c h a p t e r 1 0Drug Use and DelinquencyCHAPTER OUTL.docx

c h a p t e r 1 0
Drug Use and Delinquency
CHAPTER OUTLINE
FREQUENTLY ABUSED DRUGS
Marijuana and Hashish
Cocaine
Heroin
Alcohol
Other Drug Categories
DRUG USE TODAY
The Monitoring the Future (MTF) Survey
The PRIDE Survey
Are the Survey Results Accurate?
WHY DO YOUTHS TAKE DRUGS?
Social Disorganization
Peer Pressure
Family Factors
Genetic Factors
Emotional Problems
Problem Behavior Syndrome
Rational Choice
PATHWAYS TO DRUG ABUSE
Focus on Delinquency: Problem
Behaviors and Substance Abuse
Adolescents Who Distribute Small
Amounts of Drugs

Adolescents Who Frequently Sell Drugs
Teenage Drug Dealers Who Commit
Other Delinquent Acts
Losers and Burnouts
Persistent Offenders
DRUG USE AND DELINQUENCY
Drugs and Chronic Offending
Explaining Drug Use and Delinquency
What Does This Mean to Me?
Reducing Drug Activity
DRUG CONTROL STRATEGIES
Law Enforcement Efforts
Education Strategies
Preventing and Treating Delinquency:
Drug Abuse Resistance Education
(D.A.R.E.)
Community Strategies
Treatment Strategies
WHAT DOES THE FUTURE HOLD?
CHAPTER OBJECTIVES
After reading this chapter you
should:
1. Know which are the drugs most
frequently abused by American
youth.
2. Understand the extent of the drug
problem among American youth
today.

3. Be able to discuss how teenage
drug use in this country has
changed over time.
4. Know the main explanations for
why youths take drugs.
5. Recognize the different behavior
patterns of drug-involved youths.
6. Understand the relationship
between drug use and delinquency.
7. Be familiar with the major drug-
control strategies.
8. Be able to argue the pros and cons
of government using different
drug-control strategies.
231
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Juvenile Delinquency: The Core COPYRIGHT © 2005
Wadsworth, a division of Thomson Learning, Inc

232 C H A P T E R 1 0
There is little question that adolescent substance abuse and its
association with
delinquency are vexing problems. Almost every town, village,
and city in the United
States has confronted some type of teenage substance abuse
problem. Nor is the
United States alone in experiencing this. In the United
Kingdom, one out of eight
high school students reports having used illicit drugs (other
than marijuana) at least
once, and in Denmark 85 percent of high school students report
using alcohol in the
past month. South Africa reports an increase in teen cocaine and
heroin abuse, and
Thailand has a serious heroin and methamphetamine problem.1
Self-report surveys indicate that more than half of high school
seniors have tried
drugs and almost 80 percent have used alcohol.2 Adolescents at
high risk for drug abuse
often come from the most impoverished communities and
experience a multitude of
problems, including school failure and family conflict.3 Equally
troubling is the associa-
tion between drug use and crime.4 Research indicates that 10
percent of all juvenile
male arrestees in some cities test positive for cocaine.5 Self-
report surveys show that
drug abusers are more likely to become delinquents than are
nonabusers.6 The pattern
of drug use and crime makes teenage substance abuse a key

national concern.
FREQUENTLY ABUSED DRUGS
A wide variety of substances referred to as drugs are used by
teenagers. Some are
addicting, others not. Some create hallucinations, others cause a
depressed stupor,
and a few give an immediate uplift. In this section we will
identify the most widely
used substances and discuss their effects. All of these drugs can
be abused, and be-
cause of the danger they present, many have been banned from
private use. Others
are available legally only with a physician’s supervision, and a
few are available to
adults but prohibited for children.
Marijuana and Hashish
Commonly called “pot” or “grass,” marijuana is produced from
the leaves of Cannabis
sativa. Hashish (hash) is a concentrated form of cannabis made
from unadulterated
Surveys indicate that more than half of all
high school–age kids have used drugs. Al-
though this is a troubling statistic, these
surveys also show that teen drug use is
down from five and ten years ago. Many
programs have been implemented over
the years to help children and teens avoid

taking drugs, such as educating them
about the dangers of drug use and devel-
oping skills to “Just Say No.” Some of
these programs take place in the school
and the community, and some involve po-
lice and other juvenile justice agencies.
But what role can families play in helping
to prevent teen drug use? A study by the
Center on Addiction and Substance Abuse
suggests that parents can play an impor-
tant role. The study found that teens
whose parents set down rules about what
they can watch and listen to, care about
how they are doing at school, and gener-
ally take an active interest in their lives
are the least likely group to use drugs. In
contrast, teens with hands-off parents
were found to be more likely to try drugs.

VIEW THE CNN VIDEO CLIP OF THIS
STORY AND ANSWER RELATED CRITICAL
THINKING QUESTIONS ON YOUR JUVENILE
DELINQUENCY: THE CORE 2E CD.
The Lindesmith Center is one
of the leading independent
drug policy institutes in the
United States. View its Web
site by clicking on Web Links
under the Chapter Resources
at http://cj.wadsworth.com/
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substance abuse
Using drugs or alcohol in such a
way as to cause physical harm to
oneself.
hashish
A concentrated form of cannabis
made from unadulterated resin
from the female cannabis plant.

resin from the female plant. The main active ingredient in
both marijuana and hashish is tetrahydrocannabinol
(THC), a mild hallucinogen. Marijuana is the drug most
commonly used by teenagers.
Smoking large amounts of pot or hash can cause dis-
tortions in auditory and visual perception, even produc-
ing hallucinatory effects. Small doses produce an early
excitement (“high”) that gives way to drowsiness. Pot use
is also related to decreased activity, overestimation of time
and space, and increased food consumption. When the
user is alone, marijuana produces a dreamy state. In a
group, users become giddy and lose perspective.
Marijuana is not physically addicting, but its long-term
effects have been the subject of much debate. During the
1970s, it was reported that smoking pot caused a variety of
physical and mental problems, including brain damage and
mental illness. Although the dangers of pot and hash may
have been overstated, use of these drugs does present some
health risks, including an increased risk of lung cancer,
chronic bronchitis, and other diseases. Prospective parents
should avoid smoking marijuana because it lowers sperm
counts in male users and females experience disrupted
ovulation and a greater chance of miscarriage.7
Cocaine
Cocaine is an alkaloid derivative of the coca plant. When
first isolated in 1860, it was considered a medicinal break-
through that could relieve fatigue, depression, and other
symptoms, and it quickly became a staple of patent medi-
cines. When its addictive qualities and dangerous side
effects became apparent, its use was controlled by the
Pure Food and Drug Act of 1906.

Cocaine is the most powerful natural stimulant. Its use produces
euphoria, rest-
lessness, and excitement. Overdoses can cause delirium, violent
manic behavior, and
possible respiratory failure. The drug can be sniffed, or
“snorted,” into the nostrils,
or it can be injected. The immediate feeling of euphoria, or
“rush,” is short-lived,
and heavy users may snort coke as often as every ten minutes.
Another dangerous
practice is “speedballing”—injecting a mixture of cocaine and
heroin.
Crack is processed street cocaine. Its manufacture involves
using ammonia or
baking soda (sodium bicarbonate) to remove the hydrochlorides
and create a crys-
talline form of cocaine that can be smoked. In fact, crack gets
its name from the fact
that the sodium bicarbonate often emits a crackling sound when
the substance is
smoked. Also referred to as “rock,” “gravel,” and “roxanne,”
crack gained popularity in
the mid-1980s. It is relatively inexpensive, can provide a
powerful high, and is highly
addictive psychologically.
Heroin
Narcotic drugs have the ability to produce insensibility to pain
and to free the mind
of anxiety and emotion. Users experience relief from fear and
apprehension, release
of tension, and elevation of spirits. This short period of
euphoria is followed by a
period of apathy, during which users become drowsy and may
nod off. Heroin, the

most commonly used narcotic in the United States, is produced
from opium, a drug
derived from the opium poppy flower. Dealers cut the drug with
neutral substances
(sugar or lactose), and street heroin is often only 1 to 4 percent
pure.
D R U G U S E A N D D E L I N Q U E N C Y 233
Marijuana is the drug most commonly used by teenagers.
Surveys suggest that marijuana use among high school
students is much lower today than it was during its peak
in the mid-1990s.
©
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marijuana

The dried leaves of the cannabis
plant.
cocaine
A powerful natural stimulant
derived from the coca plant.
crack
A highly addictive crystalline form
of cocaine containing remnants of
hydrochloride and sodium bicar-
bonate; it makes a crackling sound
when smoked.
Heroin is probably the most dangerous commonly abused drug.
Users rapidly
build up a tolerance for it, fueling the need for increased doses
to obtain the desired
effect. At first heroin is usually sniffed or snorted; as tolerance
builds, it is “skin
popped” (shot into skin, but not into a vein); and finally it is
injected into a vein, or
“mainlined.”8 Through this progressive use, the user becomes
an addict—a person
with an overpowering physical and psychological need to
continue taking a particu-
lar substance by any means possible. If addicts cannot get
enough heroin to satisfy
their habit, they will suffer withdrawal symptoms, which
include irritability, depres-
sion, extreme nervousness, and nausea.

Alcohol
Alcohol remains the drug of choice for most teenagers. More
than 70 percent of high
school seniors reported using alcohol in the past year, and 78
percent say they have
tried it at some time during their lifetime; by the twelfth grade
just under two-thirds
(62 percent) of American youth report that they have “been
drunk.”9 More than
twenty million Americans are estimated to be problem drinkers,
and at least half of
these are alcoholics.
Alcohol may be a factor in nearly half of all murders, suicides,
and accidental
deaths.10 Alcohol-related deaths number one hundred thousand
a year, far more than
all other illegal drugs combined. Just over 1.4 million drivers
are arrested each year for
driving under the influence (including 13,400 teen drivers), and
around 1.2 million
more are arrested for other alcohol-related violations.11 The
economic cost is stagger-
ing. An estimated $185 billion is lost each year, including $36
billion from premature
deaths, $88 billion in reduced work effort, and $19 billion
arising from short- and
long-term medical problems.12
Considering these problems, why do so many youths drink to
excess? Youths
who use alcohol report that it reduces tension, enhances
pleasure, improves social
skills, and transforms experiences for the better.13 Although
these reactions may

follow the limited use of alcohol, alcohol in higher doses acts as
a depressant. Long-
term use has been linked with depression and physical ailments
ranging from heart
disease to cirrhosis of the liver. Many teens also think drinking
stirs their romantic
urges, but scientific evidence indicates that alcohol decreases
sexual response.14
Other Drug Categories
Other drug categories include anesthetic drugs, inhalants,
sedatives and barbiturates,
tranquilizers, hallucinogens, stimulants, steroids, designer
drugs, and cigarettes.
Anesthetic Drugs Anesthetic drugs are central nervous system
(CNS) de-
pressants. Local anesthetics block nervous system
transmissions; general anesthetics
act on the brain to produce loss of sensation, stupor, or
unconsciousness. The most
widely abused anesthetic drug is phencyclidine (PCP), known as
“angel dust.” Angel
dust can be sprayed on marijuana or other leaves and smoked,
drunk, or injected.
Originally developed as an animal tranquilizer, PCP creates
hallucinations and a
spaced-out feeling that causes heavy users to engage in violent
acts. The effects of
PCP can last up to two days, and the danger of overdose is high.
Inhalants Some youths inhale vapors from lighter fluid, paint
thinner, cleaning
fluid, or model airplane glue to reach a drowsy, dizzy state that
is sometimes accom-
panied by hallucinations. Inhalants produce a short-term

euphoria followed by a
period of disorientation, slurred speech, and drowsiness. Amyl
nitrite (“poppers”)
is a commonly used volatile liquid packaged in capsule form
that is inhaled when
the capsule is broken open.
Sedatives and Barbiturates Sedatives, the most commonly used
drugs of
the barbiturate family, depress the central nervous system into a
sleeplike condition.
234 C H A P T E R 1 0
What kind of people become
addicts? View the Schaffer
Library of Drug Policy Web
site by clicking on Web Links
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heroin
A narcotic made from opium and
then cut with sugar or some other
neutral substance until it is only
1 to 4 percent pure.
addict
A person with an overpowering
physical or psychological need to
continue taking a particular sub-

stance or drug.
alcohol
Fermented or distilled liquids con-
taining ethanol, an intoxicating
substance.
anesthetic drugs
Nervous system depressants.
inhalants
Volatile liquids that give off a
vapor, which is inhaled, produc-
ing short-term excitement and
euphoria followed by a period
of disorientation.
sedatives
Drugs of the barbiturate family
that depress the central nervous
system into a sleeplike condition.
On the illegal market sedatives are called “goofballs” or
“downers” and are often
known by the color of the capsules: “reds” (Seconal), “blue
devils” (Amytal), and
“rainbows” (Tuinal).
Sedatives can be prescribed by doctors as sleeping pills. Illegal
users employ them
to create relaxed, sociable feelings; overdoses can cause

irritability, repellent behavior,
and unconsciousness. Barbiturates are the major cause of drug-
overdose deaths.
Tranquilizers Tranquilizers reduce anxiety and promote
relaxation. Legally
prescribed tranquilizers, such as Ampazine, Thorazine, Pacatal,
and Sparine, were
originally designed to control the behavior of people suffering
from psychoses, ag-
gressiveness, and agitation. Less powerful tranquilizers, such as
Valium, Librium,
Miltown, and Equanil, are used to combat anxiety, tension, fast
heart rate, and
headaches. The use of illegally obtained tranquilizers can lead
to addiction, and
withdrawal can be painful and hazardous.
Hallucinogens Hallucinogens, either natural or synthetic,
produce vivid dis-
tortions of the senses without greatly disturbing the viewer’s
consciousness. Some
produce hallucinations, and others cause psychotic behavior in
otherwise normal
people.
One common hallucinogen is mescaline, named after the
Mescalero Apaches,
who first discovered its potent effect. Mescaline occurs
naturally in the peyote, a
small cactus that grows in Mexico and the southwestern United
States. After initial
discomfort, mescaline produces vivid hallucinations and out-of-
body sensations.
A second group of hallucinogens are synthetic alkaloid

compounds, such as
psilocybin. These can be transformed into lysergic acid
diethylamide, commonly
called LSD. This powerful substance stimulates cerebral sensory
centers to produce
visual hallucinations, intensify hearing, and increase sensitivity.
Users often report a
scrambling of sensations; they may “hear colors” and “smell
music.” Users also report
feeling euphoric and mentally superior, although to an observer
they appear disori-
ented. Anxiety and panic may occur, and overdoses can produce
psychotic episodes,
flashbacks, and even death.
Stimulants Stimulants (“uppers,” “speed,” “pep pills,”
“crystal”) are synthetic
drugs that stimulate action in the central nervous system. They
increase blood pres-
sure, breathing rate, and bodily activity, and elevate mood.
Commonly used stimu-
lants include Benzedrine (“bennies”), Dexedrine (“dex”),
Dexamyl, Bephetamine
(“whites”), and Methedrine (“meth,” “speed,” “crystal meth”).
Methedrine is probably the most widely used and most
dangerous ampheta-
mine. Some people swallow it; heavy users inject it. Long-term
heavy use can result
in exhaustion, anxiety, prolonged depression, and
hallucinations. A new form of
methamphetamine is a crystallized substance with the street
name of “ice” or “crys-
tal.” Smoking this crystal causes weight loss, kidney damage,
heart and respiratory
problems, and paranoia.15

Steroids Teenagers use highly dangerous anabolic steroids to
gain muscle bulk
and strength.16 Black market sales of these drugs approach $1
billion annually. Al-
though not physically addicting, steroids can become a kind of
obsession among
teens who desire athletic success. Long-term users may spend
up to $400 a week on
steroids and may support their habit by dealing the drug.
Steroids are dangerous because of the health problems
associated with their
long-term use: liver ailments, tumors, kidney problems, sexual
dysfunction, hyper-
tension, and mental problems such as depression. Steroid use
runs in cycles, and
other drugs—Clomid, Teslac, and Halotestin, for example—that
carry their own
dangerous side effects are often used to curb the need for high
dosages of steroids.
Finally, steroid users often share needles, which puts them at
high risk for contract-
ing HIV, the virus that causes AIDS.
tranquilizers
Drugs that reduce anxiety and
promote relaxation.
hallucinogens
Natural or synthetic substances
that produce vivid distortions of
the senses without greatly disturb-
ing consciousness.

stimulants
Synthetic substances that produce
an intense physical reaction by
stimulating the central nervous
system.
anabolic steroids
Drugs used by athletes and body-
builders to gain muscle bulk and
strength.
Designer Drugs Designer drugs are lab-created synthetics that
are designed
at least temporarily to get around existing drug laws. The most
widely used designer
drug is Ecstasy, which is actually derived from speed and
methamphetamine. After
being swallowed, snorted, injected, or smoked, it acts
simultaneously as a stimulant
and a hallucinogen, producing mood swings, disturbing sleeping
and eating habits,
altering thinking processes, creating aggressive behavior,
interfering with sexual
function, and affecting sensitivity to pain. The drug can also
increase blood pressure
and heart rate. Teenage users taking Ecstasy at raves have died
from heat stroke be-
cause the drug can cause dehydration.
Cigarettes Approximately twenty-five countries have

established laws to pro-
hibit the sale of cigarettes to minors. The reality, however, is
that in many countries
children and adolescents have easy access to tobacco
products.17 In the United States,
the Synar Amendment, enacted in 1992, requires states to enact
and enforce laws
restricting the sale of tobacco products to youths under the age
of eighteen. States are
required to reduce rates of illegal sales to minors to no more
than 20 percent within
several years. The FDA rules require age verification for
anyone under the age of
twenty-seven who is purchasing tobacco products. The FDA has
also banned vending
machines and self-service displays except in adult-only
facilities. Despite all of these
measures, almost six out of ten high school seniors in
America—57 percent of
them—report having smoked cigarettes over their lifetime.
However, in recent
years cigarette use by high school students has been on the
decline.18
DRUG USE TODAY
Surveys show that alcohol continues to be the most widely used
drug and that syn-
thetic drugs such as Ecstasy have become more popular. Some
western states report
that methamphetamine (“speed,” “crank”) use is increasing and
that its low cost and
high potency has encouraged manufacturers (“cookers”) to
increase production. The
use of other synthetics, including PCP and LSD, is focused in
particular areas of the
country. Synthetics are popular because labs can easily be

hidden in rural areas, and
traffickers do not have to worry about border searches or
payoffs to foreign growers
or middlemen. Users like synthetics because they are cheap and
produce a powerful,
long-lasting high that can be greater than that provided by more
expensive natural
products such as cocaine.
Crack cocaine use has been in decline in recent years. Heavy
criminal penalties,
tight enforcement, and social disapproval have helped to lower
crack use.19 Although
it was feared that abusers would turn to heroin as a replacement,
there has been little
indication of a new heroin epidemic. Heroin use has stabilized
in most of the coun-
try, although there are still hundreds of thousands of regular
users in large cities.20
Arrest data show that the most frequent heroin users are older
offenders who
started their habit decades ago. There is reason to believe heroin
use is in decline
among adolescents, possibly because it has acquired an
extremely negative street
image. Most youths know that heroin is addictive and
destructive to health, and
that needle sharing leads to HIV. Research conducted in New
York City shows
that most youths avoid heroin, shun users and dealers, and wish
to avoid becom-
ing addicts.21
Despite concern over these “hard drugs,” the most persistent
teenage substance-

abuse problem is alcohol. Teenage alcoholism is sometimes
considered less serious
than other types of substance abuse, but it actually produces far
more problems.
Teenage alcohol abusers suffer depression, anxiety, and other
symptoms of mental
distress. Also, it is well established that alcoholism runs in
families; today’s teenage
abusers may become the parents of the next generation of
teenage alcoholics.22
What do national surveys tell us about the extent of drug use
and the recent
trends in teen usage?
236 C H A P T E R 1 0
designer drugs
Lab-made drugs designed to avoid
existing drug laws.
The Monitoring the Future (MTF) Survey
One of the most important and influential surveys of teen
substance abuse is the
annual Monitoring the Future survey conducted by the Institute
for Social Research
at the University of Michigan. In all, about forty-five thousand
students located in
433 secondary schools participate in the study.
The most recent MTF survey indicates that, with a few

exceptions, drug use among
American adolescents held steady in 2002, but declined from
the recent peak levels
reached in 1996 and 1997. As Figure 10.1 shows, drug use
peaked in the late 1970s and
early 1980s and then began a decade-long decline until showing
an uptick in the mid-
1990s; usage for most drugs has been stable or in decline since
then. Especially encour-
aging has been a significant drop in the use of crack cocaine
among younger kids. As
noted earlier, there has also been a continuing decline in
cigarette smoking, as well as
the use of smokeless tobacco products. More troubling is the
use of Ecstasy, which,
because of its popularity at dance clubs and raves, rose among
older teens (tenth- and
twelfth-graders) for much of the late 1990s and up to 2001, but
has since dropped
sharply. In 2002, just under 5 percent of tenth-graders reported
some use of Ecstasy
during the previous twelve months (down from 6.2 percent in
2001); slightly over
7 percent of the twelfth-graders also reported some use (down
from 9.2 percent in
2001). On the other hand, the use of anabolic steroids by males
in their early to mid-
teens has increased (4 percent of twelfth-grade boys now take
steroids), possibly be-
cause of the reported use of similar substances by respected
athletes. Heroin use has
dropped sharply in the last couple of years (1 percent of
twelfth-grade boys are users)
after the rates had roughly doubled between 1991 and 1995,
when noninjectable forms
of heroin use became popular. It is possible that widely

publicized overdose deaths of
musicians and celebrities may have helped stabilize heroin
abuse. Alcohol use among
teens has been fairly stable over the past several years.
Nonetheless, nearly one-fifth
of eighth-graders and almost half of twelfth-graders use alcohol
regularly.
The PRIDE Survey
A second source of information on teen drug and alcohol abuse
is the National Par-
ents’ Resource Institute for Drug Education (PRIDE) survey,
which is also conducted
Teenage smoking rates are
considerably lower today
compared to years past, but
millions of teens still smoke
cigarettes. Here, police officer
Jody Hayes looks on as twelve-
year-old smoker Justin Hoover
of Des Moines, Iowa, testifies
on Capitol Hill before a Demo-
cratic hearing on smoking.
Hoover said he smoked his first
cigarette at age six and by nine
was stealing them from conve-
nience stores.
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annually.23 Typically, findings from the PRIDE survey
correlate highly with the MTF
drug survey. The most recent PRIDE survey (for the 2002–03
school year) indicates
slight increases in drug activity over the previous school year,
but substantial de-
creases over the last five years. For example, about 24 percent
of students in grades
six to twelve claimed to have used drugs during the past year,
down from 27 percent
in the 1998–99 school year (Table 10.1). Cigarette smoking and
alcohol use are also

down from five years ago. The fact that two surveys generate
roughly the same pat-
tern in drug abuse helps bolster their validity and give support
to a decline in teenage
substance abuse.
Are the Survey Results Accurate?
Student drug surveys must be interpreted with caution. First, it
may be overly opti-
mistic to expect that heavy users are going to cooperate with a
drug-use survey, espe-
cially one conducted by a government agency. Even if they were
willing, these students
are likely to be absent from school during testing periods. Also,
drug abusers are more
likely to be forgetful and to give inaccurate accounts of their
substance abuse.
Another problem is the likelihood that the most drug-dependent
portion of the
adolescent population is omitted from the sample. In some
cities, almost half of all
youths arrested dropped out of school before the twelfth grade,
and more than half
of these arrestees are drug users (Figure 10.2).24 Juvenile
detainees (those arrested
and held in a lockup) test positively for cocaine at a rate many
times higher than
those reporting recent use in the MTF and PRIDE surveys.25
The inclusion of
eighth-graders in the MTF sample is one way of getting around
the dropout prob-
lem. Nonetheless, high school surveys may be excluding some
of the most drug-
prone young people in the population.

Although these problems are serious, they are consistent over
time and therefore
do not hinder the measurement of change or trends in drug
usage. That is, prior sur-
veys also omitted dropouts and other high-risk individuals.
However, since these
problems are built into every wave of the survey, any change
recorded in the annual
238 C H A P T E R 1 0
Figure 10.1 Trends in Annual Prevalence of Illicit Drug Use
Percent
Year
0
20
40
60
80
19761974 1980 1984 1988 1992 19961978 1982 1986 1990 1994
1998 2000 2002
12th Grade
10th Grade
8th Grade

Source: Monitoring the Future, 2002 (Ann Arbor, MI: Institute
for Social Research, 2003).
Checkpoints
✔ More than half of all high-school-
age kids have tried drugs.
✔ Use of cocaine and crack is on
the decline.
✔ Alcohol remains the drug of choice
for most teens.
✔ Ecstasy has become popular in
recent years.
✔ Teenage drug use is measured
by two national surveys, the Moni-
toring the Future survey and the
PRIDE Survey.
✔ Both of these surveys show that
drug and alcohol use has declined
in recent years.
To quiz yourself on this
material, go to questions
10.1–10.7 on the Juvenile
Delinquency: The Core 2e Web site.

substance-abuse rate is probably genuine. So, although the
validity of these surveys
may be questioned, they are probably reliable indicators of
trends in substance abuse.
WHY DO YOUTHS TAKE DRUGS?
Why do youths engage in an activity that is sure to bring them
overwhelming prob-
lems? It is hard to imagine that even the youngest drug users are
unaware of the
problems associated with substance abuse. Although it is easy
to understand dealers’
desires for quick profits, how can we explain users’ disregard
for long- and short-
term consequences? Concept Summary 10.1 reviews some of the
most likely reasons.
Social Disorganization
One explanation ties drug abuse to poverty, social
disorganization, and hopelessness.
Drug use by young minority group members has been tied to
factors such as racial
prejudice, low self-esteem, poor socioeconomic status, and the
stress of living in a
harsh urban environment.26 The association between drug use,
race, and poverty has
been linked to the high level of mistrust and defiance found in
lower socioeconomic
areas.27
Despite the long-documented association between social
disorganization and
drug use, the empirical data on the relationship between class
and crime have been
inconclusive. For example, the National Youth Survey (NYS), a

longitudinal study
of delinquent behavior conducted by Delbert Elliott and his
associates, found little
if any association between drug use and social class. The NYS
found that drug use is
higher among urban youths, but there was little evidence that
minority youths or
members of the lower class were more likely to abuse drugs
than White youths and
the more affluent.28 Research by the Rand Corporation
indicates that many drug-
dealing youths had legitimate jobs at the time they were
arrested for drug traffick-
ing.29 Therefore, it would be difficult to describe drug abusers
simply as unemployed
dropouts.
✔ Checkpoints
Table 10.1 Annual Drug Use, 1998–99 Versus 2002–03, Grades
6–12
1998–99 (%) 2002–03 (%) Rate of Decrease (%)
Cigarettes 37.9 27.3 28.0
Any alcohol 56.8 50.1 11.8
Any illicit drug 27.1 24.3 10.3
Source: PRIDE Surveys (Bowling Green, KY: Pride, Inc.,
2003).
Key Reasons Why Youths Take Drugs

Social disorganization Poverty, growing up in disorganized
urban environment.
Peer pressure Associating with youths who take drugs.
Family factors Poor family life, including harsh punishment,
neglect.
Genetic factors Parents abuse drugs.
Emotional problems Feelings of inadequacy; blame others for
failures.
Problem behavior syndrome Drug use is one of many problem
behaviors.
Rational choice Perceived benefits, including relaxation, greater
creativity.
Concept Summary 10.1
Peer Pressure
Research shows that adolescent drug abuse is highly correlated
with the behavior of
best friends, especially when parental supervision is weak.30
Youths in inner-city
areas where feelings of alienation run high often come in
contact with drug users
who teach them that drugs provide an answer to their feelings of
inadequacy and
stress.31 Perhaps they join with peers to learn the techniques of
drug use; their
friendships with other drug-dependent youths give them social
support for their
habit. Empirical research efforts show that a youth’s association
with friends who are

240 C H A P T E R 1 0
Source: Preliminary Data on Drug Use & Related Matters
Among Adult Arrestees and Juvenile Detainees, 2002
(Washington, DC:
National Institute of Justice, Arrestee Drug Abuse Monitoring
Program, 2003), Tables 2, 3.
Figure 10.2 Drug Use Among Juvenile Arrestees, by Sex
Type of drug
Phoenix: percent positive for drugs by sex
Percent
Metham-
phetamine
Opiates
Cocaine
Any drug
72.0
53.2
67.9
34.2
Males
Females

11.9
6.3
13.8
26.3
0.0
0.0
200 6040 80 100
Type of drug
San Diego: percent positive for drugs by sex
Percent
Metham-
phetamine
Marijuana
Marijuana
Opiates
Cocaine
Any drug
53.8
38.5

50.0
30.8
Males
Females
9.2
10.3
2.5
2.6
0.0
0.0
200 6040 80 100
substance abusers increases the probability of drug use.32 The
relationship is recip-
rocal: adolescent substance abusers seek out friends who engage
in these behaviors,
and associating with drug abusers leads to increased levels of
drug abuse.
Peer networks may be the most significant influence on long-

term substance abuse.
Shared feelings and a sense of intimacy lead youths to become
enmeshed in what has
been described as the “drug-use subculture.”33 Research
indicates that drug users do
in fact have warm relationships with substance-abusing peers
who help support their
behaviors.34 This lifestyle provides users with a clear role,
activities they enjoy, and an
opportunity for attaining status among their peers.35 One reason
it is so difficult to
treat hard-core users is that quitting drugs means leaving the
“fast life” of the streets.
Family Factors
Another explanation is that drug users have a poor family life.
Studies have found
that the majority of drug users have had an unhappy childhood,
which included
harsh punishment and parental neglect.36 The drug abuse and
family quality associ-
ation may involve both racial and gender differences: females
and Whites who were
abused as children are more likely to have alcohol and drug
arrests as adults; abuse
was less likely to affect drug use in males and African
Americans.37 It is also com-
mon to find substance abusers in large families and with parents
who are divorced,
separated, or absent.38
Social psychologists suggest that drug abuse patterns may also
result from obser-
vation of parental drug use.39 Youths who learn that drugs
provide pleasurable sen-
sations may be most likely to experiment with illegal

substances; a habit may develop
if the user experiences lower anxiety and fear.40 Research
shows, for example, that
gang members raised in families with a history of drug use were
more likely than
other gang members to use cocaine and to use it seriously. And
even among gang
members parental drug abuse was a key factor in the onset of
adolescent drug use.41
Observing drug abuse may be a more important cause of drug
abuse than other
family-related problems.
Other family factors associated with teen drug abuse include
parental conflict
over child-rearing practices, failure to set rules, and unrealistic
demands followed by
harsh punishments. Low parental attachment, rejection, and
excessive family conflict
have all been linked to adolescent substance abuse.42
Shared feelings and a sense
of intimacy lead youths to be-
come fully enmeshed in the
“drug-use subculture.” Drug
users do in fact have intimate
and warm relationships with
substance-abusing peers, which
helps support their habits and
behaviors.
©
M

ic
he
lle
D
. B
rid
w
el
l/
Ph
ot
oE
di
t
Genetic Factors
The association between parental drug abuse and adolescent
behavior may have a
genetic basis. Research has shown that biological children of
alcoholics reared by non-
alcoholic adoptive parents more often develop alcohol problems
than the natural
children of the adoptive parents.43 A number of studies
comparing alcoholism among

identical and fraternal twins have found that the degree of
concordance (that is, both
siblings behaving identically) is twice as high among the
identical twin groups.44
A genetic basis for drug abuse is also supported by evidence
showing that future
substance abuse problems can be predicted by behavior
exhibited as early as six years
of age. The traits predicting future abuse are independent from
peer relations and
environmental influences.45
Emotional Problems
As we have seen, not all drug-abusing youths reside in lower-
class urban areas. To ex-
plain drug abuse across social classes, some experts have linked
drug use to emotional
problems that can strike youths in any economic class.
Psychodynamic explanations of
substance abuse suggest that drugs help youths control or
express unconscious needs.
Some psychoanalysts believe adolescents who internalize their
problems may use drugs
to reduce their feelings of inadequacy. Introverted people may
use drugs as an escape
from real or imagined feelings of inferiority.46 Another view is
that adolescents who
externalize their problems and blame others for their perceived
failures are likely to
engage in antisocial behaviors, including substance abuse.
Research exists to support
each of these positions.47
Drug abusers are also believed to exhibit psychopathic or
sociopathic behavior

characteristics, forming what is called an addiction-prone
personality.48 Drinking
alcohol may reflect a teen’s need to remain dependent on an
overprotective mother or
an effort to reduce the emotional turmoil of adolescence.49
Research on the psychological characteristics of narcotics
abusers does, in
fact, reveal the presence of a significant degree of pathology.
Personality testing of
users suggests that a significant percentage suffer from
psychotic disorders. Studies
have found that addicts suffer personality disorders
characterized by a weak ego, low
frustration tolerance, and fantasies of omnipotence. Up to half
of all drug abusers
may also be diagnosed with antisocial personality disorder
(ASPD), which is defined
as a pervasive pattern of disregard for the rights of others.50
Problem Behavior Syndrome
For some adolescents, substance abuse is one of many problem
behaviors that begin
early in life and remain throughout the life course.51
Longitudinal studies show that
youths who abuse drugs are maladjusted, emotionally
distressed, and have many
social problems.52 Having a deviant lifestyle means associating
with delinquent
peers, living in a family in which parents and siblings abuse
drugs, being alienated
from the dominant values of society, and engaging in delinquent
behaviors at an
early age.53 Youths who abuse drugs lack commitment to
religious values, disdain
education, and spend most of their time in peer activities.54

Youths who take drugs
do poorly in school, have high dropout rates, and maintain their
drug use after they
leave school.55 This view of adolescent drug taking is
discussed in the Focus on
Delinquency feature entitled “Problem Behaviors and Substance
Abuse.” (Chapter 5
provides an in-depth discussion of problem behavior syndrome.)
Rational Choice
Youths may choose to use drugs because they want to get high,
relax, improve their
creativity, escape reality, or increase their sexual
responsiveness. Research indicates
that adolescent alcohol abusers believe getting high will
increase their sexual per-
242 C H A P T E R 1 0
To read more about the con-
cept of addiction, go to the
Psychedelic Library by click-
ing on Web Links under the
Chapter Resources at http://
cj.wadsworth.com/siegel_
jdcore2e.h
tt
p
:
For a Web-based antidrug
education campaign, see
Freevibe by clicking on Web
Links under the Chapter
Resources at http://cj.

wadsworth.com/siegel_
jdcore2e.h
tt
p
:
addiction-prone personality
The view that the cause of sub-
stance abuse can be traced to a
personality that has a compulsion
for mood-altering drugs.
formance and facilitate their social behavior; they care little
about negative conse-
quences.56 Substance abuse, then, may be a function of the
rational, albeit mistaken,
belief that substance abuse benefits the user.
PATHWAYS TO DRUG ABUSE
Although there is not a single path to becoming a drug abuser, it
is generally believed
that most users start at a young age using alcohol as a gateway
drug to harder sub-
stances. That is, drug involvement begins with drinking alcohol
at an early age, which
progresses to experimentation with marijuana, and finally to
using cocaine and even
heroin. Research on adolescent drug users in Miami found that
youths who began their
substance abuse careers early—by experimenting with alcohol

at age seven, getting
drunk at age eight, having alcohol with an adult present by age
nine, and becoming
regular drinkers by the time they were eleven years old—later
became crack users.57
Drinking with an adult present was a significant precursor of
substance abuse and
delinquency.58
Although the gateway concept is still being debated, there is
little disagreement
that serious drug users begin their involvement with alcohol.59
Though most rec-
reational users do not progress to “hard stuff,” most addicts
first experiment with
recreational alcohol and recreational drugs before progressing
to narcotics. By
implication, if teen drinking could be reduced, the gateway to
hard drugs would
be narrowed.
What are the patterns of teenage drug use? Are all abusers
similar, or are there
different types of drug involvement? Research indicates that
drug-involved youths do
take on different roles, lifestyles, and behavior patterns, some
of which are described
in the next sections.60
Most experts believe that drug
involvement begins with drink-
ing alcohol at an early age,
which progresses to experimen-

tation with marijuana and finally
to cocaine and then heroin.
Though most recreational users
do not progress to addictive
drugs, few addicts begin their
drug involvement with
narcotics.
©
J
oe
l G
or
do
n
gateway drug
A substance that leads to use of
more serious drugs; alcohol use
has long been thought to lead to
more serious drug abuse.
Adolescents Who Distribute
Small Amounts of Drugs
Many adolescents who use and distribute small amounts of
drugs do not commit
any other serious delinquent acts. They occasionally sell
marijuana, crystal, and PCP

244 C H A P T E R 1 0
Problem Behaviors
and Substance Abuse
According to the problem behavior syndrome model, sub-
stance abuse may be one of a constellation of social problems
experienced by at-risk youth. There is significant evidence to
substantiate the view that kids who abuse substances are also
more likely to experience an array of social problems. For
example, a recent study of the relationship between adoles-
cent illicit-drug use, physical abuse, and sexual abuse that
was based on a sample of Mexican-American and non-
Hispanic White youths living in the southwestern United
States found that those who report physical or sexual abuse
are significantly more likely to report illicit drug use than
those who have never been abused. As Figure A shows,
42 percent of youths who have experienced physical abuse
report using marijuana in the last month, while only 28 per-
cent of youths who have never been abused report using the
drug during that time. These findings were independent of
factors such as academic achievement and family structure,
and they suggest that treatment directed at abused adoles-
cents should include drug use prevention, intervention, and
education components.
Kids who abuse drugs and alcohol are also more likely to
have educational problems. A recent study of substance use
among Texas students in grades seven through twelve found
that those who were absent ten or more days during the
previous school year were more likely to report alcohol,
tobacco, and other drug use. For example, twice as many
students with high absentee rates reported using marijuana
in the past month (29 percent versus 14 percent, respectively)
than students who did not miss school.

Focus on Delinquency
Figure A Percent of Youths Reporting Past-Month Marijuana or
Past-Year Cocaine Use, by Type of Abuse (N = 2,468)
17
28
23
2728
42
34
40
Percent
Marijuana
Type of abuse
0
40
20
60
80
100

None SexualPhysical Both
Percent
Cocaine
Type of abuse
0
40
20
60
80
100
None SexualPhysical Both
Note: These analyses were based on data collected between
1988 and 1992 for the Mexican-American Drug Use and
Dropout
Survey, a yearly survey of Mexican-American and non-Hispanic
White school dropouts and a comparison group of enrolled
students from one school district in each of three communities
in the southwestern United States.
Source: D. M. Pérez, “The Relationship Between Physical
Abuse, Sexual Victimization, and Adolescent Illicit Drug Use,”
Journal of
Drug Issues 30: 641–662 (2000).

to support their own drug use. Their customers include friends,
relatives, and ac-
quaintances. Deals are arranged over the phone, in school, or at
public meeting
places; however, the actual distribution occurs in more private
arenas, such as at
home or in cars. Petty dealers do not consider themselves
seriously involved in drugs.
There is also a connection between substance abuse and
serious behavioral and emotional problems. One national
study found that behaviorally troubled youth are seven
times more likely than those with less serious problems to
report that they were dependent on alcohol or illicit drugs
(17.1 percent versus 2.3 percent). In addition, youths with
serious emotional problems were nearly four times more
likely to report dependence (13.2 percent versus 3.4 percent)
(Figure B).
CRITICAL THINKING
These studies provide dramatic evidence that drug abuse is
highly associated with other social problems—physical or
sexual abuse, school failure, and emotional disorders. They
imply that getting young people off drugs may take a lot
more effort than relying on some simple solution like “Just
Say No.” What would it take to get young people to refrain
from using drugs?
INFOTRAC COLLEGE EDITION RESEARCH
To find out more about the relationship between prob-

lem behaviors and adolescent substance abuse, go to Info-
Trac College Edition and read Lisa H. Jaycox, Andrew R.
Morral, and Jaana Juvonen, “Mental Health and Medical
Problems and Service Use Among Adolescent Substance
Users,” Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adoles-
cent Psychiatry 42(6):701 (June 2003).
Sources: Deanna Pérez, “The Relationship Between Physical
Abuse,
Sexual Victimization, and Adolescent Illicit Drug Use,” Journal
of Drug
Issues 30:641–662 (2000); Texas Commission on Alcohol and
Drug
Abuse, “Substance Use Among Youths at High Risk of
Dropping Out:
Grades 7–12 in Texas, 1998,” Texas Commission on Alcohol
and Drug
Abuse Research Brief, June 2000; Substance Abuse and Mental
Health
Services Administration, Office of Applied Studies, “The
Relationship
Between Mental Health and Substance Abuse among
Adolescents,”
Analytic Series: A-9, 1999. Data and tables supplied by the
Center for
Substance Abuse Research, University of Maryland, College
Park (2001).
Figure B Percent of Youths Ages 12 to 17 Reporting
Dependence
on Alcohol or Illicit Drugs, by Behavioral and Emotional
Problem Scores,* 1994–1996
13.2

7.3
3.4
17.1
6.4
2.3
Percent
Behavioral problems
Behavioral problem scores
0
10
5
15
20
High Intermediate Low
Percent
Emotional problems
Emotional problem scores
0

10
5
15
20
High Intermediate Low
*Severity levels (high, intermediate, and low) for behavioral
and emotional problem scale were determined using values set
in the
Youth Self-Report, an instrument extensively used in adolescent
studies to assess psychological difficulties.
Source: Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services
Administration, Office of Applied Studies, “The Relationship
Between Mental
Health and Substance Abuse Among Adolescents,” Analytic
Series A-9, (1999).
Adolescents Who Frequently Sell Drugs
A small number of adolescents are high-rate dealers who bridge
the gap between adult
drug distributors and the adolescent user. Though many are
daily users, they take part
in many normal activities, including going to school and
socializing with friends.
Frequent dealers often have adults who “front” for them—that

is, sell them drugs
for cash. The teenagers then distribute the drugs to friends and
acquaintances. They
return most of the proceeds to the supplier, keeping a
commission for themselves.
They may also keep drugs for their personal use, and in fact,
some consider their deal-
ing as a way of “getting high for free.” One young user,
Winston, age seventeen, told
investigators, “I sell the cracks for money and for cracks. The
man, he give me this
much. I sell most of it and I get the rest for me. I like this
much. Every day I do this.”61
James Inciardi and his associates found that about 80 percent of
the youths who dealt
crack regularly were daily users.62
Frequent dealers are more likely to sell drugs in parks, schools,
or other public
places. Deals occur irregularly, so the chance of apprehension is
not significant, nor
is the payoff substantial. Robert MacCoun and Peter Reuter
found that drug dealers
make about $30 per hour when they are working and clear on
average about $2,000
per month. These amounts are greater than most dealers could
hope to earn in legiti-
mate jobs, but they are not enough to afford a steady stream of
luxuries. Most small-
time dealers also hold conventional jobs.63
Teenage Drug Dealers
Who Commit Other Delinquent Acts
A more serious type of drug-involved youth is the one who
distributes multiple sub-

stances and commits both property and violent crimes. These
youngsters make up
about 2 percent of the teenage population, but they may commit
up to 40 percent of
the robberies and assaults and about 60 percent of all teenage
felony thefts and drug
sales. Few gender or racial differences exist among these
youths: girls are as likely as
boys to become persistent drug-involved offenders, White
youths as likely as Black
youths, and middle-class adolescents raised outside cities as
likely as lower-class city
children.64
In cities, these youths frequently are hired by older dealers to
act as street-level
drug runners. Each member of a crew of three to twelve youths
will handle small
quantities of drugs; the supplier receives 50 to 70 percent of the
drug’s street value.
The crew members also act as lookouts, recruiters, and guards.
Although they may be
recreational drug users themselves, crew members refrain from
using addictive drugs
such as heroin. Between drug sales, the young dealers commit
robberies, burglaries,
and other thefts.
Some experts question whether gangs are responsible for as
much drug dealing
as the media would have us believe. Some believe that the
tightly organized “super”
gangs are being replaced with loosely organized neighborhood
groups. The turbu-
lent environment of drug dealing is better handled by flexible
organizations than by

rigid, vertically organized gangs with a leader who is far
removed from the action.65
Losers and Burnouts
Some drug-involved youths do not have the savvy to join gangs
or groups and in-
stead begin committing unplanned crimes that increase their
chances of arrest. Their
heavy drug use increases their risk of apprehension and
decreases their value for
organized drug distribution networks.
Drug-involved “losers” can earn a living by steering customers
to a seller in a
“copping” area, touting drug availability for a dealer, or acting
as a lookout. However,
they are not considered trustworthy or deft enough to handle
drugs or money.
246 C H A P T E R 1 0
Though these offenders get involved in drugs at an early age,
they receive little atten-
tion from the justice system until they have developed an
extensive arrest record. By
then they are approaching the end of their minority and will
either desist or become
so entrapped in the drug-crime subculture that little can be done
to deter their illegal
activities.

Persistent Offenders
About two-thirds of substance-abusing youths continue to use
drugs in adulthood,
but about half desist from other criminal activities. Those who
persist in both sub-
stance abuse and crime maintain these characteristics:
■ They come from poor families.
■ Their family members include other criminals.
■ They do poorly in school.
■ They started using drugs and committing other delinquent acts
at an early age.
■ They use multiple types of drugs and commit crimes
frequently.
■ They have few opportunities in late adolescence to participate
in legitimate and
rewarding adult activities.66
Some evidence exists that these drug-using persisters have low
nonverbal IQs
and poor physical coordination. Nonetheless, there is little
evidence to explain why
some drug-abusing youths drop out of crime while others
remain active.
DRUG USE AND DELINQUENCY
An association between drug use and delinquency has been
established, and this
connection can take a number of forms. Crime may be an
instrument of the drug
trade: violence erupts when rival gangs use weapons to settle

differences and estab-
lish territorial monopolies. In New York City, authorities report
that crack gangs will
burn down their rival’s headquarters. It is estimated that
between 35 and 40 percent
of New York’s homicides are drug-related.67
Drug users may also commit crimes to pay for their habits.68
One study con-
ducted in Miami found that 573 narcotics users annually
committed more than
200,000 crimes to obtain cash. Similar research with a sample
of 356 addicts ac-
counted for 118,000 crimes annually.69 If such proportions hold
true, then the
nation’s estimated 700,000 heroin addicts alone may be
committing more than
100 million crimes each year.
Drug users may be more willing to take risks because their
inhibitions are low-
ered by substance abuse. Cities with high rates of cocaine abuse
are also more likely
to experience higher levels of armed robbery. It is possible that
crack and cocaine
users are more willing to engage in a risky armed robbery to get
immediate cash than
a burglary, which requires more planning and effort.70
The relationship between alcohol and drug abuse and
delinquency has been
substantiated by a number of studies. Some have found that
youths who abuse alco-
hol are most likely to engage in violence; as adults, those with
long histories of drink-
ing are more likely to report violent offending patterns.71

The National Institute of Justice’s Arrestee Drug Abuse
Monitoring (ADAM)
program tracked trends in drug use among arrestees in urban
areas. Some, but not all,
of its thirty-six sites collected data on juveniles. Due to lack of
funding, the Depart-
ment of Justice ended this program in 2004. The most recent
report (2002) found
that, among juvenile detainees, almost 60 percent of juvenile
males and 30 percent of
juvenile females tested positive for marijuana, the most
commonly used drug, and its
✔ Checkpoints
Checkpoints
✔ Some kids take drugs because they
live in disorganized areas in which
there is a high degree of hopeless-
ness, poverty, and despair.
✔ There is peer pressure to take
drugs and to drink.
✔ Kids whose parents take drugs are
more likely to become abusers
themselves.
✔ Some experts believe that drug
dependency is a genetic condition.
✔ Youngsters with emotional prob-

lems may be drug-prone.
✔ Drug use may be part of a general
problem behavior syndrome.
✔ Drug use may also be rational: kids
take drugs and drink alcohol simply
because they enjoy the experience.
✔ There are a number of pathways to
drug abuse.
✔ Some users distribute small
amounts of drugs, others are
frequent dealers, while another
group supplements drug dealing
with other crimes.
✔ Some users are always in trouble
and are considered burnouts.
prevalence was ten and six times higher than cocaine use for
juvenile males and fe-
males, respectively.72 With the exception of
methamphetamines, male detainees were

more likely to test positive for the use of any drug than were
female detainees. Figure
10.2 shows the ADAM survey results for two cities (Phoenix,
Arizona, and San Diego,
California) that collect data on juvenile detainees (see again
Figure 10.2). Note that
in Phoenix more than two-thirds of all juveniles, and in San
Diego half, test positively
for at least one drug, most commonly marijuana. While males
and minority-group
members have somewhat higher positive test rates than females
and Caucasians, drug
use is prevalent among juvenile arrestees, reaffirming the close
association between
substance abuse and criminality.
There is evidence that incarcerated youths are much more likely
to be involved
in substance abuse than adolescents in the general population.
For example, research
by David Cantor on incarcerated youths in Washington, D.C.,
found their drug in-
volvement more than double that of nonincarcerated area
youths.73
Drugs and Chronic Offending
It is possible that most delinquents are not drug users but that
police are more likely
to apprehend muddle-headed substance abusers than clear-
thinking abstainers.
A second, more plausible, interpretation of the existing data is
that the drug abuse–
crime connection is so powerful because many criminals are in
fact substance
abusers. Research by Bruce Johnson and his associates confirms
this suspicion. Using

data from a national self-report survey, these researchers found
that less than 2 per-
cent of the youths who responded to the survey (a) report using
cocaine or heroin,
and (b) commit two or more index crimes each year. However,
these drug-abusing
adolescents accounted for 40 to 60 percent of all the index
crimes reported in the
sample. Less than one-quarter of these delinquents committed
crimes solely to sup-
port a drug habit. These data suggest that a small core of
substance-abusing adoles-
cents commit a significant proportion of all serious crimes. It is
also evident that
a behavior—drug abuse—that develops late in adolescence
influences the extent
of delinquent activity through the life course.74
Explaining Drug Use and Delinquency
The association between delinquency and drug use has been
established in a variety
of cultures.75 It is far from certain, however, whether (a) drug
use causes delinquency,
(b) delinquency leads youths to engage in substance abuse, or
(c) both drug abuse and
delinquency are functions of some other factor.76
Some of the most sophisticated research on this topic has been
conducted by
Delbert Elliott and his associates at the Institute of Behavioral
Science at the Univer-
sity of Colorado.77 Using data from the National Youth Survey,
the longitudinal study
of self-reported delinquency and drug use mentioned earlier in
this chapter, Elliott
and his colleagues David Huizinga and Scott Menard found a

strong association be-
tween delinquency and drug use.78 However, the direction of
the relationship is un-
clear. As a general rule, drug abuse appears to be a type of
delinquent behavior and not
a cause of delinquency. Most youths become involved in
delinquent acts before they are
initiated into drugs; it is difficult, therefore, to conclude that
drug use causes crime.
According to the Elliott research, both drug use and
delinquency seem to reflect
developmental problems; they are both part of a disturbed
lifestyle. This research
reveals some important associations between substance abuse
and delinquency:
1. Alcohol abuse seems to be a cause of marijuana and other
drug abuse because
most drug users started with alcohol, and youths who abstain
from alcohol almost
never take drugs.
2. Marijuana use is a cause of multiple drug use: about 95
percent of youths who
use more serious drugs started on pot; only 5 percent of serious
drug users never
smoked pot.
248 C H A P T E R 1 0

3. Youths who commit felonies started off with
minor delinquent acts. Few delinquents (1 per-
cent) report committing felonies only.
DRUG CONTROL
STRATEGIES
Billions of dollars are spent each year to reduce the
importation of drugs, deter drug dealers, and treat
users. Yet although the overall incidence of drug use
has declined, drug use has concentrated in the na-
tion’s poorest neighborhoods, with a consequent
association between substance abuse and crime.
A number of drug-control strategies have been
tried. Some are designed to deter drug use by stop-
ping the flow of drugs into the country, apprehending
dealers, and cracking down on street-level drug deals.
Another approach is to prevent drug use by educating would-be
users and convincing
them to “say no” to drugs. A third approach is to treat users so
that they can terminate
their addictions. Some of these efforts are discussed in the
following sections.
Law Enforcement Efforts
Law enforcement strategies are aimed at reducing the supply of
drugs and, at the
same time, deterring would-be users from drug abuse.
Source Control One approach to drug control is to deter the sale
of drugs
through apprehension of large-volume drug dealers coupled
with enforcement of
drug laws that carry heavy penalties. This approach is designed

to punish known
dealers and users and to deter those who are considering
entering the drug trade.
A great effort has been made to cut off supplies of drugs by
destroying overseas
crops and arresting members of drug cartels; this approach is
known as source control.
What Does This Mean to Me?
Reducing Drug Activity
There is no easy solution to reducing drug-related activities.
Some experts argue that less serious drugs like marijuana
should be decriminalized, others call for the continued use of
police stings and long sentences for drug violations, and some
advocate for more education and treatment. Suppose in your
community you have witnessed the harms associated with
teenage drug use and drug selling, but have also seen the need
for some users to get treatment rather than punishment.
1. What do you recommend be done to address the drug
problem more effectively? Explain.
2. What are some things you could do in your community
to help prevent children and youth from getting involved
in drug-related activities?
Strategies to control drugs and
their use are wide-ranging, and
the results of many strategies
are disappointing. Here, teens
participate in a youth antidrug
and antiviolence workshop in

Miami, Florida, to learn more
about what works and how
teens can play a role in prevent-
ing drug use and violence.
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The federal government has been encouraging exporting nations
to step up efforts
to destroy drug crops and prosecute dealers. Other less
aggressive source control ap-
proaches, such as crop substitution and alternative development
programs for the

largely poor farmers in other countries, have also been tried,
and a recent review
of international efforts suggests that “some success can be
achieved in reduction of
narcotic crop production.”79 Three South American nations—
Peru, Bolivia, and
Colombia—have agreed to coordinate control efforts with the
United States. How-
ever, translating words into deeds is a formidable task. Drug
lords fight back through
intimidation, violence, and corruption. The United States was
forced to invade Panama
with twenty thousand troops in 1989 to stop its leader, General
Manuel Noriega, from
trafficking in cocaine.
Even when efforts are successful in one area, they may result in
a shift in produc-
tion to another area or in the targeted crop being replaced by
another. For example,
between 1994 and 1999, enforcement efforts in Peru and Bolivia
were so successful
that they altered cocaine cultivation patterns. As a consequence,
Colombia became
the premier coca-cultivating country when the local drug cartels
encouraged growers
to cultivate coca plants. When the Colombian government
mounted an effective
eradication campaign in the traditional growing areas, the cartel
linked up with rebel
groups in remote parts of the country for their drug supply.80
Leaders in neighbor-
ing countries expressed fear when, in August 2000, the United
States announced
$1.3 billion in military aid to fight Colombia’s rural drug
dealers/rebels, assuming

that success would drive traffickers over the border.81 Another
unintended effect of
this campaign has been a recent shift by drug cartels to exploit
new crops, from a
traditional emphasis on coca to opium poppy, the plant used to
make heroin. It is
estimated that Latin American countries, including Mexico, now
supply upwards
of 80 percent of the heroin consumed in the United States.82
Border Control Law enforcement efforts have also been directed
at interdict-
ing drug supplies as they enter the country. Border patrols and
military personnel
have been involved in massive interdiction efforts, and many
billion-dollar seizures
have been made. It is estimated that between one-quarter and
one-third of the an-
nual cocaine supply shipped to the United States is seized by
drug enforcement agen-
cies. Yet U.S. borders are so vast and unprotected that
meaningful interdiction is
impossible. In 2001, U.S. law enforcement agencies seized
233,000 pounds of cocaine
and almost 5,500 pounds of heroin.83 Global rates of
interception of cocaine indi-
cate that only one-third of all imports are being seized by law
enforcement.84
In recent years, another form of border control to interdict drugs
entering the
country has emerged: targeting Internet drug traffickers in
foreign countries. With
the increasing popularity of the Internet, some offenders are
now turning to this
source to obtain designer-type drugs. In 2001, U.S. Customs in

Buffalo, New York,
discovered that a steady flow of packages containing the drug
gamma-butyrolactone
or GBL, an ingredient of GBH (gamma hydroxybutyrate), also
known as the date-
rape drug, were entering the country from Canada; the drug was
disguised as a
cleaning product. Operation Webslinger, a joint investigation of
federal law enforce-
ment agencies in the United States and Canada, was put in place
to track down the
suppliers. Within a year, Operation Webslinger had shut down
four Internet drug
rings operating in the United States and Canada, made 115
arrests in eighty-four
cities, and seized the equivalent of twenty-five million doses of
GBH and other,
related drugs.85 In 2003, another federal task force, known as
Operation Gray Lord
and involving the Food and Drug Administration and the Drug
Enforcement Ad-
ministration, was set up to combat illegal sales of narcotics on
the Internet.86
If all importation were ended, homegrown marijuana and lab-
made drugs such
as Ecstasy could become the drugs of choice. Even now, their
easy availability and
relatively low cost are increasing their popularity; they are a
$10 billion business in
the United States today.
250 C H A P T E R 1 0

Targeting Dealers Law enforcement agencies have also made a
concerted
effort to focus on drug trafficking. Efforts have been made to
bust large-scale drug
rings. The long-term consequence has been to decentralize drug
dealing and to en-
courage teenage gangs to become major suppliers. Ironically, it
has proven easier for
federal agents to infiltrate traditional organized crime groups
than to take on drug-
dealing gangs.
Police can also intimidate and arrest street-level dealers and
users in an effort to
make drug use so much of a hassle that consumption is cut back.
Some street-level
enforcement efforts have had success, but others are considered
failures. “Drug
sweeps” have clogged correctional facilities with petty
offenders while proving a
drain on police resources. These sweeps are also suspected of
creating a displacement
effect: stepped-up efforts to curb drug dealing in one area or
city may encourage
dealers to seek out friendlier territory.87 People arrested on
drug-related charges are
the fastest growing segment of both the juvenile and adult
justice systems. National
surveys have found that juvenile court judges are prone to use a
get-tough approach
on drug-involved offenders. They are more likely to be
processed formally by the
court and to be detained between referral to court and

disposition than other
categories of delinquent offenders, including those who commit
violent crimes.88
Despite these efforts, juvenile drug use continues, indicating
that a get-tough policy
is not sufficient to deter drug use.
Education Strategies
Another approach to reducing teenage substance abuse relies on
educational programs.
Drug education now begins in kindergarten and extends through
the twelfth grade.
More than 80 percent of public school districts include these
components: teaching
students about the causes and effects of alcohol, drug, and
tobacco use; teaching stu-
dents to resist peer pressure; and referring students for
counseling and treatment.89
Education programs such as Project ALERT, based in middle
schools in California and
Oregon, appear to be successful in training youths to avoid
recreational drugs and to
resist peer pressure to use cigarettes and alcohol.90 The most
widely used drug preven-
tion program, Drug Abuse Resistance Education (D.A.R.E.), is
discussed in the accom-
panying Preventing and Treating Delinquency feature.
To go to the official site of
D.A.R.E., click on Web Links

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The Drug Abuse Resistance
Education (D.A.R.E.) program
is an elementary school course
designed to give students the
skills for resisting peer pressure
to experiment with tobacco,
drugs, and alcohol. It employs
uniformed police officers to
carry the antidrug message
to students before they enter
junior high school. While re-
views have been mixed, the
program continues to be used
around the nation.
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252 C H A P T E R 1 0
Drug Abuse Resistance
Education (D.A.R.E.)
The most widely known drug education program, Drug Abuse
Resistance Education (D.A.R.E.), is an elementary school
course designed to give students the skills they need to resist
peer pressure to experiment with tobacco, drugs, and alcohol.
It is unique because it employs uniformed police officers to
carry the antidrug message to the children before they enter
junior high school. The program focuses on five major areas:
■ Providing accurate information about tobacco, alcohol,
and drugs
■ Teaching students techniques to resist peer pressure
■ Teaching students to respect the law and law enforcers
■ Giving students ideas for alternatives to drug use
■ Building the self-esteem of students
The D.A.R.E. program is based on the concept that the
young students need specific analytical and social skills to
resist peer pressure and “say no” to drugs. Instructors work
with children to raise their self-esteem, provide them with
decision-making tools, and help them identify positive alter-

natives to substance abuse.
The D.A.R.E. approach has been adopted so rapidly
since its founding in 1983 that it is now taught in almost
80 percent of school districts nationwide and in fifty-four
other countries. In 2002 alone, twenty-six million children
in the United States and ten million children in other coun-
tries participated in the program. More than 40 percent of
all school districts incorporate assistance from local law
enforcement agencies in their drug-prevention program-
ming. New community policing strategies commonly incor-
porate the D.A.R.E. program into their efforts to provide
services to local neighborhoods at the grassroots level.
Does D.A.R.E. Work?
Although D.A.R.E. is popular with both schools and police
agencies, a number of evaluations have not found it to have
an impact on student drug usage. For example, in a highly
sophisticated evaluation of the program, Donald Lynam and
his colleagues found the program to be ineffective over both
the short and long term. They followed a cohort of sixth-
grade children who attended a total of thirty-one schools.
Twenty-three of the schools were randomly assigned to
receive D.A.R.E. in the sixth grade, while the other eight
received whatever drug education was routinely provided
in their classes. The research team assessed the participants
yearly through the tenth grade and then recontacted them
when they were twenty years old. They found that D.A.R.E.
had no effect on students’ drug use at any time through tenth
grade. The ten-year follow-up failed to find any hidden or
“sleeper” effects that were delayed in developing. At age
twenty, there were no differences between those who went
through D.A.R.E. and those who did not in their use of ciga-
rettes, alcohol, marijuana, or other drugs; the only difference
was that those who had participated in D.A.R.E. reported
slightly lower levels of self-esteem at age twenty—an effect

that proponents were not aiming for. In the most rigorous
and comprehensive review so far on the effectiveness of
D.A.R.E, the General Accounting Office (GAO), the research
arm of Congress, found that the program neither prevents
student drug use nor changes student attitudes toward drugs.
Changing the D.A.R.E. Curriculum
Although national evaluations and independent reviews have
questioned the validity of D.A.R.E. and a few communities
have discontinued its use, it is still widely employed in school
districts around the country. To meet criticism head-on,
D.A.R.E. began testing a new curriculum in 2001. The new
program is aimed at older students and relies more on having
them question their assumptions about drug use than on
listening to lectures on the subject. The new program will
work largely on changing social norms, teaching students to
question whether they really have to use drugs to fit in with
their peers. Emphasis will shift from fifth-grade students
to those in the seventh grade and a booster program will be
added in ninth grade, when kids are more likely to experiment
with drugs. Police officers will now serve more as coaches than
as lecturers, encouraging students to challenge the social norm
of drug use in discussion groups. Students also will do more
role-playing in an effort to learn decision-making skills. There
will also be an emphasis on the role of media and advertising
in shaping behavior. The new curriculum is undergoing tests
in 80 high schools and 176 middle schools—half the schools
will continue using the curriculum they do now, and the other
half will use the new D.A.R.E. program—so that the new
curriculum may be scientifically evaluated.
CRITICAL THINKING
1. Do you believe that an education program such as
D.A.R.E. can turn kids away from drugs, or are the rea-

sons for teenage drug use so complex that a single
school-based program is doomed to fail?
2. If you ran D.A.R.E., what experiences would you give to
the children? Do you think it would be effective to have
current or ex-addicts address classes about how drugs
influenced their lives?
INFOTRAC COLLEGE EDITION RESEARCH
For more information on the enhanced D.A.R.E. pro-
gram, go to InfoTrac College Edition and read “Enhanced
D.A.R.E. Program More Effective for Adolescent Boys,”
Brown University Child and Adolescent Behavior Letter 19:1
(April 2003).
Sources: Youth Illicit Drug Use Prevention: D.A.R.E. Long-
Term Evalua-
tions and Federal Efforts to Identify Effective Programs
(Washington,
DC: U.S. General Accounting Office, 2003), p. 2; Brian Vastag,
“GAO:
DARE Does Not Work,” Journal of the American Medical
Association
289:539 (2003); Kate Zernike, “Antidrug Program Says It Will
Adopt
a New Strategy,” New York Times, 15 February 2001, p.1;
Donald R.
Lynam, Rich Milich, Rick Zimmerman, Scott Novak, T. K.
Logan,
Catherine Martin, Carl Leukefeld, and Richard Clayton,
“Project
D.A.R.E.: No Effects at 10-Year Follow-Up,” Journal of
Consulting
and Clinical Psychology 67:590–593 (1999).

Preventing and Treating Delinquency
Two recent large-scale studies demonstrate the effec-
tiveness of antidrug messages targeted at youth. An evalua-
tion of the National Youth Anti-Drug Media Campaign,
which features ads showing the dangers of marijuana
use, reported that almost half of students in grades six to
twelve with “high exposure” to the ads said the ads made
them less likely to try or use drugs compared with 38 per-
cent of students who had little or no exposure to the ads.
Importantly, the study also reported that past-year mari-
juana use among youth was down 9 percent between
2002 and 2003.91 The second study, the National Survey
on Drug Use and Health, which asked young people ages
twelve to seventeen about antidrug messages they had
heard or seen outside of school hours, reported that past-
month drug use by those exposed to the messages was
15 percent lower than those who had not been exposed to
the messages.92 These are encouraging findings given the
limited effectiveness of D.A.R.E.
Community Strategies
Community-based programs reach out to high-risk
youths, getting them involved in after-school programs;
offering counseling; delivering clothing, food, and medical
care when needed; and encouraging school achievement.
Community programs also sponsor drug-free activities
involving the arts, clubs, and athletics. Evaluations of com-
munity programs have shown that they may encourage
antidrug attitudes and help insulate participating youths
from an environment that encourages drugs.93

One of the most successful community-based programs to
prevent substance
abuse and delinquency is provided by the Boys and Girls Clubs
(BGCs) of America.
One study examined the effectiveness of BGCs for high-risk
youths in public hous-
ing developments at five sites across the country. The usual
services of BGCs, which
include reading classes, sports, and homework assistance, were
offered, as well as a
program to prevent substance abuse, known as SMART Moves
(Self-Management
and Resistance Training). This program targets the specific
pressures that young
people face to try drugs and alcohol and provides education to
parents and the com-
munity at large to assist youth in learning about the dangers of
substance abuse and
strategies for resisting the pressures to use drugs and alcohol.94
Evaluation results
showed that housing developments with BGCs, with and without
SMART Moves,
produced a reduction in substance abuse, drug trafficking, and
other drug-related
delinquency activity.95
Treatment Strategies
Each year more than 131,000 youths ages twelve to seventeen
are admitted to treat-
ment facilities in the United States, with over half being
referred through the juvenile
justice system. Just over 60 percent of all admissions involved
marijuana as the pri-
mary drug of abuse.96

Several approaches are available to treat these users. Some
efforts stem from the
perspective that users have low self-esteem and employ various
techniques to build
up their sense of self. Some use psychological counseling, and
others, such as the
multisystemic treatment (MST) technique developed by Scott
Henggeler, direct
attention to family, peer, and psychological problems by
focusing on problem solving
and communication skills.97 In a long-term evaluation of MST,
Henggeler found
that adolescent substance abusers who went through the
program were significantly
multisystemic treatment (MST)
Addresses a variety of family, peer,
and psychological problems.
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Do antidrug messages targeted at keeping youths off drugs
work? Recent studies report promising findings. The mes-
sage shown here, “Love: The Anti-Drug,” encourages parents
to talk to their children and be involved in their lives.
less likely to recidivate than youths who received traditional
counseling services.
However, mixed treatment effects were reported for future
substance abuse by those
who received MST compared with those who did not.98
Another approach is to involve users in outdoor activities,
wilderness training,
and after-school community programs.99 More intensive efforts
use group therapy,
in which leaders try to give users the skills and support that can
help them reject so-
cial pressure to use drugs. These programs are based on the
Alcoholics Anonymous
philosophy that users must find the strength to stay clean and
that support from those
who understand their experiences can be a successful way to
achieve a drug-free life.
Residential programs are used with more heavily involved drug
abusers. Some
are detoxification units that use medical procedures to wean
patients from the more
addicting drugs. Others are therapeutic communities that

attempt to deal with the
psychological causes of drug use. Hypnosis, aversion therapy
(getting users to associ-
ate drugs with unpleasant sensations, such as nausea),
counseling, biofeedback, and
other techniques are often used.
There is little evidence that these residential programs can
efficiently terminate
teenage substance abuse.100 Many are restricted to families
whose health insurance
will pay for short-term residential care; when the coverage
ends, the children are
released. Adolescents do not often enter these programs
voluntarily, and most have
little motivation to change.101 A stay can stigmatize residents
as “addicts” even
though they never used hard drugs; while in treatment, they may
be introduced to
hard-core users with whom they will associate upon release.
One residential program
that holds promise for reducing teenage substance abuse is
UCLA’s Comprehensive
Residential Education, Arts, and Substance Abuse Treatment
(CREASAT) program,
which integrates “enhanced substance abuse services” (group
therapy, education,
vocational skills) and visual and performing arts
programming.102
WHAT DOES THE FUTURE HOLD?
The United States appears willing to go to great lengths to fight
the drug war. Law
enforcement efforts, along with prevention programs and
treatment projects, have
been stepped up. Yet all drug-control strategies are doomed to

fail as long as youths
want to take drugs and dealers find that their sale is a lucrative
source of income.
Prevention, deterrence, and treatment strategies ignore the core
reasons for the drug
problem: poverty, alienation, and family disruption. As the gap
between rich and
poor widens and the opportunities for legitimate advancement
decrease, it should
come as no surprise that adolescent drug use continues.
Some commentators have called for the legalization of drugs.
This approach can
have the short-term effect of reducing the association between
drug use and crime
(since, presumably, the cost of drugs would decrease), but it
may have grave conse-
quences. Drug use would most certainly increase, creating an
overflow of unproduc-
tive people who must be cared for by the rest of society. The
problems of teenage
alcoholism should serve as a warning of what can happen when
controlled substances
are made readily available. However, the implications of
decriminalization should be
further studied: What effect would a policy of partial
decriminalization (for example,
legalizing small amounts of marijuana) have on drug use rates?
Does a get-tough
policy on drugs “widen the net?” Are there alternatives to the
criminalization of drugs
that could help reduce their use?103 The Rand Corporation
study of drug dealing in
Washington, D.C., suggests that law enforcement efforts may
have little influence on
drug-abuse rates as long as dealers can earn more than the

minimal salaries they
might earn in the legitimate business world. Only by giving
youths legitimate future
alternatives can hard-core users be made to forgo drug use
willingly.104
✔ Checkpoints
254 C H A P T E R 1 0
Checkpoints
✔ There is a strong association
between drug use and delinquency.
✔ Juvenile arrestees often test posi-
tive for drugs.
✔ Chronic offenders are often drug
abusers.
✔ Though drug use and delinquency
are associated, it is difficult to
show that abusing drugs leads kids
into a delinquent way of life.
✔ There are a number of drug-control
strategies, some relying on law
enforcement efforts and others on
treatment.
✔ There are a number of drug educa-
tion initiatives.
✔ D.A.R.E. is a popular school-based
prevention program that has been

the target of recent criticism; it is
being revamped.
To find out more about the
federal government’s drug
control strategies, click on
Web Links under the Chapter
Resources at http://cj.
wadsworth.com/siegel_
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legalization of drugs
Decriminalizing drug use to reduce
the association between drug use
and crime.
• Alcohol is the drug most frequently abused by Ameri-
can teens. Other popular drugs include marijuana;
cocaine and its derivative, crack; and designer drugs

such as Ecstasy.
• Self-report surveys indicate that more than half of
all high school–age kids have tried drugs. Surveys
of arrestees indicate that a significant proportion of
teenagers are drug users and many are high school
dropouts. The number of drug users may be even
higher than surveys suggest, because these surveys
may be missing the most delinquent youths.
• Although the national survey conducted by PRIDE
shows that teenage drug use increased slightly in the
past year, both it and the Monitoring the Future sur-
vey, also national, report that drug and alcohol use
are much lower today than five and ten years ago.
• There are many explanations for why youths take
drugs, including growing up in disorganized areas in
which there is a high degree of hopelessness, poverty,
and despair; peer pressure; parental substance abuse;
emotional problems; and suffering from general prob-
lem behavior syndrome.
• A variety of youths use drugs. Some are occasional
users who sell to friends. Others are seriously involved
in both drug abuse and delinquency; many of these
are gang members. There are also “losers,” who filter
in and out of the justice system. A small percentage
of teenage users remain involved with drugs into
adulthood.
• It is not certain whether drug abuse causes delinquency.
Some experts believe there is a common cause for both
delinquency and drug abuse—perhaps alienation and
rage.

• Many attempts have been made to control the drug
trade. Some try to inhibit the importation of drugs,
others to close down major drug rings, and a few to
stop street-level dealing. There are also attempts to treat
users through rehabilitation programs and to reduce
juvenile use by educational efforts. Some communities
have mounted grassroots drives. These efforts have not
been totally successful, although overall use of drugs
may have declined somewhat.
• It is difficult to eradicate drug abuse because there is
so much profit to be made from the sale of drugs. One
suggestion: legalize drugs. But critics warn that such a
step may produce greater numbers of substance
abusers.
S U M M A RY
substance abuse, p. 232
hashish, p. 232
marijuana, p. 233
cocaine, p. 233
crack, p. 233
heroin, p. 234
addict, p. 234
alcohol, p. 234
anesthetic drugs, p. 234
inhalants, p. 234
sedatives, p. 234
tranquilizers, p. 235
hallucinogens, p. 235
stimulants, p. 235
anabolic steroids, p. 235

designer drugs, p. 236
addiction-prone personality, p. 242
gateway drug, p. 243
multisystemic treatment
(MST), p. 253
legalization of drugs, p. 254
K E Y T E R M S
1. Discuss the differences between the various categories
and types of substances of abuse. Is the term drugs too
broad to have real meaning?
2. Why do you think youths take drugs? Do you know
anyone with an addiction-prone personality?
3. What policy do you think might be the best strategy to
reduce teenage drug use? Source control? Reliance on
treatment? National education efforts? Community-
level enforcement?
4. Do you consider alcohol a drug? Should greater con-
trols be placed on the sale of alcohol?
5. Do TV shows and films glorify drug usage and encour-
age youths to enter the drug trade? Should all images
of drinking and smoking be banned from TV? What
about advertisements that try to convince youths how
much fun it is to drink beer or smoke cigarettes?
Q U E S T I O N S F O R D I S C U S S I O N

256 C H A P T E R 1 0
The president has appointed you the new “drug czar.” You
have $10 billion under your control with which to wage
your campaign. You know that drug use is unacceptably
high, especially among poor, inner-city kids, that a great
deal of criminal behavior is drug-related, and that drug-
dealing gangs are expanding around the United States.
At an open hearing, drug control experts express their
policy strategies. One group favors putting the money into
hiring new law enforcement agents who will patrol borders,
target large dealers, and make drug raids here and abroad.
They also call for such get-tough measures as the creation
of strict drug laws, the mandatory waiver of young drug
dealers to the adult court system, and the death penalty for
drug-related gang killings.
A second group believes the best way to deal with drugs
is to spend the money on community treatment programs,
expanding the number of beds in drug detoxification units,
and funding research on how to reduce drug dependency
clinically.
A third group argues that neither punishment nor
treatment can restrict teenage drug use and that the best
course is to educate at-risk kids about the dangers of sub-
stance abuse and then legalize all drugs but control their
distribution. This course of action will help reduce crime
and violence among drug users and also balance the na-
tional debt, because drugs could be heavily taxed.
• Do you believe drugs should be legalized? If so, what

might be the negative consequences of legalization?
• Can any law enforcement strategies reduce drug con-
sumption?
• Is treatment an effective drug-control technique?
A P P LY I N G W H AT YO U H AV E L E A R N E D
To research this topic, use “youth and drugs” as a key term
on InfoTrac College Edition.
The Open Society Institute, Centers for Disease Control
and Prevention Health Programs, National Institute on Drug
Abuse, National Center on Addiction and Substance Abuse
at Columbia University, Partnership for a Drug-Free Amer-
ica, and the U.S. Bureau of Customs and Border Protection
provide more information on different approaches to reduc-
ing teenage drug use. Before you answer the questions here,
check out their Web sites by clicking on Web Links under the
Chapter Resources at http://cj.wadsworth.com/siegel_
jdcore2e.
Pro/Con discussions and Viewpoint Essays on some of the
topics
in this chapter may be found at the Opposing Viewpoints
Resource
Center: www.gale.com/OpposingViewpoints.
D O I N G R E S E A R C H O N T H E W E B

Primary prevention interventions typically take place
early in childhood and are based on different views of
theories of the onset of delinquency. They aim to stop
antisocial activities before they occur. In contrast, sec-
ondary prevention efforts take place later, after children
show signs that they are involved in antisocial activities.
Most are based on the assumption that children’s rela-
tionship with their environment, their school, neighbor-
hood, family, and peers can either increase their risk of
delinquent involvement or help shield them from in-
ducements to commit crime. Therefore, these prevention
programs usually target such issues as adjusting to a
disrupted home environment, coping with school-related
problems, helping kids plan for their future, and provid-
ing alternatives to antisocial peers. The following sections
review a few prominent examples of secondary delin-
quency prevention programs.
MENTORING
Mentoring programs usually involve nonprofessional
volunteers spending time with young people who are at
risk for delinquency, dropping out of school, school fail-
ure, and other social problems. They mentor in a sup-
portive, nonjudgmental manner while also acting as role
models.1 In recent years there has been a large increase in
the number of mentoring programs, many of them
aimed at preventing delinquency.2
One of the mentoring programs most successful in
preventing juvenile delinquency is the Quantum Oppor-
tunities Program (QOP). QOP was implemented in five
sites: Milwaukee; Oklahoma City; Philadelphia; Saginaw,
Michigan; and San Antonio. The program ran for four
years, or up to grade twelve, and was designed around
the provision of three “quantum opportunities”:

• Educational activities (peer tutoring, computer-
based instruction, homework assistance)
• Service activities (volunteering with community
projects)
• Development activities (curricula focused on life
and family skills, and college and career planning)
Incentives in the form of cash and college scholar-
ships were also offered to students for work carried out
in these three areas. These incentives served to provide
short-run motivation for school completion and future
academic and social achievement. In addition, staff
received cash incentives and bonuses for keeping youths
involved in the program.3
An evaluation of the program six months after it
ended found that youths who participated were less likely
to be arrested compared to the control group (17 percent
versus 58 percent). A number of other significant effects
were observed. For example, compared with the control
group, QOP group members were
• More likely to have graduated from high school
(63 percent versus 42 percent)
• More likely to be enrolled in some form of post-
secondary education (42 percent versus 16 percent)
• Less likely to have dropped out of high school
(23 percent versus 50 percent)4
Despite these findings, the overall evidence of the
impact of mentoring on delinquency remains mixed.5

Other mentoring programs have not had success in aca-
demic achievement, school attendance, school dropout
rate, and employment.6
AFTER-SCHOOL PROGRAMS
Because three out of four mothers of school-age children
are employed, and two-thirds of them work full-time,
there is a growing need for after-school programs. Today,
after-school options include child-care centers, tutoring
programs at school, dance groups, basketball leagues, and
drop-in clubs. State and federal budgets for education,
public safety, delinquency prevention, and child care
provide some funding for after-school programs. Re-
search shows that younger children (ages five to nine)
and those in low-income neighborhoods gain the most
from after-school programs, showing improved work
habits, behavior with peers and adults, and performance
in school. Young teens who attend after-school activities
N e w D i r e c t i o n s i n
P r e v e n t i n g D e l i n q u e n c y
Secondary Prevention Efforts:
Family and Community
S E C O N D A R Y P R E V E N T I O N E F F O R T S : F A
M I LY A N D C O M M U N I T Y 257
achieve higher grades in school and engage in less risky

behavior. However, these findings must be interpreted
with caution. Because after-school programs are volun-
tary, participants may be the more motivated youngsters
in a given population and the least likely to engage in
antisocial behavior.7
Some of the most successful after-school programs are
provided by the Boys and Girls Clubs of America. Founded
in 1902, the Boys and Girls Clubs of America is a nonprofit
organization with a membership today of more than 1.3
million boys and girls nationwide. Boys and Girls Clubs
(BGC) provide programs in six main areas: cultural enrich-
ment, health and physical education, social recreation,
personal and educational development, citizenship and
leadership development, and environmental education.8
Evaluations of the Boys and Girls Club programs
show that they are mostly successful and produce reduc-
tions in substance abuse, drug trafficking, and other
drug-related delinquency activity.9
Although the evidence shows that after-school pro-
grams can be successful, there is a need for further evalu-
ation.10 The fact that violent juvenile delinquency is at its
peak in the after-school hours underscores the impor-
tance of high-quality after-school programs.11
JOB TRAINING
As you may recall, the effects of having an after-school
job can be problematic. Some research indicates that it
may be associated with delinquency and substance abuse.
However, helping kids to prepare for the adult workforce
is an important aspect of delinquency prevention. Job
training programs play an important role in improving
the chances of young people obtaining jobs in the legal
economy and thereby may reduce delinquency.12

The most well known and largest job training pro-
gram in the United States is the Job Corps, established in
1964 as a federal training program for disadvantaged,
unemployed youths. The Department of Labor, which
was the designer of the national program, was hopeful
that spinoff benefits in the form of reduced dependence
on social assistance and a reduction in delinquency
would occur as a result of empowering at-risk youth to
achieve stable, long-term employment opportunities.
The program is still active today, operating out of 119
centers across the nation, and each year it provides ser-
vices to more than sixty thousand new young people at a
cost of over $1 billion.13
The main goal of the Job Corps is to improve the em-
ployability of participants by offering a comprehensive set
of services that largely includes vocational skills training,
basic education (the ability to obtain graduate equivalent
degrees [GEDs]), and health care. Job Corps is provided
to young people between the ages of sixteen and twenty-
four. Most of those enrolled in the program are at high
risk of substance abuse, delinquency, and social assistance
dependency. Two out of five come from families on social
assistance, four out of five have dropped out of school,
and the average family income is $6,000 per year.14
Almost all Job Corps centers require the participants
to live in the centers while taking the program.
A large-scale evaluation of Job Corps involving al-
most twelve thousand young people found that the pro-
gram was successful in reducing delinquency. Arrest rates
were 16 percent lower for those who received the pro-
gram than a comparison group. Program group mem-

bers were less likely to be convicted and serve jail time
upon conviction. Also, there were higher employment
rates and greater earnings for those who received the
program.15 An earlier evaluation of Job Corps found it
to be a worthwhile investment of public resources: for
each dollar that was spent on the program, $1.45 was
saved to government or taxpayers, crime victims, and
program participants.16
Job training is an important component of an overall
strategy to reduce delinquency. The developmental stage
of transition to work is very difficult for many young
people. Coming from a disadvantaged background, hav-
ing poor grades in school or perhaps dropping out of
school, and having some involvement in delinquency can
all pose difficulties in securing a steady, well-paying job in
early adulthood.
COMPREHENSIVE
COMMUNITY-BASED
PROGRAMS
Comprehensive community-based delinquency preven-
tion programs combine many interventions targeted at an
array of risk factors for delinquency, and are typically
implemented in neighborhoods with high delinquency
and crime rates. Experimentation with this type of delin-
quency prevention program began as early as the 1930s,
with Shaw and McKay’s Chicago Area Project.17 The Mo-
bilization for Youth program of the 1960s is another ex-
ample of a comprehensive community-based initiative to
prevent juvenile delinquency. Neither of these programs
was found to be overly successful in reducing delinquency.
Few of these types of programs have been evaluated.
One contemporary example of a comprehensive
community-based delinquency prevention program that

has been evaluated is the Children At Risk (CAR) pro-
gram. CAR was set up to help improve the lives of young
people at high risk for delinquency, gang involvement,
substance abuse, and other problem behaviors. It was
delivered to a large number of young people in poor and
high crime neighborhoods in five cities across the coun-
258 N E W D I R E C T I O N S I N P R E V E N T I N G D
E L I N Q U E N C Y
try. It involved a wide range of preventive measures, in-
cluding case management and family counseling, family
skills training, tutoring, mentoring, after-school activities,
and community policing. The program was different in
each neighborhood. A study of all five cities showed that
one year after the program ended, the young people who
received the program, compared with a control group,
were less likely to have committed violent delinquent acts
and used or sold drugs. Some of the other beneficial re-
sults for those in the program included less association
with delinquent peers, less peer pressure to engage in
delinquency, and more positive peer support.18
Comprehensive community-based delinquency
prevention programs are made up of a range of different
types of interventions, and typically involve an equally
diverse group of community and government agencies
that are concerned with the problem of juvenile delin-
quency, such as the YMCA/YWCA, Boys and Girls Clubs
of America, social services, and health. For example, the
Communities That Care (CTC) program emphasizes

the reduction of risk factors for delinquency and the
enhancement of protective factors against delinquency
for different developmental stages from birth through
adolescence.19 CTC follows a rigorous, multilevel plan-
ning process that includes drawing upon interventions
that have previously demonstrated success and tailoring
them to the needs of the community.20
The CTC and other comprehensive programs
rely on a systematic planning model to develop preven-
tive interventions. This includes analysis of the delin-
quency problem, identification of available resources in
the community, development of priority delinquency
problems, and identification of successful programs in
other communities and tailoring them to local condi-
tions and needs.21 Not all comprehensive community-
based prevention programs follow this model, but there
is evidence to suggest that this approach will produce the
greatest reductions in juvenile delinquency.22 One of the
main drawbacks to this approach is the difficulty in sus-
taining the level of resources and the cooperation be-
tween agencies that are necessary to lower the rates of
juvenile delinquency across a large geographical area
such as a city.
FUTURE OF DELINQUENCY
PREVENTION
Despite the success of many different types of secondary
prevention programs, from mentoring to job training,
these programs receive a small fraction of what is spent
on the juvenile justice system to deal with young people
once they have broken the law.23 To many juvenile justice
officials, policymakers, and politicians, prevention is
tantamount to being soft on crime, and delinquency
prevention programs are often referred to as “pork bar-

rel,” or wasteful, spending.24 There is also concern about
the labeling and stigmatization associated with programs
that target high-risk populations: children and families
receiving support may be called hurtful names or looked
down upon by fellow community members.25
Notwithstanding these important issues, the future
of secondary delinquency prevention is likely to be very
bright. With many local efforts, state initiatives, and a
growing list of national programs showing positive re-
sults, the prevention of delinquency is proving its worth.
S E C O N D A R Y P R E V E N T I O N E F F O R T S : F A
M I LY A N D C O M M U N I T Y 259

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