![3.11 Fundamental Types Are Not Portable
3.12 Objects Natural Case Study: Arbitrary Sized Integers
3.13 C++20 Feature Mock-Up—Text Formatting with
Function format
3.14 Wrap-Up
Chapter 4. Control Statements, Part 2
4.1 Introduction
4.2 Essentials of Counter-Controlled Iteration
4.3 for Iteration Statement
4.4 Examples Using the for Statement
4.5 Application: Summing Even Integers
4.6 Application: Compound-Interest Calculations
4.7 do…while Iteration Statement
4.8 switch Multiple-Selection Statement
4.9 C++17: Selection Statements with Initializers
4.10 break and continue Statements
4.11 Logical Operators
4.12 Confusing the Equality (==) and Assignment (=)
Operators
4.13 C++20 Feature Mock-Up: [[likely]] and
[[unlikely]] Attributes
4.14 Objects Natural Case Study: Using the miniz-cpp
Library to Write and Read ZIP files
4.15 C++20 Feature Mock-Up: Text Formatting with Field
Widths and Precisions
4.16 Wrap-Up
Chapter 5. Functions
5.1 Introduction
5.2 Program Components in C++
5.3 Math Library Functions
5.4 Function Definitions and Function Prototypes
5.5 Order of Evaluation of a Function’s Arguments
5.6 Function-Prototype and Argument-Coercion Notes](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/44828-250616002912-18fd73e1/85/C-20-for-Programmers-3rd-Edition-P-Deitel-10-320.jpg)
![5.7 C++ Standard Library Headers
5.8 Case Study: Random-Number Generation
5.9 Case Study: Game of Chance; Introducing Scoped enums
5.10 C++11’s More Secure Nondeterministic Random
Numbers
5.11 Scope Rules
5.12 Inline Functions
5.13 References and Reference Parameters
5.14 Default Arguments
5.15 Unary Scope Resolution Operator
5.16 Function Overloading
5.17 Function Templates
5.18 Recursion
5.19 Example Using Recursion: Fibonacci Series
5.20 Recursion vs. Iteration
5.21 C++17 and C++20: [[nodiscard]] Attribute
5.22 Lnfylun Lhqtomh Wjtz Qarcv: Qjwazkrplm xzz
Xndmwwqhlz
5.23 Wrap-Up
Part 2: Arrays, Pointers, Strings and Files
Chapter 6. arrays, vectors, C++20 Ranges and Functional-
Style Programming
6.1 Introduction
6.2 arrays
6.3 Declaring arrays
6.4 Initializing array Elements in a Loop
6.5 Initializing an array with an Initializer List
6.6 C++1 1 Range-Based for and C++20 Range-Based for
with Initializer
6.7 Setting array Elements with Calculations; Introducing
constexpr
6.8 Totaling array Elements
6.9 Using a Primitive Bar Chart to Display array Data](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/44828-250616002912-18fd73e1/85/C-20-for-Programmers-3rd-Edition-P-Deitel-11-320.jpg)
C 20 for Programmers 3rd Edition P. Deitel
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- 5. Deitel® Developer Series C++ 20 for Programmers Paul Deitel • Harvey Deitel
- 6. Many of the designations used by manufacturers and sellers to distinguish their products are claimed as trademarks. Where those designations appear in this book, and the publisher was aware of a trademark claim, the designations have been printed with initial capital letters or in all capitals. The authors and publisher have taken care in the preparation of this book, but make no expressed or implied warranty of any kind and assume no responsibility for errors or omissions. No liability is assumed for incidental or consequential damages in connection with or arising out of the use of the information or programs contained herein. Copyright © 2021 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. This publication is protected by copyright, and permission must be obtained from the publisher prior to any prohibited reproduction, storage in a retrieval system, or transmission in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or likewise. For information regarding permissions, request forms and the appropriate contacts within the Pearson Education Global Rights & Permissions Department, please visit www.pearson.com/permissions. ISBN-13: 978-0-13-690569-1 ISBN-10: 0-13-690569-1
- 7. Contents Preface Part 1: C++ Fundamentals Quickstart Chapter 1. Introduction and Test-Driving a C++ Application Chapter 2. Introduction to C++ Programming Chapter 3. Control Statements, Part 1; Intro to C++20 Text Formatting Chapter 4. Control Statements, Part 2 Chapter 5. Functions Part 2: Arrays, Pointers, Strings and Files Chapter 6. arrays, vectors, C++20 Ranges and Functional- Style Programming Chapter 7. (Downplaying) Pointers in Modern C++ Chapter 8. strings, string_views, Text Files, CSV Files and Regex Part 3: Object-Oriented Programming Chapter 9. Custom Classes Chapter 10. OOP: Inheritance and Runtime Polymorphism Chapter 11. Operator Overloading, Copy/Move Semantics and Smart Pointers Chapter 12. Exceptions and a Look Forward to Contracts Part 4: Standard Library Containers, Iterators and Algorithms Chapter 13. Standard Library Containers and Iterators Chapter 14. Standard Library Algorithms and C++20 Ranges & Views Part 5: Advanced Topics Chapter 15. Templates, C++20 Concepts and Metaprogramming Chapter 16. C++20 Modules: Large-Scale Development
- 8. Chapter 17. Concurrent Programming; Intro to C++20 Coroutines Part 6: Other Topics Chapter 18. Stream I/O; C++20 Text Formatting: A Deeper Look Chapter 19. Other Topics; A Look Toward C++23 and Contracts Part 7: Appendices Appendix A: Operator Precedence and Grouping Appendix B: Character Set Appendix C: Fundamental Types Appendix D: Number Systems Appendix E: Preprocessor Appendix F: Bits, Characters, C Strings and structs Appendix G: C Legacy Code Topics Appendix H: Using the Visual Studio Debugger Appendix I: Using the GNU C++ Debugger Appendix J: Using the Xcode Debugger
- 9. Table of Contents Preface Part 1: C++ Fundamentals Quickstart Chapter 1. Introduction and Test-Driving a C++ Application 1.1 Introduction 1.2 Test-Driving a C++20 Application Chapter 2. Introduction to C++ Programming 2.1 Introduction 2.2 First Program in C++: Displaying a Line of Text 2.3 Modifying Our First C++ Program 2.4 Another C++ Program: Adding Integers 2.5 Arithmetic 2.6 Decision Making: Equality and Relational Operators 2.7 Objects Natural: Creating and Using Objects of Standard Library Class string 2.8 Wrap-Up Chapter 3. Control Statements, Part 1; Intro to C++20 Text Formatting 3.1 Introduction 3.2 Control Structures 3.3 if Single-Selection Statement 3.4 if…else Double-Selection Statement 3.5 while Iteration Statement 3.6 Counter-Controlled Iteration 3.7 Sentinel-Controlled Iteration 3.8 Nested Control Statements 3.9 Compound Assignment Operators 3.10 Increment and Decrement Operators
- 10. 3.11 Fundamental Types Are Not Portable 3.12 Objects Natural Case Study: Arbitrary Sized Integers 3.13 C++20 Feature Mock-Up—Text Formatting with Function format 3.14 Wrap-Up Chapter 4. Control Statements, Part 2 4.1 Introduction 4.2 Essentials of Counter-Controlled Iteration 4.3 for Iteration Statement 4.4 Examples Using the for Statement 4.5 Application: Summing Even Integers 4.6 Application: Compound-Interest Calculations 4.7 do…while Iteration Statement 4.8 switch Multiple-Selection Statement 4.9 C++17: Selection Statements with Initializers 4.10 break and continue Statements 4.11 Logical Operators 4.12 Confusing the Equality (==) and Assignment (=) Operators 4.13 C++20 Feature Mock-Up: [[likely]] and [[unlikely]] Attributes 4.14 Objects Natural Case Study: Using the miniz-cpp Library to Write and Read ZIP files 4.15 C++20 Feature Mock-Up: Text Formatting with Field Widths and Precisions 4.16 Wrap-Up Chapter 5. Functions 5.1 Introduction 5.2 Program Components in C++ 5.3 Math Library Functions 5.4 Function Definitions and Function Prototypes 5.5 Order of Evaluation of a Function’s Arguments 5.6 Function-Prototype and Argument-Coercion Notes
- 11. 5.7 C++ Standard Library Headers 5.8 Case Study: Random-Number Generation 5.9 Case Study: Game of Chance; Introducing Scoped enums 5.10 C++11’s More Secure Nondeterministic Random Numbers 5.11 Scope Rules 5.12 Inline Functions 5.13 References and Reference Parameters 5.14 Default Arguments 5.15 Unary Scope Resolution Operator 5.16 Function Overloading 5.17 Function Templates 5.18 Recursion 5.19 Example Using Recursion: Fibonacci Series 5.20 Recursion vs. Iteration 5.21 C++17 and C++20: [[nodiscard]] Attribute 5.22 Lnfylun Lhqtomh Wjtz Qarcv: Qjwazkrplm xzz Xndmwwqhlz 5.23 Wrap-Up Part 2: Arrays, Pointers, Strings and Files Chapter 6. arrays, vectors, C++20 Ranges and Functional- Style Programming 6.1 Introduction 6.2 arrays 6.3 Declaring arrays 6.4 Initializing array Elements in a Loop 6.5 Initializing an array with an Initializer List 6.6 C++1 1 Range-Based for and C++20 Range-Based for with Initializer 6.7 Setting array Elements with Calculations; Introducing constexpr 6.8 Totaling array Elements 6.9 Using a Primitive Bar Chart to Display array Data
- 12. Graphically 6.10 Using array Elements as Counters 6.11 Using arrays to Summarize Survey Results 6.12 Sorting and Searching arrays 6.13 Multidimensional arrays 6.14 Intro to Functional-Style Programming 6.15 Objects Natural Case Study: C++ Standard Library Class Template vector 6.16 Wrap-Up Chapter 7. (Downplaying) Pointers in Modern C++ 7.1 Introduction 7.2 Pointer Variable Declarations and Initialization 7.3 Pointer Operators 7.4 Pass-by-Reference with Pointers 7.5 Built-In Arrays 7.6 C++20: Using to_array to convert a Built-in Array to a std::array 7.7 Using const with Pointers and the Data They Point To 7.8 sizeof Operator 7.9 Pointer Expressions and Pointer Arithmetic 7.10 Objects Natural Case Study: C++20 spans—Views of Contiguous Container Elements 7.11 A Brief Intro to Pointer-Based Strings 7.12 Looking Ahead to Other Pointer Topics 7.13 Wrap-Up Chapter 8. strings, string_views, Text Files, CSV Files and Regex 8.1 Introduction 8.2 string Assignment and Concatenation 8.3 Comparing strings 8.4 Substrings 8.5 Swapping strings 8.6 string Characteristics
- 13. 8.7 Finding Substrings and Characters in a string 8.8 Replacing Characters in a string 8.9 Inserting Characters into a string 8.10 C++11 Numeric Conversions 8.11 C++17 string_view 8.12 Files and Streams 8.13 Creating a Sequential File 8.14 Reading Data from a Sequential File 8.15 C++14 Reading and Writing Quoted Text 8.16 Updating Sequential Files 8.17 String Stream Processing 8.18 Raw String Literals 8.19 Objects Natural Case Study: Reading and Analyzing a CSV File Containing Titanic Disaster Data 8.20 Objects Natural Case Study: Introduction to Regular Expressions 8.21 Wrap-Up Part 3: Object-Oriented Programming Chapter 9. Custom Classes 9.1 Introduction 9.2 Test-Driving an Account Object 9.3 Account Class with a Data Member and Set and Get Member Functions 9.4 Account Class: Custom Constructors 9.5 Software Engineering with Set and Get Member Functions 9.6 Account Class with a Balance 9.7 Time Class Case Study: Separating Interface from Implementation 9.8 Compilation and Linking Process 9.9 Class Scope and Accessing Class Members 9.10 Access Functions and Utility Functions 9.11 Time Class Case Study: Constructors with Default Arguments
- 14. 9.12 Destructors 9.13 When Constructors and Destructors Are Called 9.14 Time Class Case Study: A Subtle Trap—Returning a Reference or a Pointer to a private Data Member 9.15 Default Assignment Operator 9.16 const Objects and const Member Functions 9.17 Composition: Objects as Members of Classes 9.18 friend Functions and friend Classes 9.19 The this Pointer 9.20 static Class Members—Classwide Data and Member Functions 9.21 Aggregates in C++20 9.22 Objects Natural Case Study: Serialization with JSON 9.23 Wrap-Up Chapter 10. OOP: Inheritance and Runtime Polymorphism 10.1 Introduction 10.2 Base Classes and Derived Classes 10.3 Relationship between Base and Derived Classes 10.4 Constructors and Destructors in Derived Classes 10.5 Intro to Runtime Polymorphism: Polymorphic Video Game 10.6 Relationships Among Objects in an Inheritance Hierarchy 10.7 Virtual Functions and Virtual Destructors 10.8 Abstract Classes and Pure virtual Functions 10.9 Case Study: Payroll System Using Runtime Polymorphism 10.10 Runtime Polymorphism, Virtual Functions and Dynamic Binding “Under the Hood” 10.11 Non-Virtual Interface (NVI) Idiom 10.12 Program to an Interface, Not an Implementation 10.13 Runtime Polymorphism with std::variant and std::visit 10.14 Multiple Inheritance 10.15 protected Class Members
- 15. 10.16 public, protected and private Inheritance 10.17 Wrap-Up Chapter 11. Operator Overloading, Copy/Move Semantics and Smart Pointers 11.1 Introduction 11.2 Using the Overloaded Operators of Standard Library Class string 11.3 Operator Overloading Fundamentals 11.4 (Downplaying) Dynamic Memory Management with new and delete 11.5 Modern C++ Dynamic Memory Management—RAII and Smart Pointers 11.6 MyArray Case Study: Crafting a Valuable Class with Operator Overloading 11.7 C++20 Three-Way Comparison Operator (<=>) 11.8 Converting Between Types 11.9 explicit Constructors and Conversion Operators 11.10 Overloading the Function Call Operator () 11.11 Wrap-Up Chapter 12. Exceptions and a Look Forward to Contracts 12.1 Introduction 12.2 Exception-Handling Flow of Control; Defining an Exception Class 12.3 Exception Safety Guarantees and noexcept 12.4 Rethrowing an Exception 12.5 Stack Unwinding and Uncaught Exceptions 12.6 When to Use Exception Handling 12.7 Constructors, Destructors and Exception Handling 12.8 Processing new Failures 12.9 Standard Library Exception Hierarchy 12.10 C++’s Alternative to the finally Block 12.11 Libraries Often Support Both Exceptions and Error Codes
- 16. 12.12 Logging 12.13 Looking Ahead to Contracts 12.14 Wrap-Up Part 4: Standard Library Containers, Iterators and Algorithms Chapter 13. Standard Library Containers and Iterators 13.1 Introduction 13.2 Introduction to Containers 13.3 Working with Iterators 13.4 A Brief Introduction to Algorithms 13.5 Sequence Containers 13.6 vector Sequence Container 13.7 list Sequence Container 13.8 deque Sequence Container 13.9 Associative Containers 13.10 Container Adaptors 13.11 bitset Near Container 13.12 Optional: A Brief Intro to Big O 13.13 Optional: A Brief Intro to Hash Tables 13.14 Wrap-Up Chapter 14. Standard Library Algorithms and C++20 Ranges & Views 14.1 Introduction 14.2 Algorithm Requirements: C++20 Concepts 14.3 Lambdas and Algorithms 14.4 Algorithms 14.5 Function Objects (Functors) 14.6 Projections 14.7 C++20 Views and Functional-Style Programming 14.8 Intro to Parallel Algorithms 14.9 Standard Library Algorithm Summary 14.10 A Look Ahead to C++23 Ranges 14.11 Wrap-Up
- 17. Part 5: Advanced Topics Chapter 15. Templates, C++20 Concepts and Metaprogramming 15.1 Introduction 15.2 Custom Class Templates and Compile-Time Polymorphism 15.3 C++20 Function Template Enhancements 15.4 C++20 Concepts: A First Look 15.5 Type Traits 15.6 C++20 Concepts: A Deeper Look 15.7 Testing C++20 Concepts with static_assert 15.8 Creating a Custom Algorithm 15.9 Creating a Custom Container and Iterators 15.10 Default Arguments for Template Type Parameters 15.11 Variable Templates 15.12 Variadic Templates and Fold Expressions 15.13 Template Metaprogramming 15.14 Wrap-Up Chapter 16. C++20 Modules: Large-Scale Development 16.1 Introduction 16.2 Compilation and Linking Prior to C++20 16.3 Advantages and Goals of Modules 16.4 Example: Transitioning to Modules—Header Units 16.5 Example: Creating and Using a Module 16.6 Global Module Fragment 16.7 Separating Interface from Implementation 16.8 Partitions 16.9 Additional Modules Examples 16.10 Modules Can Reduce Translation Unit Sizes and Compilation Times 16.11 Migrating Code to Modules 16.12 Future of Modules and Modules Tooling 16.13 Wrap-Up Chapter 17. Concurrent Programming; Intro to C++20
- 18. Coroutines Part 6: Other Topics Chapter 18. Stream I/O; C++20 Text Formatting: A Deeper Look Chapter 19. Other Topics; A Look Toward C++23 and Contracts Part 7: Appendices Appendix A: Operator Precedence and Grouping Appendix B: Character Set Appendix C: Fundamental Types Appendix D: Number Systems Appendix E: Preprocessor Appendix F: Bits, Characters, C Strings and structs Appendix G: C Legacy Code Topics Appendix H: Using the Visual Studio Debugger Appendix I: Using the GNU C++ Debugger Appendix J: Using the Xcode Debugger
- 19. Preface Welcome to the C++ programming language and C++20 for Programmers. This book presents leading-edge computing technologies for software developers. These are exciting times in the programming-languages community with each of the major languages striving to keep pace with compelling new programming technologies. The ISO C++ Standards Committee now releases a new standard every three years and the compiler vendors implement the new features promptly. C++20 for Programmers is based on the new C++20 standard. Live-Code Approach At the heart of the book is the Deitel signature live-code approach. We present most concepts in the context of complete working programs followed by one or more sample executions. Read the Before You Begin section that follows this Preface to learn how to set up your Windows, macOS or Linux computer to run the hundreds of code examples. All the source code is available at https://www.deitel.com/c-plus-plus-20-for-programmers We recommend that you compile and run each program as you study it. “Rough-Cut” E-Book for O’Reilly Online Learning Subscribers You are viewing an early-access “rough cut” of C++20 for Programmers. We prepared this content carefully, but it has not yet been reviewed or copy edited and is subject to change. As we complete each chapter, we’ll post it here. Please send any corrections, comments, questions and suggestions for improvement to paul@deitel.com and I’ll respond promptly. Check here frequently for updates. “Sneak Peek” Videos for O’Reilly Online Learning Subscribers
- 20. As an O’Reilly Online Learning subscriber, you also have access to the “sneak peek” of our new C++20 Fundamentals LiveLessons videos at: https://learning.oreilly.com/videos/c-20-fundamentals-part Co-author Paul Deitel immediately records each video lesson as we complete each rough-cut e-book chapter. Lessons go live on O’Reilly Online Learning a few days later. Again, check here frequently for updates. Modern C++ 20 The C++ programming language is popular for developing systems software, embedded systems, operating systems, real-time systems, computer games, communications systems and other high-performance computer applications. C++20 for Programmers is an introductory-through- intermediate-level, professional tutorial presentation of C++. The book is not a full-language reference manual, nor is it a “cookbook.” We focus on Modern C++, which consists of the four most recent C++ standards—C++11, C++14, C++17 and C++20. Throughout the book, features from these standards are marked with icons in the margins like the 20 icon shown here. Compilers We tested every program in the book on three popular free compilers: • Visual C++ in Microsoft Visual Studio Community edition on Windows, • Clang in Xcode on macOS, and • GNU C++ on Linux and in the GNU Compiler Collection (GCC) Docker container. At the time of this writing, some C++20 features are fully implemented in all three compilers, some are implemented in a subset of the three and some are not implemented at all. We point out these issues as appropriate and will update our online content as the compiler vendors implement the rest of C++20’s features. C++20 compiler support for many more compilers is tracked at https://en.cppreference.com/w/cpp/compiler_support
- 21. We’ll also post updates on the book’s website at https://deitel.com/books/c-plus-plus-20-for-programmers Target Audiences C++20 for Programmers and our C++20 Fundamentals LiveLessons videos have several target audiences: • Non-C++ software developers who are about to do a C++ project and want to learn the latest version of the language, C++20, in the context of a professional-style, language tutorial. • Software developers who may have learned C++ in college or used it professionally some time ago and want to refresh their C++ knowledge in the context of C++20. • C++ software developers who want to learn C++20 in the context of a professional-style, language tutorial. PERF Security Focus on Performance and Security Issues Throughout the book, we call your attention to performance and security issues with the icons you see here in the margin. “Objects Natural” Learning Approach In your C++ programs, you’ll create and use many objects of carefully- developed-and-tested preexisting classes that enable you to perform significant tasks with minimal code. These classes typically come from: • the C++ Standard Library, • platform-specific libraries, such as those provided by Microsoft Windows, Apple macOS or various Linux versions, • free third-party C++ libraries, often created by the open-source community, and • libraries created by fellow developers, such as those in your organization. To help you appreciate this style of programming, early in the book you’ll create and use objects of preexisting classes before creating your own custom
- 22. classes in later chapters. We call this the “objects natural” approach. Our “Objects Natural” Learning Approach evolved organically as we worked on our Python for Programmers book (https://learning.oreilly.com/library/view/python- for-programmers/9780135231364/) and our Python Fundamentals LiveLessons videos (https://learning.oreilly.com/videos/python- fundamentals/9780135917411), but C++20 for Programmers is the first book in which we’re using the term, “Objects Natural.” “Rough-Cut” Table of Contents (Subject to Change) Part 1: C++ Fundamentals Quickstart 1. Introduction and Test-Driving a C++ Application 2. Introduction to C++ Programming 3. Control Statements, Part 1; Intro to C++20 Text Formatting 4. Control Statements, Part 2 5. Functions Part 2: Arrays, Pointers, Strings and Files 6. array, vectors, C++20 Ranges and Functional-Style Programming 7. (Downplaying) Pointers in Modern C++ 8. string, Regular Expressions and Files Part 3: Object-Oriented Programming 9. Classes 10. Inheritance and Polymorphism 11. Operator Overloading 12. Exceptions: A Deeper Look Part 4: Standard Library Containers, Iterators and Algorithms 13. Standard Library Containers and Iterators 14. Standard Library Algorithms; Functional Programming: A Deeper Look Part 5: Advanced Topics 15. C++20 Modules
- 23. 16. Intro to Custom Templates and C++20 Concepts 17. Concurrent Programming; Intro to C++20 Coroutines Part 6: Other Topics 18. Stream I/O; C++20 Text Formatting: A Deeper Look 19. Other Topics; A Look Toward C++23 and Contracts Part 7: Appendices A. Operator Precedence and Grouping B. Character Set C. Fundamental Types D. Number Systems E. Preprocessor F. Bits, Characters, C Strings and structs G. C Legacy Code Topics H. Using the Visual Studio Debugger I. Using the GNU C++ Debugger J. Using the Xcode Debugger Contacting the Authors As you read the book, if you have questions, we’re easy to reach at deitel@deitel.com or https://deitel.com/contact-us We’ll respond promptly. For book updates, visit https://deitel.com/c-plus-plus-20-for-programmers Join the Deitel & Associates, Inc. Social Media Communities Join the Deitel social media communities on • Facebook®—https://facebook.com/DeitelFan
- 24. • LinkedIn®—https://bit.ly/DeitelLinkedIn • Twitter®—https://twitter.com/deitel • YouTube®—https://youtube.com/DeitelTV About the Authors Paul J. Deitel, CEO and Chief Technical Officer of Deitel & Associates, Inc., is an MIT graduate with 39 years of experience in computing. Paul is one of the world’s most experienced programming-languages trainers, having taught professional courses to software developers since 1992. He has delivered hundreds of programming courses to academic, industry, government and military clients internationally, including Pearson Education through O’Reilly Online Learning, Cisco, IBM, Siemens, Sun Microsystems (now Oracle), Dell, Fidelity, NASA at the Kennedy Space Center, the National Severe Storm Laboratory, White Sands Missile Range, Rogue Wave Software, Boeing, Nortel Networks, Puma, iRobot, UCLA and many more. He and his co-author, Dr. Harvey M. Deitel, are the world’s best-selling programming-language textbook/professional book/video/webinar authors. Dr. Harvey M. Deitel, Chairman and Chief Strategy Officer of Deitel & Associates, Inc., has 59 years of experience in computing. Dr. Deitel earned B.S. and M.S. degrees in Electrical Engineering from MIT and a Ph.D. in Mathematics from Boston University— he studied computing in each of these programs before they spun off Computer Science. He has extensive college teaching experience, including earning tenure and serving as the Chairman of the Computer Science Department at Boston College before founding Deitel & Associates, Inc., in 1991 with his son, Paul. The Deitels’ publications have earned international recognition, with more than 100 translations published in Japanese, German, Russian, Spanish, French, Polish, Italian, Simplified Chinese, Traditional Chinese, Korean, Portuguese, Greek, Urdu and Turkish. Dr. Deitel has delivered hundreds of programming courses to academic, corporate, government and military clients. About Deitel® & Associates, Inc. Deitel & Associates, Inc., founded by Paul Deitel and Harvey Deitel, is an internationally recognized authoring and corporate training organization, specializing in computer programming languages, object technology, mobile
- 25. app development and Internet-and-web software technology. The company’s training clients include some of the world’s largest companies, government agencies, branches of the military, and academic institutions. The company offers instructor-led training courses delivered at client sites worldwide on major programming languages. Through its 45-year publishing partnership with Pearson/Prentice Hall, Deitel & Associates, Inc., publishes leading-edge programming textbooks and professional books in print and e-book formats, LiveLessons video courses, O’Reilly Online Learning live webinars and Revel™ interactive multimedia courses. To learn more about Deitel on-site corporate training, visit https://deitel.com/training To request a proposal for on-site, instructor-led training worldwide, write to: deitel@deitel.com Individuals wishing to purchase Deitel books can do so at https://www.amazon.com Bulk orders by corporations, the government, the military and academic institutions should be placed directly with Pearson. For more information, visit https://www.informit.com/store/sales.aspx
- 26. Part 1: C++ Fundamentals Quickstart
- 27. Chapter 1. Introduction and Test-Driving a C++ Application
- 29. Objectives In this chapter, you’ll do one or more of the following: ■ Test-drive a C++20 application in the Visual C++ compiler in Microsoft Visual Studio Community edition on Windows. ■ Test-drive a C++20 application in the Clang compiler in Xcode on macOS. ■ Test-drive a C++20 application in the GNU C++ compiler on Linux. ■ Test-drive a C++20 application in the GNU Compiler Collection (GCC) Docker Container in Docker running natively over Windows 10, macOS and/or Linux. 1.1 Introduction 1.2 Test-Driving a C++20 Application 1.2.1 Compiling and Running a C++20 Application with Visual Studio 2019 Community Edition on Windows 10 1.2.2 Compiling and Running a C++20 Application with Xcode on macOS 1.2.3 Compiling and Running a C++20 Application with GNU C++ on Linux 1.2.4 Compiling and Running a C++20 Application with GNU C++ in the GCC Docker Container in Docker Running Natively Over Windows 10, macOS and/or Linux 1.1 Introduction Welcome to C++—one of the world’s most widely used, high-performance, computer-programming languages—and its current version C++20. If you’re reading this, you’re on the O’Reilly Online Learning platform (formerly called Safari) viewing an early-access Rough Cut of our forthcoming book C++20 for Programmers, scheduled for publication this summer. We have prepared this content carefully, but it has not yet been peer reviewed or copy edited and is subject to change. When we complete this chapter, we’ll post the reviewed and copy edited version here.
- 30. Please send any corrections, comments, questions and suggestions for improvement to paul@deitel.com and I’ll respond promptly. Check for updates here and on the book’s web page: https://deitel.com/c-plus-plus-20-for-programmers This book is written for developers using one or more of the following popular desktop platforms—Microsoft Windows 10, macOS and Linux. We tested every program on three popular free compilers: • Visual C++ in Microsoft Visual Studio Community edition on Windows 10, • Clang in Xcode on macOS, and • GNU C++ on Linux and in the GNU Compiler Collection (GCC) Docker container.1 1. At Deitel, we use current, powerful multicore Apple Mac computers that enable us to run macOS natively, and Windows 10 and Linux through virtual machines in VMWare Fusion. Docker runs natively on Windows, macOS and Linux systems. This early-access version of Chapter 1 contains test-drives demonstrating how to compile and run a C++20 application using these compilers and platforms. The published version of this chapter will contain additional introductory material. At the time of this writing, some C++20 features are fully implemented in all three compilers, some are implemented in a subset of the three and some are not implemented at all. We point out these issues as appropriate and will update our online content as the compiler vendors implement the rest of C++20’s features. C++20 compiler support for many more compilers is tracked at: https://en.cppreference.com/w/cpp/compiler_support “Sneak Peek” Videos for O’Reilly Online Learning Subscribers As an O’Reilly Online Learning subscriber, you also have access to the “sneak peek” of our new C++20 Fundamentals LiveLessons videos at: https://learning.oreilly.com/videos/c-20-fundamentals-part
- 31. Co-author Paul Deitel immediately records each video lesson as we complete the corresponding chapter. Lessons go live on O’Reilly Online Learning a few days later. Again, check here frequently for updates. 1.2 Test-Driving a C++20 Application In this section, you’ll compile, run and interact with your first C++ application—a guess-the-number game, which picks a random number from 1 to 1000 and prompts you to guess it. If you guess correctly, the game ends. If you guess incorrectly, the application indicates whether your guess is higher or lower than the correct number. There’s no limit on the number of guesses you can make. Usually, this application randomly selects the correct answer as you execute the program. We’ve disabled that aspect of the application so that it uses the same correct answer every time the program executes (though this may vary by compiler). So, you can use the same guesses we use and see the same results. Summary of the Test-Drives We’ll demonstrate running a C++ application using: • Microsoft Visual Studio 2019 Community edition for Windows (Section 1.2.1) • Clang in Xcode on macOS (Section 1.2.2). • GNU C++ in a shell on Linux (Section 1.2.3) • GNU C++ in a shell running inside the GNU Compiler Collection (GCC) Docker container. This requires Docker to be installed and running. You need to read only the section that corresponds to your platform. At the time of this writing, GNU C++ supports the most C++20 features of the three compilers we use. 1.2.1 Compiling and Running a C++20 Application with Visual Studio 2019 Community Edition on Windows 10 In this section, you’ll run a C++ program on Windows using Microsoft Visual Studio 2019 Community edition. There are several versions of Visual Studio available—on some versions, the options, menus and instructions we
- 32. present might differ slightly. From this point forward, we'll simply say “Visual Studio” or “the IDE.” Step 1: Checking Your Setup If you have not already done so, read the Before You Begin section of this book for instructions on installing the IDE and downloading the book’s code examples. Step 2: Launching Visual Studio Open Visual Studio from the Start menu. The IDE displays the following Visual Studio 2019 window containing: Close this window for now by clicking the X in its tab—you can access this window any time by selecting File > Start Window. We use the > character to indicate selecting a menu item from a menu. For example, the notation File > Open indicates that you should select the Open menu item from the File menu.
- 33. Step 3: Creating a Project A project is a group of related files, such as the C++ source-code files that compose an application. Visual Studio organizes applications into projects and solutions, which contain one or more projects. Multiple-project solutions are used to create large-scale applications. Each application in this book requires only a single-project solution. To work our code examples, you’ll begin with an Empty Project and add files to it. To create a project: 1. Select File > New > Project… to display the Create a New Project dialog: 2. In the preceding dialog, select the Empty Project template with the tags C++, Windows and Console. This template is for programs that execute at the command line in a Command Prompt window.
- 34. Depending on the version of Visual Studio you’re using and the options you have installed, there may be many other project templates installed. You can narrow down your choices using the Search for templates textbox and the drop-down lists below it. Click Next to display the Configure your new project dialog: 3. Provide a Project name and Location for your project. For the Project name, we specified cpp20_test. For the Location, we selected the examples folder containing this book’s code examples. Click Create to open your new project in Visual Studio. At this point, the Visual Studio creates your project, places its folder in C:UsersYourUserAccountDocumentsexamples (or the folder you specified) and opens the main window:
- 35. This window displays editors as tabbed windows (one for each file) when you’re editing code. On the left side is the Solution Explorer for viewing and managing your application’s files. In this book’s examples, you’ll typically place each program’s code files in the Source Files folder. If the Solution Explorer is not displayed, you can display it by selecting View > Solution Explorer. Step 4: Adding the GuessNumber.cpp File into the Project Next, you’ll add GuessNumber.cpp to the project you created in Step 3. In the Solution Explorer: 1. Right-click the Source Files folder and select Add > Existing Item…. 2. In the dialog that appears, navigate to the ch01 subfolder of the book’s examples folder, GuessNumber.cpp and click Add.2 2. For the multiple source-code-file programs that you’ll see in later chapters, select all the files for a given program. When you begin creating programs yourself, you can right click the Source Files folder and select Add > New Item… to display a dialog for adding a new file. Step 5: Configuring Your Project to Use C++20 The Visual C++ compiler in Visual Studio supports several versions of the C++ standard. For this book, we use C++20, which we must configure in our project’s settings:
- 36. 1. Right-click the project’s node— —in the Solution Explorer and select Properties to display the project’s cpp20_test Property Pages dialog: 2. In the left column, expand the C/C++ node, then select Language. 3. In the right column, click in the field to the right of C++ Language Standard, click the down arrow, then select Preview - Features from the Latest C++ Working Draft (/std:c++latest) and click OK. In a future version of Visual Studio, Microsoft will change this option to ISO C++20 Standard (/std:c++20). Step 6: Compiling and Running the Project To compile and run the project so you can test-drive the application, select Debug > Start without debugging or type Ctrl + F5. If the program
- 37. compiles correctly, Visual Studio opens a Command Prompt window and executes the program. We changed the Command Prompt’s color scheme and font size for readability: Step 7: Entering Your First Guess At the ? prompt, type 500 and press Enter. The application displays "Too high. Try again." to indicate the value you entered is greater than the number the application chose as the correct guess: Step 8: Entering Another Guess At the next prompt, type 250 and press Enter. The application displays "Too high. Try again.", because the value you entered once again is greater than the correct guess:
- 38. Step 9: Entering Additional Guesses Continue to play the game by entering values until you guess the correct number. When you guess correctly, the application displays "Excellent! You guessed the number!": Step 10: Playing the Game Again or Exiting the Application After you guess the correct number, the application asks if you’d like to play another game. At the "Would you like to play again (y or n)?" prompt, entering y causes the application to choose a new number and start a new game. Entering n terminates the application. Each time you
- 39. execute this application from the beginning (Step 6), it will choose the same numbers for you to guess. Reusing This Project for Subsequent Examples You can follow the steps in this section to create a separate project for every application in the book. However, for our examples, you may find it more convenient to remove the current program from the project then add a new one. To remove a file from your project (but not your system), select it in the Solution Explorer then press Del (or Delete). You can then repeat Step 4 to add a different program to the project. 1.2.2 Compiling and Running a C++20 Application with Xcode on macOS In this section, you’ll run a C++ program on a macOS using the Clang compiler in Apple’s Xcode IDE. Step 1: Checking Your Setup If you have not already done so, read the Before You Begin section of this book for instructions on installing the IDE and downloading the book’s code examples. Step 2: Launching Xcode Open a Finder window, select Applications and double-click the Xcode icon ( ). If this is your first time running Xcode, the Welcome to Xcode window appears:
- 40. Close this window by clicking the X in the upper left corner—you can access it any time by selecting Window > Welcome to Xcode. We use the > character to indicate selecting a menu item from a menu. For example, the notation File > Open… indicates that you should select the Open… menu item from the File menu. Step 3: Creating a Project A project is a group of related files, such as the C++ source-code files that compose an application. The Xcode projects we created for this book’s examples are Command Line Tool projects that you’ll execute directly in the IDE. To create a project: 1. Select File > New > Project…. 2. At the top of the Choose a template for your new project dialog, click macOS. 3. Under Application, click Command Line Tool and click Next. 4. For Product Name, enter a name for your project—we specified cpp20_test. 5. In the Language drop-down list, select C++ then click Next.
- 41. 6. Specify where you want to save your project. We selected the examples folder containing this book’s code examples. 7. Click Create. Xcode creates your project and displays the workspace window initially showing three areas—the Navigator area, Editor area and Utilities area: The left-side Navigator area has icons at its top for the navigators that can be displayed there. For this book, you’ll primarily work with • Project ( )—Shows all the files and folders in your project. • Issue ( )—Shows you warnings and errors generated by the compiler. Clicking a navigator button displays the corresponding navigator panel. The middle Editor area is for managing project settings and editing source code. This area is always displayed in your workspace window. Selecting a file in the Project navigator, the file’s contents display in the Editor area. You will not use the right-side Utilities area in this book. There’s also a Debug area in which you’ll run and interact with the guess-the-number program. This will appear below the Editor area. The workspace window’s toolbar contains options for executing a program:
- 42. displaying the progress of tasks executing in Xcode: and hiding or showing the left (Navigator), right (Utilities) and bottom (Debug) areas: Step 4: Configuring the Project to Compile Using C++20 The Clang compiler in Xcode supports several versions of the C++ standard. For this book, we use C++20, which we must configure in our project’s settings: 1. In the Project navigator, select your project’s name (cpp20_test). 2. In the Editors area’s left side, select your project’s name under TARGET. 3. At the top of the Editors area, click Build Settings, and just below it, click All. 4. Scroll to the Apple Clang - Language - C++ section. 5. Click the value to the right of C++ Language Dialect and select Other…. 6. In the popup area, replace the current setting with c++2a and press Enter. In a future version of Xcode, Apple will provide a C++20 option for C++ Language Dialect. Step 5: Deleting the main.cpp File from the Project By default, Xcode creates a main.cpp source-code file containing a simple program that displays "Hello, World!". You won’t use main.cpp in this test-drive, so you should delete the file. In the Project navigator, right- click the main.cpp file and select Delete. In the dialog that appears, select Move to Trash. The file will not be removed from your system until you empty your trash.
- 43. Step 6: Adding the GuessNumber.cpp File into the Project In a Finder window, open the ch01 folder in the book’s examples folder, then drag GuessNumber.cpp onto the Guess Number folder in the Project navigator. In the dialog that appears, ensure that Copy items if needed is checked, then click Finish.3 3. For the multiple source-code-file programs that you’ll see later in the book, drag all the files for a given program to the project’s folder. When you begin creating your own programs, you can right click the project’s folder and select New File… to display a dialog for adding a new file. Step 7: Compiling and Running the Project To compile and run the project so you can test-drive the application, simply click the run ( ) button on Xcode’s toolbar. If the program compiles correctly, Xcode opens the Debug area and executes the program in the right half of the Debug area: The application displays "Please type your first guess.", then displays a question mark (?) as a prompt on the next line. Step 8: Entering Your First Guess Click in the Debug area, then type 500 and press Return The application displays "Too low. Try again.", meaning that the value you entered is less than the number the application chose as the correct guess. Step 9: Entering Another Guess
- 44. At the next prompt, enter 750: The application displays "Too low. Try again.", because the value you entered once again is less than the correct guess. Step 10: Entering Additional Guesses Continue to play the game by entering values until you guess the correct number. When you guess correctly, the application displays "Excellent! You guessed the number.": Playing the Game Again or Exiting the Application After you guess the correct number, the application asks if you’d like to play another game. At the "Would you like to play again (y or n)?" prompt, entering y causes the application to choose a new number and start a new game. Entering n terminates the application. Each time you execute this application from the beginning (Step 7), it will choose the same numbers for you to guess.
- 45. Reusing This Project for Subsequent Examples You can follow the steps in this section to create a separate project for every application in the book. However, for our examples, you may find it more convenient to remove the current program from the project then add a new one. To remove a file from your project (but not your system), right-click the file in the Project navigator and select Delete. In the dialog that appears, select Move to Trash. You can then repeat Step 6 to add a different program to the project. 1.2.3 Compiling and Running a C++20 Application with GNU C++ on Linux For this test drive, we assume that you read the Before You Begin section and that you placed the downloaded examples in your user account’s Documents folder. Step 1: Changing to the ch01 Folder From a Linux shell, use the cd command to change to the ch01 subfolder of the book’s examples folder: Click here to view code image ~$ cd ~/Documents/examples/ch01 ~/Documents/examples/ch01$ In this section’s figures, we use bold to highlight the text that you type. The prompt in our Ubuntu Linux shell uses a tilde (~) to represent the home directory. Each prompt ends with the dollar sign ($). The prompt may differ on your Linux system. Step 2: Compiling the Application Before running the application, you must first compile it: Click here to view code image ~/Documents/examples/ch01$ g++ -std=c++2a GuessNumber.cpp - ~/Documents/examples/ch01$
- 46. The g++ command compiles the application: • The -std=c++2a option indicates that we’re using C++20—c++2a will become c++20 in a future GNU C++ release. • The -o option names the executable file (GuessNumber) that you’ll use to run the program. Step 3: Running the Application Type ./GuessNumber at the prompt and press Enter to run the program: Click here to view code image ~/Documents/examples/ch01$ ./GuessNumber I have a number between 1 and 1000. Can you guess my number? Please type your first guess. ? The ./ tells Linux to run a file from the current directory and is required to indicate that GuessNumber is an executable file. Step 4: Entering Your First Guess The application displays "Please type your first guess.", then displays a question mark (?) as a prompt on the next line. At the prompt, enter 500—note that the outputs may vary based on the compiler you’re using: Click here to view code image ~/Documents/examples/ch01$ ./GuessNumber I have a number between 1 and 1000. Can you guess my number? Please type your first guess. ? 500 Too high. Try again. ?
- 47. The application displays "Too high. Try again.", meaning that the value you entered is greater than the number the application chose as the correct guess. Step 5: Entering Another Guess At the next prompt, enter 250: Click here to view code image ~/Documents/examples/ch01$ ./GuessNumber I have a number between 1 and 1000. Can you guess my number? Please type your first guess. ? 500 Too high. Try again. ? 250 Too low. Try again. ? This time the application displays "Too low. Try again.", because the value you entered is less than the correct guess. Step 6: Entering Additional Guesses Continue to play the game by entering values until you guess the correct number. When you guess correctly, the application displays "Excellent! You guessed the number.": Click here to view code image Too low. Try again. ? 375 Too low. Try again. ? 437 Too high. Try again. ? 406 Too high. Try again. ? 391
- 48. Too high. Try again. ? 383 Too low. Try again. ? 387 Too high. Try again. ? 385 Too high. Try again. ? 384 Excellent! You guessed the number. Would you like to play again (y or n)? Step 7: Playing the Game Again or Exiting the Application After you guess the correct number, the application asks if you’d like to play another game. At the "Would you like to play again (y or n)?" prompt, entering y causes the application to choose a new number and start a new game. Entering n terminates the application and returns you to the shell. Each time you execute this application from the beginning (Step 3), it will choose the same numbers for you to guess. 1.2.4 Compiling and Running a C++20 Application with GNU C++ in the GCC Docker Container in Docker Running Natively Over Windows 10, macOS and/or Linux At the time of this writing, GNU C++ implements the most C++20 features. For this reason, you may want to use the latest GNU C++ compiler on your system. One of the most convenient cross-platform ways to do this is by using the GNU Compiler Collection (GCC) Docker container. This section assumes you’ve already installed Docker Desktop (Windows or macOS) or Docker Engine (Linux). Executing the GNU Compiler Collection (GCC) Docker Container Open a Command Prompt (Windows), Terminal (macOS/Linux) or shell (Linux), then perform the following steps to launch the GCC Docker Container: 1. Use the cd command to navigate to the examples folder containing this book’s examples.
- 49. Discovering Diverse Content Through Random Scribd Documents
- 50. Fig. 34—Showing how to force glass blowpipe (A) into vitreous (B). (Page 80.)
- 51. Fig. 35—Showing bulging out of vitreous caused by blowing air through glass blowpipe. (Page 80.)
- 52. Fig. 36—Showing the vitreous (A) removed. Holding the eye suspended by its optic nerve, force the glass blowpipe through the vitreous until it all but touches the posterior part of the retina (Fig. 34); blow gently at first, increasing the pressure until the vitreous suddenly bulges outward. (Fig. 35.) If the iris has been cut away close to the ora serrata, the vitreous will not only bulge forward, but it will fall out. If, however, it does not detach itself at once, insert the scalpel close to the choroid and with its flat side press downward until a separation occurs. Do not let the vitreous drop out too suddenly, because it may tear the retina. Let the vitreous detach itself slowly by the force of its own weight, though it will be well to hold some of its weight on the scalpel. (Fig. 36.)
- 53. Fig. 37—A. Showing retina folded upon itself by blowing air at it through the glass blowpipe. (Page 83.)
- 54. Fig. 38—A. Showing folded retina suspended from its attachment, so sclerotic and choroid may be easily cut away. (Page 83.) After the vitreous has been removed, turn the eye upward, and by blowing strongly through the blowpipe at the marginal edge of the retina, turn the retina upon itself. Repeat this until the retina lies in a small wrinkled lump at the “bottom” of the posterior part of the eye. (Fig. 37.) Invert the eye (Fig. 38) and cut away both the choroid and the sclerotic close to the optic nerve. No care need be taken in doing this until the scissors come close to the optic nerve. (Fig. 39.)
- 55. Fig. 39—Showing the sclerotic nearly all cut away.
- 56. Fig. 40—Isolated retina, with optic nerve attached. After the choroid and the sclerotic have been cut away, drop the retina into some water, and it will slowly unfold itself by “ballooning” out into a perfect and beautiful specimen. (Fig. 40.) But, if it is desired to study the specimen closely, it is better to suspend it in a jar or bottle made of thin glass, and containing a 5 per cent. solution of formaldehyde. Remember that the retina is a delicate membrane in any state; the slightest rough handling may cause it to be torn, or otherwise damaged. If the vessel, in which the specimen has been placed and suspended, has enough preserving fluid to completely fill it, and it is firmly stoppered, the whole thing may be inverted, and turned in any direction, even abruptly, without fear of damaging the retina. This way of keeping the retina will give opportunity to inspect and study the inside as well as the outside of the membrane; the blood-vessels, and other important parts easily recognized.
- 58. THE SAGITTAL OR VERTICAL SECTION OF THE EYE Place an eye in a 5 per cent. solution of formaldehyde for about two weeks. If the eye is kept in that solution longer than that time, the lens is apt to become so hard that in cutting it the capsule and suspensory ligament will be torn, and the lens will then become detached; if for a shorter space of time, the lens and other tissues will be so soft that all may be so badly torn or lacerated, that a perfect specimen will not be possible. It sometimes happens that in keeping a number of eyes together in a vessel for the purpose of hardening them in the formaldehyde solution, the corneas of some will be crushed in. For this dissection, select an eye that has the cornea in perfect condition. Remove all the outside tissues with the scissors, being particular to have the region immediately surrounding the optic nerve perfectly clear and clean. If the optic nerve is longer than 5 mm., cut it off to that length.
- 59. Fig. 41—Showing the beginning of the cutting of the eye for sagittal sections.
- 60. Fig. 42—Showing method of cutting through the crystalline lens. To cut the eye in two, use a safety-razor blade; never a scalpel. The latter is too thick, too dull, and too clumsy a tool. Begin by cutting through the optic nerve; dividing it as nearly as possible into halves. (Fig. 41.) Continue cutting through the sclerotic and all underlying tissues, stopping at the corneo-scleral junction, but do not, during this procedure, even touch the lens. After the eye has been thus partly separated into, as nearly as possible, two equal parts, lay it down upon the cornea, and, holding the razor blade in the forefingers and thumbs of both hands, cut the lens in two by forcing the blade down through it. (Fig. 42.) Partly open the cut eye to allow one jaw of the large scissors to enter, turn the eye over so the cornea will rest on that jaw, and then cut through the cornea. (Fig. 43.)
- 61. Fig. 43—Showing method of cutting through the cornea and completing the two sagittal sections. The two specimens may be kept indefinitely by placing them in a 3 per cent. formaldehyde solution. It will be well to remove the lens from one of the specimens, because it will give better opportunity to see the anatomical relationships. Also, these specimens should be mounted, one above the other, between two pieces of glass, before placing them in the receptacle that is to hold them. Much can be studied in such specimens. Moreover, they present to view the various parts of the organ of vision in such an impressive way, that one does not soon forget the wonderful appearance of the construction of this, Nature’s perfect camera. (Fig. 44.)
- 62. Fig. 44—Sagittal section enlarged. If another eye is cut into two parts, additional interesting specimens may be procured; for instance, one showing the presence of the second coat only, the retina having been torn out. Another good specimen may be made by removing all of the inner tissues, and leaving only the sclerotic and cornea. This specimen will show that the first coat is almost entirely a coat which affords strength and protection to the parts that lie within.
- 64. THE PAPILLA, PUNCTA LACRIMALIA, AND NASAL DUCT The only way to dissect the lacrimal apparatus, other ocular accessories, and the extrinsic muscles, is to procure the head of some animal, preferably a calf’s head, because of its size. Any butcher will supply one for from forty to sixty cents. Have the lower jaw removed. It will make a less bulky piece of material to handle. Close to the inner canthus, on the inner side of each lid, will be found a little rounded eminence—lacrimal papilla—in the centre of which is a small opening—punctum lacrimalis. Both may be seen better on the lower lid, if it is pulled down, and on the upper lid, if it is pulled up.
- 65. Fig. 45—Showing only a part of a calf’s head and the knitting-needles inserted in the puncta. (Page 94.)
- 66. Fig. 46. Be supplied with two knitting-needles. Take one, lubricate its full length with a little vaseline, lard, oil, or any other lubricant. Insert the needle into the punctum of the lower lid, and push it downward and forward, aiming to come out in the nose a short distance from its end. At first it may be a little difficult to get the needle started; if so, just wiggle the needle, pushing it at the same time as directed, until the nasal duct is found. Do not remove the needle. To insert the other needle into the punctum of the upper lid is rather difficult; for that reason the punctum of the lower lid was chosen, first. Grease the needle, as was done to the first one, and, with a little patience and careful manipulation, the canal opening and its course
- 67. will soon be found. The needle may then be pushed through until it meets the first one. (Fig. 45.) From the puncta lacrimalia to the place of meeting of the two needles, marks the course of the two canaliculi and their junction before they merge and form the nasal duct. Leave the needles where they are, and begin cutting away the skin. The needles will then mark the course of each canal and the duct very plainly. With the small scissors the canals and the duct may be loosened from the surrounding tissues. Or, the scalpel may be used to lay open the canals, cutting along over the top of the needles. (Fig. 46.) The cilia, palpebræ, palpebral conjunctiva, ocular conjunctiva, and other superficial ocular accessories may be examined without dissection.
- 68. MEIBOMIAN GLANDS AND DUCTS An examination of the eyelids will show the openings of the ducts of the meibomian glands a short distance back of the cilia. Very fine pins or needles that have been greased may be easily inserted for a short distance into the ducts, and then a dissection made along the course of the duct as outlined by the presence of the inserted pins or needles. Another way to see the glands is to slice through the ducts, with the scalpel or safety-razor blade, the entire width of either eyelid. This will separate the glands into two parts and show their length, breadth and structure.
- 69. ENUCLEATION OF THE ORBITAL CONTENTS The eyes one procures from a butcher or a slaughter house will always have the extrinsic tissues so badly cut and torn that identification of the various parts and their relations is impossible. Therefore, it is best to supply one’s self with the head of an animal, such as a sheep or a calf, and dissect an eye with all its extrinsic tissues intact. For this dissection, a hammer and a chisel are necessary in addition to the tools needed for doing the previous dissections. Fig. 47—Showing method of making the initial cuts in the skin. (Page 97.)
- 70. Fig. 48—Part of calf’s head, showing the first cut to be made in the bones of the orbit. (Page 102.)
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