsĭké Sas Nátlehi)90 is an important character in Navaho mythology. The last line in each stanza is an instance of irony.
- 48. 53. It will be seen from the instances given that they understand the value of repetition in poetry. The refrain is a favorite form of expression; but they know of other means of giving verbal melody to their songs, as may be seen in the following original text of the Bluebird (Sialia arctica) Song:— Tsihayilkáe dóla aní, Áyas dotlĭ′zi bĭza holó, Bĭza hozónigo, bĭza holó, Bĭza holónigo hwíhe ĭnlí Dóla aní. Dóla aní. To appreciate this a translation is not necessary, but it is given, as the reader may wish to know it:— Just at daylight Sialia calls. The bluebird has a voice, He has a voice, his voice melodious, His voice melodious that flows in gladness. Sialia calls. Sialia calls. The regular Navaho name for the bluebird “dóli” (changed here to “dóla” for poetic reasons) is translated Sialia, to distinguish it from the descriptive term “áyas dotlĭ′zi” which means literally bluebird. 54. Rhyme.—They are not ignorant of the value of rhyme in poetry, but they more often produce this by the repetition of significant or meaningless syllables than by selecting different words with similar endings. Still we often find this, the more difficult means, resorted to as in the above song of the bluebird. 55. Music.—To the casual listener it may appear that there is much sameness in the music of their songs; but a more careful study will reveal the fact that the variety is great. It is remarkable how, with such rude instruments (an inverted basket for a drum, and a gourd rattle) to accompany them, they succeed, in a series of two hundred or more songs, in producing so many musical changes. In their sacred songs of sequence, where four or more songs of similar import follow one another, as is often
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