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Copyright © 2019 by SAGE Publications, Inc.
All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced or
utilized in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical,
including photocopying, recording, or by any information storage
and retrieval system, without permission in writing from the
publisher.
Printed in the United States of America
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Names: Tang, Mei, (Counselor educator), author.
Title: Career development and counseling : theory and practice in a
multicultural world / Mei Tang, University of Cincinnati, USA.
Description: Thousand Oaks, California : SAGE Publications, Inc., [2018] |
Includes bibliographical references and index.
Identifiers: LCCN 2018016814 | ISBN 9781452230863
(pbk. : acid-free paper)
Subjects: LCSH: Career development. | Vocational guidance. |
Multiculturalism.
Classification: LCC HF5381 .T2335 2018 | DDC 650.14—dc23
LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2018016814
This book is printed on acid-free paper.
18 19 20 21 22 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1
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![Chapter 1 ■ Roots, Growth, and Trends of Career Development and Intervention 9
During this time, several other factors were noteworthy for their impact on vocational
guidance. Psychological testing experienced another booming period with many new tests
developed and existing instruments revised. For example, the Strong Interest Inventory,
a commonly used assessment of occupational interests first developed in 1927, went
through a major revision during this period. Another popular test used in career counsel-
ing field, the Myers and Briggs Type Indicator, was developed by a mother-daughter team,
not as an assessment for career counseling but for understanding individual personality
differences. The emphasis of vocational guidance began to be attending to individual char-
acteristics, individual differences, and individual well-being, rather than simply addressing
social problems. The new definition of vocational guidance by NVGA changed
the focus of vocational guidance from a concentration on what is to be
chosen to increasing attention on the characteristics of the chooser. . . . [I]t
diminished the emphasis on matching individual to job and on the provision of
occupational information at a particular point in time. Instead, it emphasized the
psychological nature of vocational choice, accented the developmental influence
on career behavior across the life span, blended the personal and vocational
dimensions of guidance into a whole, and elevated the importance of
self-understanding and self-acceptance. (Herr, 2001, p. 204)
Broadened Role of Career Counseling and Services
With the changing focus of vocational guidance, the definition of vocational guid-
ance was changed from “the process of assisting the individual to choose an occupation,
prepare for it, enter upon it, and progress in it” to “the process of helping a person to
develop and accept an integrated and adequate picture of himself [sic] and of his role in
the world of work, to test this concept against reality, and to convert it into a reality, with
satisfaction to himself and to society” (Super, 1951, p. 89, as cited in Herr, 2001). It is
evident from this changing definition that vocational guidance was not just a job place-
ment service anymore; rather, it entailed the concept of developing self-understanding
and satisfaction. In other words, it is not only about finding a job but more importantly
finding a job that is satisfying and meets the needs of society.
Pope (2000) characterized the history of career counseling as consisting of six stages,
each of which has a theme. The first stage (1819-1919) was labeled Job Placement Services.
The second stage (1920-1939) was summarized as providing educational guidance in the
schools and the solidified role of vocational guidance in school. The third stage (1940-
1959) was characterized as the expansion of vocational guidance in colleges and univer-
1959) was characterized as the expansion of vocational guidance in colleges and univer-
1959) was characterized as the expansion of vocational guidance in colleges and univer
sities and the training of counselors. In the fourth stage (1960-1979), Pope described
the theme of vocational guidance as “meaningful work” (p. 200). Young people in the
1960s and 1970s wanted more than an income-generating job; they wanted a job that
would fulfill their ideals of improving the well-being of society. Pope also discussed the
launch of career counseling services in other settings than schools and universities such
as governmental agencies, nonprofit community agencies, and business and industrial
settings during this period. The last two stages of Pope’s classification were the fifth stage
(1980-1989), a time when there was a growing number of career counseling professionals
engaged in independent practice and a demand for career counseling services related
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![10 Career Development and Counseling
to job outplacement, an inevitable outcome of economic decline in 70s; and the sixth
stage (1990 to present) with a focus on the school-to-job transition, increasing interna-
tionalization of career counseling, emphasis on multicultural career counseling, and the
prevalence of technology advancement and complexity in career counseling. Pope (2015)
classified historical development of career intervention into three periods, namely, voca-
tional guidance, career education, and life design. The emergence of life design career
intervention is the new reality of insecure and anxious workers due to the project-based
model of employment that does not provide stability or loyalty. The life design proposed
by Savickas (2012) will be elaborated in Chapter 5.
A merger of NVGA, the American College Personnel Association, and the Guidance
Supervisors and Counselor Trainers led to the foundation of the American Personnel
and Guidance Association (APGA) in 1952. As a founding division of APGA (now
American Counselors Association [ACA]), NVGA played a key role in advocating and
providing leadership in seeking professional identity for career development practice
practitioners. As a result, career development and counseling remains one of the core
training requirements of counselor certification and licensing. The broadened role and
services of vocational guidance were solidified when the name of the organization
NVGA was changed to National Career Development Association (NCDA) in 1985 as
career development captures the changing nature and mission of the profession better
career development captures the changing nature and mission of the profession better
career development
than vocational guidance.
Lin Tsu had become a high school counselor
after 12 years of teaching English in an inner-city
school, home to the poorest children in the Rust
Belt city where she made her home. In those
12 years, she had become increasingly convinced
that the relationships she built with her students
were more useful than the literature she was
required to teach, which often felt irrelevant to
the students’ lives. After receiving her master’s
degree in counseling, she was fortunate to move
into a position in the same high school in which
she had been teaching. She was committed to
the ASCA model of personal, academic, and
career domains in her work. Although all three
were important to Lin, it was the career aspect
of her job that really gave her the most satisfac-
tion. She firmly believed that without good job
opportunities, her students were condemned to
remain in poverty. So, she took advantage of all
opportunities for classroom guidance and lob-
bied strongly for computer-assisted career guid-
ance programs and for a career development
facilitator available to the students at least part
time. She hoped that by motivating her students
to seek satisfying work, she could motivate them
to stay in and succeed in school.
Discussion Questions
1. How can a school counselor effectively help
the students lacking motivation become
engaged in learning?
2. Why does Lin so strongly believe in helping
her students to be motivated to seek
satisfying work? Do you agree with her
or not?
CASE ILLUSTRATION 1.2
HELPING STUDENTS GET MOTIVATED
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![12 Career Development and Counseling
Year Events
1964 Civil Rights Act was passed; the civil rights movement accelerated the
democratization of educational and occupational opportunities for minority groups.
1968 Vocational Education Act Amendment was passed, advocating for career programs,
responses to the disadvantaged and physically handicapped, and the expansion of a
broadened concept of guidance and counseling.
1971 Career education was introduced as a priority of the U. S. Office of Education
1984 The Carl D. Perkins Vocational Education Act advocates programs designed to
improve, extend, and expand career guidance and counseling programs to meet the
needs of vocational students.
1985 The NVGA changed its name to National Career Development Association.
1992 The Americans with Disability Act (ADA) was passed, requiring employers to provide
reasonable work accommodations to persons with disabilities.
1994 The School-to-Work Opportunities Act provided funds for supporting career
exploration for all students in school settings.
Adapted from Herr and Shahnasarian, 2001
(Continued)
Career Development Theories Boom: Starting in the late 1940s and continuing to
today, many career development theories came into existence. These career development
theories became major sources for enrichment of practice, research, and professional iden-
tity for career development professionals. The trend of career development theories in the
last five decades also reflected the changing nature of career development practice. The
early model of the trait-factor approach focused on matching the people to the work.
Holland’s (1985) typology model is an example of trait-and-factor theoretical approaches
in modern time. In the 1950s, Super (1957) started his 50 years of work on career devel-
opment from a developmental perspective and emphasized that the goal of career coun-
seling is self-understanding and self-acceptance. In the 1970s and 1980s, Krumboltz’s
Learning Theory (Krumboltz, 1976) brought attention to addressing cognitive learning
experiences and situational factors to understand career development of individuals. The
late 1970s and early 1980s were the time when researchers and practitioners started to
attend to the differences among diverse populations. Research about women and ethnic
minorities began to appear in scholarly journals (e.g., Betz and Hackett’s [1981] work
on women entering nontraditional occupations, Leong [1995] on ethnic minority career
development). From the 1990s until the first decade of the 21st century, multiple career
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![Chapter 1 ■ Roots, Growth, and Trends of Career Development and Intervention 19
as the result of industrialization and urbanization. In the last decade of the 20th cen-
tury and now, the first two decades of the 21st century, the U.S. economy has again
gone through a substantial change, from manufacturing jobs to service jobs, largely due
to the Information Age (DeBell, 2001; Bureau of Labor Statistics, 2017a). As put by
DeBell (2001), the majority of the American workforce used to be farmers. They then
worked in manufacturing and recently have become clerks. Along with these changes
came emergence of some new jobs, for instance, database administrators and many com-
puter- or information-related new job titles; simultaneously, some jobs became obsolete.
The changed economic structure was influenced by computer and telecommunication
technology advancement, globalization, collapse of many communist states and the rise
of American-style capitalism, and domestic deregulations (Whittman, 1999 as cited in
DeBell, 2001). These factors changed the American economic structure from manufac-
turing to service and information provision to the world.
Changes in the work structure have significant impacts on the relationship or mean-
ing associated with work for many people. In the past, one could have a career built
upon one occupation and even, in many cases, one job over a life span. In today’s work
environment, few people can hold one job for their entire adult work life, and the trend is
for people to hold many contract-based, freelance-style or project-based jobs, sometimes
across various occupations. See Box 1.2 for the definition of career,
career,
career occupation, and jobs.
One consequence of the changing work structure is loss of job security. When downsiz-
ing, reorganization, layoff, and outsourcing become routine daily news, few people are
free from the fear of being the next one who could face unemployment. The economic
recession in the last 10 years simply worsened the hardship experienced by many average
American families. There are few supportive work environments or systems that reward
workers’ loyalty; instead, workers feel insecure or are overworked due to the loss of col-
leagues. The meaning of work common in the last century is fading. We are losing the
work common in the last century is fading. We are losing the
work
aspect of working that, “functions to provide people with a way to establish an identity
and a sense of coherence in their social interactions. . . . [and] furnishes at least part of
our external identity in the world” (Blustein, 2006, p. 3).
Technology and Social Media
Technological innovation in the last 100 years has had an enormous impact. Originally
innovations such as steam engines and automobiles were welcomed because they brought
people at a distance together closer and faster. Others such as washing machines and
dishwashers were appreciated and sought after because they freed people from laborious
duties at home and work. Interestingly enough, the new innovative computer technol-
ogy created a very different psychological impact on people. On the one hand, those
benefits enjoyed at the last technical innovation boom are still there: Automation of
almost everything makes banking services and clerical assistance available 24 hours/
7 days per week, and social media technology connects people across the globe at any
time. On the other hand, because of newer technical innovations, many people have
lost their jobs or have become isolated or alienated at work settings (Blustein, 2006). It
is ironic and perplexing that social media, with the intention and means to bring people
closer despite distance, in fact, makes people feel the loss of human connection at work
or sometime even at home.
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![Hauling Sugar Cane, Kohala Plantation, Hawaii.
Hawaiians Arriving To Attend a Luau or Native Feast.
Hawaiians Departing To Attend a Luau or Native Feast.
Honeymoon at Niagara Falls.
How the Office Boy Saw the Ball Game.
Kanaka Fishermen Casting the Throw Net, Hilo, H. I.
Kathleen Mavourneen.
Life of a Cowboy.
Loading Sugar, Kahului, Maui, H. I.
Native Hawaiian Guards in Bayonet Exercises, H. I.
Pa-U Riders, Hawaiian Islands. Pano[ramic] View, Crater of
Haleakala, H. I.
Pano[ramic] View, Honolulu Harbor, H. I.
Pano[ramic] View, King St. Honolulu, H. I.
Pano[ramic] View, Oahu Railroad, Haleiwa, H. I.
Panoramic View, Oahu Railroad, Pearl Harbor, Hawaiian
Islands.
Pano[ramic] View of Waikiki Beach, Honolulu, H. I.
Pano[ramic] View, Waikiki from an Electric Car, H. I. S. S.
“Kinau” Landing Passengers, Laupahoihoi, H. I.
S. S. “Kinau” Landing Passengers, Mahukona, Hawaii.
Scenes on a Sugar Plantation, Hawaiian Islands.
Shearing Sheep, Humunla Ranch, Hawaii.
Sheep Coming Through Chute, Humunla Ranch, Hawaii.
Shipping Cattle, Hawaihae, Hawaiian Islands.
Snapshots, Hawaiian Islands.
Surf Board Riders, Waikiki, Honolulu, H. I.
Surf Scene, Laupahoihoi, Hawaiian Islands.
Surf Scene, Waikiki, Honolulu, H. I.
Terrible Kids.
Three American Beauties.
Trip Through the Yellowstone Park, U. S. A.
Waiting at the Church.
Washing Sheep, Humunla Ranch, Hawaii.
Water Buffalo Wallowing, Hawaiian Islands.
Winter Straw Ride.
1907.
Cohen’s Fire Sale.
Daniel Boone.](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/26224256-250515022904-0e32e868/85/Career-Development-And-Counseling-Theory-And-Practice-In-A-Multicultural-World-Mei-Tang-59-320.jpg)
![Fire Run, Colon Department Under Cocoanut Tree.
Jack the Kisser.
Jamaica Negroes Doing a Two-Step.
Lost in the Alps.
Machete Men Clearing a Jungle.
Making the Dirt Fly.
Nine Lives of a Cat.
Old Market Place, Panama.
Panorama from Columbus Point of Atlantic Entrance to the
Canal.
Panorama, La Boca Harbor and Pacific Entrance to Canal.
Panorama of Culebra Cut.
Panorama Ruins of Old French Machinery.
Race for Millions.
Rivals.
Stage Struck.
Teddy Bears.
Three American Beauties.
U. S. Sanitary Squad Fumigating a House.
EDISON [THOMAS A.] INC.
1911.
Adventures of a Baby.
Aïda.
All for the Love of a Lady.
April Fool.
At Jones’ Ferry.
At the Threshold of Life.
Awakening of John Bond.
B.P.O.E.—the Benevolent Protective Order of Elks Convention at
Atlantic City, July 10 to 15, 1911.
Baby of the Boarding House.
Baby’s Fall.
Battle of Bunker Hill.
Battle of Trafalgar.
Betty’s Buttons.
Between Two Fires.
Big Dam.
Black Arrow.](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/26224256-250515022904-0e32e868/85/Career-Development-And-Counseling-Theory-And-Practice-In-A-Multicultural-World-Mei-Tang-60-320.jpg)
![Heart of Nichette.
Hearts and Flags.
Her Brother’s Photograph.
Her Wedding Ring.
Heroes Three.
His First Trip.
His Misjudgment.
Home.
How Bella Was Won.
How Mrs. Murray Saved the American Army.
How Sir Andrew Lost His Vote.
How Spriggins Took Lodgers.
How the Hungry Man Was Fed.
How the Telephone Came to Town.
How Willie Raised Tobacco.
Icebergs off the Coast of Labrador.
In and Around Havana, Cuba.
In the Baggage Coach Ahead.
Inheritance.
International Heart-Breaker.
Island Comedy.
It Served Her Right.
Jim the Mule Boy.
John Brown’s Heir.
Josh and Cindy’s Wedding Trip.
Kid from the Klondyke [i.e., Klondike].
Launching of the Battleship “Rivadavia.”
Leaves of a Romance.
Lesson Learned.
Life in the U. S. Army.
Lighthouse by the Sea.
Living Peach.
Logan’s Babies.
Love and Hatred.
Love and the Stock Market.
Ludwig from Germany.
Lure of the City.
Madeline’s Rebellion.
Mae’s Suitors.](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/26224256-250515022904-0e32e868/85/Career-Development-And-Counseling-Theory-And-Practice-In-A-Multicultural-World-Mei-Tang-62-320.jpg)
Career Development And Counseling Theory And Practice In A Multicultural World Mei Tang
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- 5. COPYRIGHT 2019 SAGE Publications, Inc.
- 6. Career Development and Counseling COPYRIGHT 2019 SAGE Publications, Inc.
- 7. This book is dedicated to the memory of my father, Jifang Tang, who made me believe I can do anything I want, even if I am a girl. COPYRIGHT 2019 SAGE Publications, Inc.
- 8. Career Development and Counseling Theory and Practice in a Multicultural World Mei Tang University of Cincinnati COPYRIGHT 2019 SAGE Publications, Inc.
- 9. FOR INFORMATION: SAGE Publications, Inc. 2455 Teller Road Thousand Oaks, California 91320 E-mail: order@sagepub.com SAGE Publications Ltd. 1 Oliver’s Yard 55 City Road London EC1Y 1SP United Kingdom SAGE Publications India Pvt. Ltd. B 1/I 1 Mohan Cooperative Industrial Area Mathura Road, New Delhi 110 044 India SAGE Publications Asia-Pacific Pte. Ltd. 3 Church Street #10-04 Samsung Hub Singapore 049483 Acquisitions Editor: Abbie Rickard Editorial Assistant: Elizabeth Cruz Production Editor: Kimaya Khashnobish Copy Editor: Michelle Ponce Typesetter: C&M Digitals (P) Ltd. Proofreader: Alison Syring Indexer: Kathy Paparchontis Cover Designer: Candice Harman Marketing Manager: Susannah Goldes Copyright © 2019 by SAGE Publications, Inc. All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced or utilized in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopying, recording, or by any information storage and retrieval system, without permission in writing from the publisher. Printed in the United States of America Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Names: Tang, Mei, (Counselor educator), author. Title: Career development and counseling : theory and practice in a multicultural world / Mei Tang, University of Cincinnati, USA. Description: Thousand Oaks, California : SAGE Publications, Inc., [2018] | Includes bibliographical references and index. Identifiers: LCCN 2018016814 | ISBN 9781452230863 (pbk. : acid-free paper) Subjects: LCSH: Career development. | Vocational guidance. | Multiculturalism. Classification: LCC HF5381 .T2335 2018 | DDC 650.14—dc23 LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2018016814 This book is printed on acid-free paper. 18 19 20 21 22 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 COPYRIGHT 2019 SAGE Publications, Inc.
- 10. DETAILED CONTENTS Series Editors’ Preface xvi Preface xviii Acknowledgments xx About the Author xxi Chapter 1 • Roots, Growth, and Trends of Career Development and Intervention 1 Learning Objectives 1 Overview of Historical Development 2 Pioneering Work in Early Days 2 Emergence of Vocational Guidance in the United States 2 Parsons’s Landmark Work 3 Evolution of Vocational Guidance 4 Establishment of Vocational Guidance as a Profession 8 Broadened Role of Career Counseling and Services 9 Professionalism 13 Training and Credentials 13 Work Settings 15 Professional Organizations 15 Career Counseling Competencies 16 Current Status and Future Trends of Career Development 18 Changing Workforce 18 Structure and Meaning of Work 18 Technology and Social Media 19 Globalization 20 Multiple Life Roles and Adaptive Roles Across the Life Span 20 Multiculturalism, Social Justice, and Advocacy 22 Summary: Challenges and Opportunities 22 Keystones 22 Additional Resources 23 References 23 Chapter 2 • Work in Global Context 27 Learning Objectives 27 Meaning of Work 28 Definition of Work and Related Terms 28 COPYRIGHT 2019 SAGE Publications, Inc.
- 11. Meaning of Work From Historical Perspectives 29 Meaning of Work From Cross-Cultural Perspective 31 Work and Global Changing Economy 32 Changing Occupational Structure on Global Context 32 Changing Workplace 34 Work and Health 36 Work and Physical Health 36 Work and Mental Health 37 Job Satisfaction and Occupational Stress 39 Personal and Contextual Factors for Career Development 41 Personal Factors 41 Genetic Factors 41 Psychological Characteristics 42 Personal Resources 42 Contextual Factors 42 Work Requirements 43 Sociocultural Influence 43 Socioeconomic Influence 44 Integrated View of Career Development 45 Work and Other Aspects of Life 45 Family and Work 45 Work and Life Roles 46 Certainty, Change, Transition, and Adjustment 47 Integrated Services 48 The Ecological Perspective of Career Intervention 49 Change Agency of Individuals 49 Meaning Making in Changing Environment 50 Summary: Challenges and Opportunities 51 Keystones 51 Additional Resources 51 References 52 Chapter 3 • Cross-Cultural Perspectives in Career Development 59 Learning Objectives 59 Changing Workforce 60 Social Barriers to Career Development 61 Gender 61 Race and Ethnicity 63 Hispanic Americans 64 African Americans 65 Asian Americans 65 Native Americans 66 Religious Background 67 Socioeconomic Status 68 COPYRIGHT 2019 SAGE Publications, Inc.
- 12. Disability 69 Sexual Identity and Orientation 70 Multicultural Career Development Issues 71 Occupational Stereotypes 71 Occupational Segregation 72 Occupational Discrimination 72 Microaggressions in the Workplace 73 Glass Ceiling 74 Intersection of Diversity 75 Acculturation 75 Racial/Ethnic Identity 77 Intersectionality and Interaction 79 Multicultural Competency in Career Counseling 81 Professional Standards 81 Culturally Appropriate Career Intervention 82 Summary: Challenges and Opportunities 83 Keystones 84 Additional Resources 84 References 84 Chapter 4 • Career Development Theories I 95 Learning Objectives 95 Earlier Approaches 96 Trait-and-Factor Approaches 97 Holland’s Vocational Choice or Typology Theory 98 Basic Assumptions 100 Important Concepts 100 Work Adjustment Theory 103 Basic Assumptions 103 Key Concepts 103 Developmental Approaches 106 Super’s Life Span, Life-Space Theory 107 Key Concepts 108 Gottfredson’s Theory of Circumscription and Compromise 112 Circumscription 112 Compromise 113 Social Cognitive Approaches 115 Krumboltz’s Learning Theory 115 Planned Happenstance 116 Social Cognitive Career Theory by Lent, Brown, and Hackett 117 Summary: Challenges and Opportunities 122 Keystones 122 Additional Resources 123 References 123 COPYRIGHT 2019 SAGE Publications, Inc.
- 13. Chapter 5 • Career Development Theories II 127 Learning Objectives 127 Theories With Focus on Process 128 Tiedeman’s Decision-Making Model 128 Anticipating a Choice 128 Adjusting to a Choice 129 Application 129 Cognitive Information Processing Approach 130 Application 132 Theories Focusing on Needs and Values 133 Roe’s Needs Approach 133 Occupational Classification System 134 Application 135 Brown’s Value-Based Holistic Model of Career and Life-Role Choices 135 Proposition of Brown’s Value-Based Theory 136 Application 137 Theories From a Holistic View 137 Hansen’s Integrative Life Planning 137 Application 138 Lifecareer Theory 139 Spiritual Perspective 140 Theories of Construction Perspective 142 Career Construction Theory 142 Career Intervention Strategies 144 Chaos Theory of Careers 145 Application 146 Systems Theory 147 Application 147 Summary: Challenges and Opportunities 148 Keystones 148 Additional Resources 149 References 149 Chapter 6 • Career Counseling Process 153 Learning Objectives 153 Overview of Career Counseling 154 Definition of Career Counseling 154 Helping 155 Education 156 Guidance 156 Role of Counselors 158 Client Factors 159 Expectation and Motivation 159 COPYRIGHT 2019 SAGE Publications, Inc.
- 14. Maturity Level 160 Readiness for Change 160 Process of Career Counseling 162 Establish Working Alliance 162 Information Gathering 163 Problem Identification 163 Appraisal/Assessment 164 Gathering Information About the World of Work 166 Goal Identification 167 Generating Options Toward Goal Attainment 167 Implementation 168 Follow Up 170 Decision-Making Process and Skills 170 Summary: Challenges and Opportunities 172 Keystones 172 Additional Resources 173 References 173 Chapter 7 • Assessment 177 Learning Objectives 177 Role of Assessment in Career Development Intervention 178 Purpose of Assessment 180 Areas and Contents of Assessment 181 Career Interests 181 Personality 183 Values and Needs 184 Decision Making 185 Aptitudes, Skills, and Abilities 185 Self-Efficacy 186 Career Maturity and Development 187 Career Belief and Thoughts 187 Appropriate Use of Assessment 188 Procedure of Assessment 190 Process of Assessment 190 Issues in Administering Assessment Tools 192 Importance of Interpretation 192 Selecting Assessment Tools 193 Locating Assessment Information 194 Variety of Methods for Assessment 196 Formal Assessment 196 Informal Assessment 197 Computerized and Online Assessment 198 Cultural, Ethical, and Legal Concerns of Use of Assessment 199 COPYRIGHT 2019 SAGE Publications, Inc.
- 15. Summary: Challenges and Opportunities 200 Keystones 201 Additional Resources 202 References 202 Chapter 8 • Career Counseling Strategies and Techniques 207 Learning Objectives 207 Purpose of Career Counseling Techniques 208 Strategies Facilitating Career Exploration 209 Broaden Self-Awareness 209 Expand Knowledge of World of Work 214 Education-Based Activities 214 Observation and Inquiry Activities 215 Clarification of Roles 216 Career Genogram 217 Card Sort 219 Group Work 219 Strategies for Career Decision Making 220 Indecision and Decision Difficulties 220 Decision-Making Process 221 CIP Approach 221 Resolution of Splits 222 Making a Decision for Educational and Occupational Choice 223 Making a Decision for Life Transition 224 Life Portrait 224 The Pattern Identification Exercise 225 Strategies for Action 226 Enhancing Motivation and Overcoming Barriers 226 Engagement 226 Overcome Barriers 226 Taking Actions 227 Individual Career Plans 227 Individual Learning Plans 227 Commitment 228 Key Questions Technique 228 Experiential Learning 228 Building Career Resilience 229 Building Assets 229 Career Adaptability 230 Summary: Challenges and Opportunities 231 Keystones 232 Additional Resources 232 References 232 COPYRIGHT 2019 SAGE Publications, Inc.
- 16. Chapter 9 • Information, Technology, and Career Information Resources (by Julia Larson) 237 Learning Objectives 237 Role of Technology in Career Development 238 Counselor-Focused Technology 238 Client-Focused Technology and Resources 239 Accessibility Software 240 Assessment and Reflection 240 Computer-Assisted Career Intervention Programs 240 Advantages and Disadvantages 241 Research 242 Comprehensive 243 Field 244 Organization 244 Role 244 Individuals and Networking Contacts 244 Position 244 Salary 245 Specific Populations 245 Document and Portfolio Management 245 Social Media and Personal Branding 246 Multicultural Competency and Technology Use Enhances Career Counseling 248 Impact of Technology on Individuals’ Career Development 249 Summary: Challenges and Opportunities 250 Keystones 251 Additional Resources 251 References 251 Chapter 10 • Designing and Evaluating Career Development Intervention Programs 255 Learning Objectives 255 Rationale of Career Development Programs 256 Necessity of Career Development Programs 256 Purpose of Career Development Programs 258 Principles of Career Development Intervention Programs 259 Role of Prevention to Life Span Career Development 259 Important Elements in Career Development Programs 260 Process of Career Development Intervention Programs 261 Creating Work Group 262 Identify Target Population 262 Identity Goals and Objectives 262 Analysis of Resources and Barriers 264 COPYRIGHT 2019 SAGE Publications, Inc.
- 17. Design Program Content Related to Goals 266 Marketing Programs 267 Implementation of Programs 268 Evaluating Programs 268 Career Development Programs With Diverse Population and Various Settings 270 Youth With Challenges 271 Enrichment Programs at Work Settings 273 Transition and Partnership 273 Summary: Ecological Validity 274 Keystones 275 References 276 Appendix A: ASCA National Standards for Students 279 Chapter 11 • Career Development Prevention and Intervention in K-12 School Settings (by Mary L. Anderson) 281 Learning Objectives 281 Goals and Scope of Career Development Programs in K-12: The American School Counselor Association (ASCA) National Model 282 Educational Reform and Initiatives 284 Theoretical Applications: Working With Children and Adolescents 285 Developmental Theory 286 Gottfredson’s Theory 286 Ecological Theory 287 Career Development Programs K-12 289 Career Services in Elementary School 290 Career Services in Middle Schools 292 Career Services in High Schools 294 Multicultural and Ethical Considerations 298 Summary: Challenges and Opportunities 299 Keystones 300 Additional Resources 301 References 301 Chapter 12 • Career Development Intervention in Postsecondary Education Institutions (by Kimberly Gilliam and Mei Tang) 305 Learning Objectives 306 Characteristics of College Students 306 Heterogeneity of College Students 307 Developmental Needs 308 Career Development Needs 309 Goals and Scope of Career Services for College Students 311 Historical Context and Evolution 311 COPYRIGHT 2019 SAGE Publications, Inc.
- 18. Goals of Career Services in College Settings 313 Scope of Career Service Centers on Campuses 315 Outcome Evaluation 316 Career Services Models for College Students 317 Models 317 Service Delivery 318 Career Services Examples 321 Essentials of Career Development Programs in College Settings 323 Career Exploration 323 Professional Development Services 325 Building Multicultural Responsive Services 326 Students With Disabilities 327 Underprivileged/Marginalized Students 327 Student Athletes 328 Summary: Challenges and Opportunities 329 Keystones 330 Additional Resources 330 References 331 Appendix A: Sample of Academic Course (3 credits for undergraduate students) 334 Chapter 13 • Career Counseling in Community Settings (by Rhonda Norman and Norman Townsel) 335 Learning Objectives 336 Goals and Scope of Career Development Programs in the Community 337 Community Settings 338 Career Counseling to Populations With Mental Health Issues 338 Career Counseling to Populations With Substance Use Issues 339 Career Counseling to Populations of Ex-Offenders 339 Managed Care Systems 340 Employee Assistance Programs 341 Private Practice 341 Career Coaching 341 Job Placement Services 343 Multicultural Approaches to Career Development in the Community 344 Summary: Challenges and Opportunities 345 Keystones 346 Additional Resources 346 References 347 Chapter 14 • Adult Career Development (by Jane Goodman) 351 Learning Objectives 351 Typical Adult Development Needs 352 Job Loss 352 COPYRIGHT 2019 SAGE Publications, Inc.
- 19. Adaptability 353 HB Gelatt’s Positive Uncertainty 353 Planned Happenstance 355 Managing Transitions 357 Guidelines for Individuals’ Career Mastery 359 Multicultural Issues 360 Modern Theories of Career Development Applied to Adults 362 Life Design 363 Construction 363 Deconstruction 363 Reconstruction 364 Coconstruction 364 Integrative Life Planning 364 Finding Work That Needs Doing 364 Weaving Our Lives Into a Meaningful Whole 365 Connecting Family and Work 365 Valuing Pluralism and Inclusivity 365 Managing Personal Transitions and Organizational Change 366 Exploring Spirituality and Life Purpose 366 Chaos Theory 366 Identity Renegotiation 367 Retirement 367 Phase 1: Preretirement 368 Phase 2: Retirement 368 Phase 3: Disenchantment 369 Phase 4: Reorientation and Phase 5: Retirement Routine 369 Phase 6: Termination of Retirement 369 Summary: Challenges and Opportunities 369 Keystones 370 References 370 Chapter 15 • Integration of Theory and Practice 373 Learning Objectives 374 Person and Context Interaction 374 Changing Environment 374 Virtual World of Learning, Working, and Socializing 375 Generation/Cohort Effect 375 Work Ethics 376 Identity and Meaningful Work 377 Self-Identity and Work 377 Hope and Resilience 377 Career Readiness or Employability 378 Self-Agency 379 COPYRIGHT 2019 SAGE Publications, Inc.
- 20. Integration of Theory and Practice 379 Theories Have and Have Not 379 Outcome Research 380 Translation of Theory to Practice 380 Ethical Practice for Prevention and Intervention 381 Professional Development 381 Challenges Pertaining to Ethical Practice 382 Virtual Work Environment 382 Social Media 383 Equity and Social Justice 383 Accessibility and Equity 383 Social Justice and Advocacy 385 Public Policy 385 Promoting Wellness Through Work and Health 386 Career and Health 386 Balance of Multiple Life Roles 387 Transition Challenges 387 Integrated Services 388 Integrated Training 388 Integrated Services 389 Professional Mandate 389 Summary: Challenges and Opportunities 391 Keystones 392 References 392 Index 397 COPYRIGHT 2019 SAGE Publications, Inc.
- 21. xvi SERIES EDITORS’ PREFACE Introduction to the Series COUNSELING AND PROFESSIONAL IDENTITY IN THE 21ST CENTURY Career Development and Counseling: Theory and Practice in a Multicultural World by Dr. Mei Tang is a text that distinguishes itself from all other books on career counseling. In her book, Dr. Tang not only presents the knowledge, skills, techniques, and inter- In her book, Dr. Tang not only presents the knowledge, skills, techniques, and inter- In her book, Dr. Tang not only presents the knowledge, skills, techniques, and inter vention strategies essential for career counseling but also addresses professionalism and career counseling issues from a global perspective. Career Development and Counseling: Theory and Practice in a Multicultural World is unique, among all other career counseling Theory and Practice in a Multicultural World is unique, among all other career counseling Theory and Practice in a Multicultural World texts in a number of ways. First, Career Development and Counseling has aligned all its content with the require Career Development and Counseling has aligned all its content with the require Career Development and Counseling - ments of CACREP standards on career counseling. This unique feature will effectively assist those graduate students in the CACREP programs and those in the graduate programs that intend to get CACREP accreditation to meet all the requirements of CACREP standards. Second, Career Development and Counseling has a unique feature in that it discusses Career Development and Counseling has a unique feature in that it discusses Career Development and Counseling career planning in a global and multicultural context. As the trend of economic, cultural, social, political, environmental, and informational globalization continues its strength, integrating multicultural and global issues into career planning and career counseling has never been as critical as it is now. This text certainly helps future counselors prepare themselves in this capacity. Third, Career Development and Counseling distinguishes itself from all other texts Career Development and Counseling distinguishes itself from all other texts Career Development and Counseling in that it contains a comprehensive body of rich content. For example, the text empha- sizes career development prevention and intervention not only with students in K-12 school settings and postsecondary settings but also with adults in community settings. Furthermore, the text underlines various career counseling theories, techniques, strate- gies, assessments, technology, and information resources. Lastly, Career Development and Counseling has a distinct dimension of application Career Development and Counseling has a distinct dimension of application Career Development and Counseling and professional identity development. This dimension of application and professional identity development has been reflected throughout the content of the text. The text provides readers with the most recent knowledge, skills, and techniques about career counseling, which they have the opportunity to apply while learning and developing their professional identity. While we are proud of the content and topics covered within this text, we are more than aware that one text, one learning experience, will not be sufficient for the development of COPYRIGHT 2019 SAGE Publications, Inc.
- 22. Series Editors’ Preface xvii a counselor’s professional competency. The formation of both your professional identity and practice will be a lifelong process. It is a process that we hope to facilitate through the presentation of this text and the creation of our series: Counseling and Professional Identity in the 21st Century. Counseling and Professional Identity in the 21st Century is a new and pedagogically sound series of texts targeting counselors in training. This series is NOT simply a compi- lation of isolated books matching that which is already in the market. Rather, each book, with its targeted knowledge and skills, will be presented as a part of a larger whole. The focus and content of each text serves as a single lens through which a counselor can view his or her clients, engage in his or her practice, and articulate his or her own professional identity. Counseling and Professional Identity in the 21st Century is unique not just in the fact that it is packaged as a series of traditional texts but also in that it provides an integrated curriculum targeting the formation of the readers’ professional identity and efficient, ethical practice. Each book within the series is structured to facilitate the ongoing pro- fessional formation of the reader. The materials found within each text are organized in order to move the reader to higher levels of cognitive, affective, and psychomotor func- tioning, resulting in his or her assimilation of the materials presented into both his or her professional identity and approach to professional practice. While each text targets a specific set of core competencies (cognates and skills), competencies identified by the pro- fessional organizations and accreditation bodies, each book in the series will emphasize each of the following: a. The assimilation of concepts and constructs provided across the text found within the series, thus fostering the reader’s ongoing development as a competent professional b. The blending of contemporary theory with current research and empirical support c. A focus on the development of procedural knowledge with each text employing case illustrations and guided practice exercises to facilitate the reader’s ability to translate the theory and research discussed into professional decision making and application d. An emphasis on the need for and means of demonstrating accountability e. Fostering of the reader’s professional identity and with it the assimilation of the ethics and standards of practice guiding the counseling profession We are proud to have served as co-editors of this series feeling sure that all of the texts included, just like Career Development and Counseling: Theory and Practice in a Multicul- Career Development and Counseling: Theory and Practice in a Multicul- Career Development and Counseling: Theory and Practice in a Multicul tural World by Dr. Mei Tang, will serve as a significant resource to you and your develop- ment as a professional counselor. Richard Parsons, PhD Naijian Zhang, PhD COPYRIGHT 2019 SAGE Publications, Inc.
- 23. xviii PREFACE PURPOSE FOR WRITING THE TEXT Writing this book is filling a sense of need and obligation. As a counselor educator, I often struggle to find a textbook that covers all the content required by CACREP standards. I end up selecting one textbook and providing supplemental readings from other sources. Having taught a career development course for about 20 years, I occa- sionally have a few students showing interests in the topic, but more common trends are “why do we need this class?” or “I don’t see the usefulness of this course to my counseling practice” or “I am not going to be a career counselor, but I will be a mental health counselor, why is this class not an elective?” After answering such questions in class for so many years, I knew I needed to write a career development textbook that addresses these doubts of students. Through reviewing the roots of the counseling profession; interconnection of work, health, and wellness; career development theories; and intervention approaches, students will see the value of career development to coun- seling process and to becoming an effective counselor regardless of their work settings and populations. Thus, the purpose of this book is to provide a comprehensive overview of career devel- opment in the framework of educating future helping professionals be well prepared for serving clients as whole persons, in addition to covering the curriculum standards for career development, one of the eight foundation areas required by the CACREP. I hope students, after reading this book, will develop an integrated view of career development and counseling intervention. Career development is not just about career choice. It is about self-concept, meaning making, identity, and life span development. Counselors without sufficient understanding of the intertwined nature and complex interrelation- ship of work, family dynamics, physical and mental health, and impact of sociocultural, economic, and other contextual factors to career development, will not be adequately equipped to help clients effectively. I want this book to be a useful resource for both students in training and working helping professionals. ORGANIZATION AND FEATURES In order for students to acquire the necessary background information and the foun- dation knowledge of sociocultural factors in relation to career development, the first three chapters provide the historical context for the emergence, evolution, and current status of career development intervention, meaning of work in cross-cultural settings, and sociocultural factors pertaining to career development. Chapter 3 on cross-cultural career development provides a lens to examine and analyze how a variety of factors from COPYRIGHT 2019 SAGE Publications, Inc.
- 24. Preface xix a multicultural counseling perspective are applicable in individual career trajectory and how counselors need to be mindful in developing cultural competency to provide career intervention. Chapters 4 and 5 provide overviews of major career development theories that students need to gain understanding of for their future license examination; these two chapters are also helpful for learning about the subsequent chapters that focus more on application of theories and career intervention approaches in various settings. Chapters 6, 7, and 8 introduce the process, assessment, and strategies of career intervention so that students can develop skills in providing career intervention to individuals. Chapter 9 focuses on technology and information sources that are essential for career intervention. This chapter also incorporates the use of technology for extending or enhancing career counseling practice. Chapter 10 describes the principles and specific steps of developing career inter- practice. Chapter 10 describes the principles and specific steps of developing career inter- practice. Chapter 10 describes the principles and specific steps of developing career inter vention programs to benefit more people across different settings. Chapters 11, 12, and 13 provide information pertaining to career intervention with students in K-12 and post- 13 provide information pertaining to career intervention with students in K-12 and post- 13 provide information pertaining to career intervention with students in K-12 and post secondary educational settings and diverse people in community settings. Chapter 14 introduces theory and practice of adult career development. These chapters give students more in-depth information about how career intervention can be implemented to help the target population. Chapter 15, the last chapter, integrates key components of this book to reinforce the theme of the book—interaction of intrapersonal and contextual factors that influence career development as well as association of career and wellness. Each chapter has the same format and component. The learning objectives with emphasis on student competency are provided at the beginning, and the summary/ keystones are provided at the end of the chapter. These features provide the outline and quick overview of the most important concepts covered in the chapter. Each chapter also has case illustrations, learning activities, and additional resources. These learning tools can be used for engaging students in active learning and real-world applications. The uniqueness of this book is its infusion of a multicultural framework throughout the entire book. The other distinct features are integration of mental health and career development and multiple case illustrations to demonstrate the concepts. COPYRIGHT 2019 SAGE Publications, Inc.
- 25. xx ACKNOWLEDGMENTS Iwant to take this opportunity to thank several people who have supported writing this Iwant to take this opportunity to thank several people who have supported writing this Ibook in various ways. Jane Goodman edited several chapters with great detail, wrote a few case illustrations, and provided encouragement when I experienced difficulties. I want to thank Kassie Graves for her trust in me and her understanding. I could not have completed this book without Abbie Rickard, who provided a lot of support and care, and has tremendous patience with my tardiness. I bow to Naijian Zhang and Richard Parsons for their direction and commitment to helping me complete writing this book. Many thanks extend to my colleagues and students at the University of Cincinnati and particularly those students who took my career development class, who shared their stories about their life journey with me in and outside of the classroom, and who inspired me by their own career paths. I certainly cannot thank enough the contributors of this book, Mary Anderson, Kimberly Gilliam, Julia Larson, Rhonda Norman and Norman Townsel. I also want to thank all the reviewers who provided many helpful comments and suggestions in their reviews. My gratitude also goes to everyone who has influenced my career path in my discovery journey. SAGE would like to acknowledge and thank the following reviewers for their thoughtful feedback and constructive comments: Angela Cleveland, Caldwell University David Julius Ford, Jr., James Madison University Stephen P. Joy, Albertus Magnus College Tara Malone, Fairfield University Damara Goff Paris, Emporia State University Elizabeth A. Roumell, Texas A&M University, College Station E Mackenzie (Ken) Shell, Clark Atlanta University COPYRIGHT 2019 SAGE Publications, Inc.
- 26. xxi ABOUT THE AUTHOR Mei Tang, PhD, LPC, is in the counseling program in the School of Human Services at the University of Cincinnati (UC). She has been a faculty member at UC and a coun- selor educator since 1996. Her teaching areas include career development, group test- ing, internship, counseling theories, and doctoral seminars in ecological counseling and research. Dr. Tang’s research focus includes cross-cultural career development, cultural identity and acculturation, counselor education and supervision, assessment and eval- uation, and application of ecological counseling. Her publications appear in journals such as Journal of Vocational Behavior, Career Development Quarterly, Journal of Career Assessment, Assessment, Assessment Journal of Multicultural Counseling and Development, Journal of Multicultural Counseling and Development, Journal of Multicultural Counseling and Development Counselor Education and Supervision, and Professional School Counseling. She currently is the associate editor of Professional School Counseling. She currently is the associate editor of Professional School Counseling the Journal of Counseling and Development and is an editorial board member of Journal of Counseling and Development and is an editorial board member of Journal of Counseling and Development Career Development Quarterly. She served as vice president-AAPI of Association of Multicultural Counseling and Development from 2014 to 2016. She is also a member of the NCDA/ ACES Commission. COPYRIGHT 2019 SAGE Publications, Inc.
- 27. 1 1 ROOTS, GROWTH, AND TRENDS OF CAREER DEVELOPMENT AND INTERVENTION As the first and introductory chapter in the book, this chapter provides a background for understanding career development from both historical and contextual perspec- tives. Though the focus of discussion of milestone development is on the United States, we will keep the cross-cultural perspective in the entire book to recognize the sociocultural contexts for one’s career development in cross-cultural settings as well. This chapter will introduce the roots of career development, review the historical milestones that shaped career development and intervention in the United States today, and discuss current and future trends for the profession. LEARNING OBJECTIVES After completing the reading and exercises provided in this chapter, you will be able to: • summarize how career development evolved in the past 100 years, • describe social and economic milestones in the history of career development and career development professionals, • elucidate the roles and services provided by career development professionals currently, • summarize the relevant training and competency requirements, and • gain a vision of some future trends of career development interventions. COPYRIGHT 2019 SAGE Publications, Inc.
- 28. 2 Career Development and Counseling OVERVIEW OF HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT Pioneering Work in Early Days For thousands of years of human history, people’s choices of what to do to make a liv- ing were severely restricted. Hunter gatherers needed to hunt and gather—tasks that were often gender segregated it is believed—and even with some division of labor, choice was limited. Later, due to the limited social mobility of the time, most people followed the family occupation without really having an opportunity to change the pattern. The need to make a decision regarding occupation only occurred when choices became available. As more distinct career specialties emerged, some even needing specialized training that went beyond family apprenticeship (Gibson & Mitchell, 2006), making a choice about one’s future work became a necessity. By the time of historical record, a large number of discrete occupations existed in many societies. In many ancient societies, probably still true in some areas, elders were viewed as wise and capable of knowing many things. Elders were therefore looked at as able to provide guidance to youth as they chose their life directions. When options were few and necessi- ties or resources for training were limited, this was not a difficult task. Documented occu- pational descriptions can be traced back to the 15th century (Zytowski, 1972). Zytowski (1972) also concluded that because the books printed then were not really accessible to a largely illiterate population, the task of guiding young people in their choice of life and work was mainly done by priests when parents and family were unable to be of help. The change came when many unprecedented new jobs emerged as the result of indus- trialization. The newly increased jobs demanded a skillful workforce, and further, higher demand of more skillful workers prompted the need for public education to become available to more common people. With a large number of graduates from secondary schools and a changing economic structure, the conventional guidance about entering into work from family and people in the church was not sufficient anymore. Emergence of Vocational Guidance in the United States In our previous discussion, we attempted to be global in our perspective, but as we con- tinue, we will focus on the United States. As stated above, when there was little division of labor and few people worked outside of family endeavors, there was little need for helping people make a decision about their occupations. However, at the dawn of industrialization, starting in Europe and soon spreading to the North American continent, the traditional entrance into the workforce through family inheritance and apprenticeship was no lon- ger adequate. There were many new, unprecedented jobs becoming available, and people needed help to understand these new opportunities as well as knowing about and acquiring the training and skills required for fulfilling these new job positions. Herr (2001) stated, The rise of what was first identified as vocational guidance in the United States in the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries was directly associated with major shifts from a national economy that was primarily based on agriculture to an economy that was . . . increasingly based on manufacturing and industrial processes. (p. 197) COPYRIGHT 2019 SAGE Publications, Inc.
- 29. Chapter 1 ■ Roots, Growth, and Trends of Career Development and Intervention 3 The changing occupational structure, which demanded a large number of laborers in the newly created factories, led to urbanization and concurrently domestic migration from rural areas to cities. Social and Economic Context: The other contextual factor that influenced the emer- gence of vocational guidance in the late 19th century and early 20th century, in addition to urbanization and increased diversification of occupations as a result of industrialization, was the huge influx of immigrants to the United States. The new immigrants mainly set- tled in urban areas, which intensified the pressure on resources in the cities created by the domestic migration. This large wave of immigrants, along with industrialization and urbanization, served to “shape the world of work of America for the rest of the century” (DeBell, 2001, pp 77). These new immigrants, lacking the education or skills needed for jobs, encountered tremendous challenges to making a living. They had limited resources to help them adjust to the new environment and their living conditions were not adequate. For those who could find a job, the working conditions were generally poor and unsafe. All of these factors led to the organized effort to seek better working conditions and assistance for youth and adults toward finding employment (Gibson & Mitchell, 2006). There were other major changes in the world of work at turn of the 20th century. Technology was changing, for example, the development of the telegraph, photograph, and the expansion of the railroad system. The nation also was witnessing the rising of a new middle class, namely professionals well educated and trained to be engineers, doc- tors, and technicians, and there was an increased gap between the poor and the rich (Zytowski, 2001), leading to discontent and political disruptions. In response to these issues of poverty, unemployment, and social unrest, a progressive social reform movement began. Centered at first largely in the Northeast, social reformers began several programs to help children and adults make good vocational choices. As the same time, several government policies and legislation in the earlier days also shaped the development of vocational guidance. For instance, the landmark Smith-Hughes Act of 1917 supported vocational education training in secondary schools (Pope, 2000). Parsons’s Landmark Work It is widely known in the counseling profession that Frank Parsons is the pioneer of voca- tional guidance and that he laid down principles and foundations for modern career coun- seling. Although there were precursors to his work in the “friendly visitors” of the YMCA, Parsons’s posthumously published Choosing a Vocation (1909) had an influence that has lasted until the present. Though theories, strategies, and tools have multiplied since Parsons’s era, his philosophy of helping individuals find work that accommodates their abilities and needs still applies. Parsons’s pioneering work represents the social reformers’ intention to provide a solution to the unprecedented problems in society at the time and to advocate for the less fortunate people lost in the rapidly changing social and economic context. Frank Parsons was recruited in 1905 to head the Breadwinner’s Institute, an evening and weekend educational institution to help those who could not afford to go to col- lege obtain the education and skills to become employable. Later in 1908, the Vocation Bureau was founded in Boston with an aim to provide systematic vocational guidance to youth. Parsons proposed the plan for the bureau and was the first director. He also drafted the training plan for counselors who would take the positions at the Bureau or COPYRIGHT 2019 SAGE Publications, Inc.
- 30. 4 Career Development and Counseling YMCA where many educational classes were offered to help people gain job-related skills through a variety of vocational classes (Zytowski, 2001). Parsons believed youth needed guidance in choosing a vocation upon graduating from high school so that their talents were not wasted, and he also advocated for such guidance to be provided in a systematic way by competent professionals. That set forth the groundwork for the evolution of guid- ance and subsequently, counseling. The three steps of Parsons’s approach of vocational guidance functioned as the guide- lines of career counseling for many years, and they were also considered the basis of trait- and-factor theories that were later practiced by many counselors in variety of settings. The following are Parsons’s three steps: 1. Develop a clear understanding of yourself, abilities, interests, resources, limitations, and other qualities. 2. Develop knowledge of the requirements and conditions of success, advantages and disadvantages, compensation, opportunities, and prospects in different lines of work. 3. Use “true reasoning” on the relations of these two groups of facts (Parsons, 1909, p. 5). The detailed information of Parsons’s principles and trait-factor approach will be dis- cussed in Chapter 4 when theories in the trait-factor categories are presented. Basically, Parsons’s approach illustrates that self-knowledge and knowledge of work are the essential elements in mapping out a fitting occupation for individuals. Parsons’s approach and its influence on the practice of career counseling is far-reaching for both career development theories and practices. The three-step approach shaped not only the “trait-and-factor” theoretical approaches but also the practice of career counseling to help clients making career choices. The principles of Parsons’s approach were reflected in the book Choosing a Vocation published in 1909 one year after his death. In the book, he suggested the importance of systematic methods of understanding lines of work and careful study of both individuals and work; he believed that everyone must receive honest and adequate guidance before choosing a vocation. Parsons also suggested “it is better to choose a vocation than merely to hunt a job,” and similarly, that “the youth should have a large survey to the field of vocations, and not simply drop into the convenient or accidental position” (Parsons, 1909, pp. viii). Current career development thought still embraces these ideas. Evolution of Vocational Guidance If progressive social reform gave birth to vocational guidance, educational reform in public schools, development of standardized testing, and passing of legislation related to vocational guidance and career education were clearly other contextual factors that shaped the evolution of career counseling. Progressive Education: Until late 19th century, education was available only to a few elite groups in society and never meant to prepare students for job hunting or employment. There was no such need as people who could afford education either did not need a job to make a living or were destined to work in certain limited fields such as the church, medicine, teach- ing, or law. Because child labor was still legal at that time, very few children went to school COPYRIGHT 2019 SAGE Publications, Inc.
- 31. Chapter 1 ■ Roots, Growth, and Trends of Career Development and Intervention 5 beyond two or three years. As the social and economic structure was rapidly changing as a result of the Industrial Revolution, so was the need to have more people with appropriate Revolution, so was the need to have more people with appropriate R education and training for the work. Thus, there was a greater need to not only provide education to the mass of people but also revise the curriculum to be more pertaining to the work world. The curriculum in the public schools was criticized for “bookish” content and not appropriately training students to be prepared for work. The criticism was not unjustified, since secondary education was limited to a few elite groups of people for a long time, and the purpose of it was to prepare graduates to go to college rather than enter into the workforce. The new lines of work and increased need for skilled labor prompted the need to reform sec- ondary education. Jesse Davis, another pioneer in the vocational guidance movement, intro- duced the idea of incorporating vocational guidance into the school curriculum in Grand Rapids, Michigan, in the first decade of 20th century (Brewer, 1942). Davis, a school admin- istrator, believed that youth needed to understand themselves and occupations to make better career choices and that development of moral consciousness, character, and ethical behavior would influence individuals’ career choices (Capuzzi & Stauffer, 2006). Under Davis’s lead- ership, vocational guidance was taught in English classes in the city schools across Grand Rapids. This was significant in the history of both vocational guidance and school counseling because it set the groundwork for fully integrating career development and academic devel- opment as well as social/personal development into the school system. The national school counseling model developed by the American School Counselor Association (ASCA) shared Jesse Davis’ concepts, that is, that schools should educate students in academic, career, and personal/social/emotional areas, rather than just academic content. The impact of progressive education reform occurring in schools in late 19th century and early 20th century America was far-reaching and influential even until today. American education has never ended the debate about the role of public education in regard to pre- paring students for society—teaching merely the basics or academic content or teaching beyond basics and incorporating other critical skills, for example, personal and social skills and decision-making skills, into curriculum. Nonetheless, advocates for progressive educa- tion such as John Dewey (1916) made significant contributions to the evolution of voca- tional guidance because of their efforts on behalf of providing comprehensive education to all students regardless of whether they were college-bound or in vocational tracks. By the 1930s, fewer than half of the schools in American urban cities had vocational guidance programs (Brewer, 1942). Along with the introduction and experiment of teaching career development in classrooms came the need for adequately trained pro- fessionals to deliver the services. Teachers in New York City schools could earn a special LEARNING ACTIVITY 1.1 COMPARISON OF HISTORICAL CONTEXT Find three factors in current social and eco- nomic context that share similar features with the beginning of the 20th century. Find three factors that are different from then. In small groups, discuss the impact of these factors on career development. COPYRIGHT 2019 SAGE Publications, Inc.
- 32. 6 Career Development and Counseling guidance certificate by going through the training program related to guidance activities (Tang & Erford, 2010). The first university course about vocational guidance was taught at Harvard in 1911 (Aubrey, 1977, as cited in Capuzzi & Stauffer, 2006). Though not systematic or widely available yet, vocational guidance and career devel- opment education were on a trajectory of becoming a major force in education and becoming a profession with a focused mission in the following years. The evolution pro- cess also was significantly influenced by the emergence of psychometric measurement and legislation related to guidance and education. Development of Standardized Testing: When Parsons began his pioneering work in Boston to help youth understand themselves and occupations, there were few tools avail- able for him to use (Herr, 2001). Parsons (1909) asked the clients to read biographies and interview workers to understand the world of work and asked counselors to observe clients’ characteristics and teach clients self-reflection skills to map out the appropriate occupations for their characteristics. This self-assessment served the purpose well for implementing Parsons’s three-step approach to help persons use “true reasoning,” but it might be subject to the criticism that it lacked a scientific base. One reason for criticism of subjective self-assessment was the rise of testing, particularly standardized testing. The first objective test was recorded as the intelligence test developed by Alfred Binet and Theophile Simon in France in 1905 (Zunker, 2002). The objective and standardized testing made it possible to administer the tests in group settings, an advantage to reduce the cost and increase efficiency. As the student population grew and the number of occu- pational titles increased, the tasks of understanding both individuals and the nature of work became immense. World War I (WWI) also accelerated the need for standardized, objective, and group administered assessment tools to determine efficiently who would be officers and who would be front line soldiers. The Army Alpha and Army Beta tests were developed and widely used during the WWI. The use of psychometrics for developing standardized tests “helped to establish the credibility of vocational guidance as a profes- sion and justified its presence in schools” (Capuzzi & Stauffer, 2006, pp. 10). Legislation: Vocational guidance emerged as a response of progressive social reformers to social and economic challenges at the turn of the 20th century, but without fund- ing sources becoming available through federal legislation, vocational guidance probably would have had a slower development. According to Herr (2001), landmark legislation made significant contributions to the evolution of career guidance and counseling, par- ticularly in regard to youth and other subgroups of the population. For example, there were the National Defense Education Act of 1958, which was fueled by a reaction to the Russians launch of Sputnik, funded training and placement of huge number of school counselors in K-12 settings; the Career Education Incentive Act of 1976, which enabled the full incorporation of career development content into the educational curriculum; and the School to Work Opportunities Act of 1994, which reemphasized the linkage of school and work for students. More recently, information that the United States is falling behind our global competitors in technology related areas has led to legislation related to encour- aging students to enter science, technology, engineering, and math (STEM) careers. This legislation has had an impact again on guidance and counseling in schools and institutions of postsecondary education. COPYRIGHT 2019 SAGE Publications, Inc.
- 33. Chapter 1 ■ Roots, Growth, and Trends of Career Development and Intervention 7 John McCoy knew that he wanted to be a journal- ist as long as he could remember knowing what they did. He grew up admiring journalists on the radio and on television, but his strongest admi- ration was for print journalists. He loved movies about early 20th-century newspapers, like The Front Page, and imagined himself in a trench coat smoking cigarettes—although he didn’t smoke— covering crime and corruption. John worked on his school newspaper, read every paper he could get his hands on, and hoped to major in journalism in college. But, just as he was entering his senior year in high school, the bottom dropped out of the newspaper business. Papers were laying off staff, not hiring; many papers ceased publishing; and the job prospects for John were very poor. His parents and his high school counselor urged him to consider other majors, such as something in the STEM field, in which there are more career opportunities due to high demand for workers, but journalism had been John’s dream his whole life. Discussion Questions 1. What are the reasons for his parents and high school counselor urging John to think about different occupations than journalism? 2. Do you think going to a STEM field is a wise choice for John or not? 3. How could he reconcile his desire to pursue journalism with the fact that there are more opportunities for STEM careers? CASE ILLUSTRATION 1.1 JOHN MCCOY Early legislation related to career counseling was the Vocational Rehabilitation Act of 1918, which was established to provide job training for WWI veterans (Heppner, Casas, Carte, & Stone, 2000 as cited in Capuzzi and Stuffer, 2006). The Smith-Hughes Act of 1917 provided funding for vocational education and organized guidance programs in schools (Pope, 2000). The George Barden Act in 1946 also had a significant impact on vocational guidance and evolution of career development as a profession. This act authorized salaries and travel expenses of vocational counselors and supported counsel- or-training courses, and therefore, led to certification of counselors and ultimately the professionalization of counselors (Herr & Shahnasarian, 2001). Professional Organization and Publication: The first professional organization of voca- tional guidance was founded in 1913 in Grand Rapids, Michigan, at the third National Conference on Vocational Guidance. The name of the organization was National Voca- tional Guidance Association (NVGA), which is now the National Career Development Association (NCDA). Another national association that had a significant impact on the evolution of vocational guidance was the National Occupational Conference, which was a clearinghouse for the study of occupations, the measurement of individual differences, and information about vocational guidance practices (Savickas, Pope, & Niles, 2011). These two organizations played critical roles in unifying nine associations related to guidance, student personnel, and adult education into one organization in 1934, then titled American Council of Guidance and Personnel Associations (Brewer, 1942) and now known as the American Counseling Association. COPYRIGHT 2019 SAGE Publications, Inc.
- 34. 8 Career Development and Counseling The primary journal of NCDA, Career Development Quarterly, traces its origin to the newsletter of Boston Vocational Bureau first published in 1911 and then published as the journal of NVGA in 1915 as the Vocational Guidance Bulletin (Savickas et al., 2011). When the journal celebrated its centennial publication in 2011, three previous editors of the journal, Mark Savickas, Mark Pope, and Spencer Niles noted the legacy of its long history of providing occupational information, guidelines for vocational practice, research of career development theories, and leadership in public policy and social justice. They also discussed the contribution of journal articles focusing on diversity and issues of career development in a global setting. There is also an annual review of the year’s articles relating to career development from many related journals, allowing readers to update their knowledge in an easily digestible fashion. The Dictionary of Occupational Titles (DOT), first published by the Bureau of Labor The Dictionary of Occupational Titles (DOT), first published by the Bureau of Labor The Dictionary of Occupational Titles Statistics of the U.S. Department of Labor in 1939, was the first publication of its kind that provided comprehensive information about all jobs that could be classified. In the subsequent year, Occupational Outlook Services was established as a division of the Bureau of Labor Statistics (BLS). In 1948, the Occupational Outlook Handbook was Occupational Outlook Handbook was Occupational Outlook Handbook first published by the Bureau of Labor Statistics and has been published regularly since then. It is revised and updated every two years and provides pertinent information of an occupation for individuals in career decision making. The DOT was replaced by O*NET (Occupational Information Network), which was initiated in 1998 and is a database, not a print book like DOT (Bureau of Labor Statistics, n.d.). These publications, in addition to publication of vocational assessment instruments and standardized aptitude tests, gave vocational guidance counselors more resources and tools for use and propelled the estab- lishment of career development practice. Establishment of Vocational Guidance as a Profession By the time of World War II (WWII) and the next few years after the war, several contextual factors influenced the development of career counseling as a specialty and profession. There began to be wide use of standardized tests, including vocational assess- ment instruments and publications pertaining to information about occupations as well as information about vocational guidance practice. Veterans returning home also needed both educational and vocational advising. As Pope (2000) stated, “The post-WWII period led to the rise of the professional practice of counseling, especially career counsel- ing” (pp. 199). The period from 1940 to 1959 witnessed the expansion of vocational guidance into colleges and universities (Pope, 2000). In addition to the George Barden Act that autho- rized funding for salaries and travel expenses of vocational counselors, the GI Bill of 1946 allocated funding for veterans to go to college and receive job training, and thus propelled a huge influx of veterans as students to colleges and universities across the nation. These veterans brought many unprecedented challenges to higher education, one of which was academic and career advising for these nontraditional students. With the passing of the National Defense Education Act of 1958, counselor training programs mushroomed. Many counselor training programs in the country were founded during the 1950s. They trained many school teachers for postgraduate certification in guidance so that they would be qualified to work in elementary and secondary schools, as well as in higher education settings. COPYRIGHT 2019 SAGE Publications, Inc.
- 35. Chapter 1 ■ Roots, Growth, and Trends of Career Development and Intervention 9 During this time, several other factors were noteworthy for their impact on vocational guidance. Psychological testing experienced another booming period with many new tests developed and existing instruments revised. For example, the Strong Interest Inventory, a commonly used assessment of occupational interests first developed in 1927, went through a major revision during this period. Another popular test used in career counsel- ing field, the Myers and Briggs Type Indicator, was developed by a mother-daughter team, not as an assessment for career counseling but for understanding individual personality differences. The emphasis of vocational guidance began to be attending to individual char- acteristics, individual differences, and individual well-being, rather than simply addressing social problems. The new definition of vocational guidance by NVGA changed the focus of vocational guidance from a concentration on what is to be chosen to increasing attention on the characteristics of the chooser. . . . [I]t diminished the emphasis on matching individual to job and on the provision of occupational information at a particular point in time. Instead, it emphasized the psychological nature of vocational choice, accented the developmental influence on career behavior across the life span, blended the personal and vocational dimensions of guidance into a whole, and elevated the importance of self-understanding and self-acceptance. (Herr, 2001, p. 204) Broadened Role of Career Counseling and Services With the changing focus of vocational guidance, the definition of vocational guid- ance was changed from “the process of assisting the individual to choose an occupation, prepare for it, enter upon it, and progress in it” to “the process of helping a person to develop and accept an integrated and adequate picture of himself [sic] and of his role in the world of work, to test this concept against reality, and to convert it into a reality, with satisfaction to himself and to society” (Super, 1951, p. 89, as cited in Herr, 2001). It is evident from this changing definition that vocational guidance was not just a job place- ment service anymore; rather, it entailed the concept of developing self-understanding and satisfaction. In other words, it is not only about finding a job but more importantly finding a job that is satisfying and meets the needs of society. Pope (2000) characterized the history of career counseling as consisting of six stages, each of which has a theme. The first stage (1819-1919) was labeled Job Placement Services. The second stage (1920-1939) was summarized as providing educational guidance in the schools and the solidified role of vocational guidance in school. The third stage (1940- 1959) was characterized as the expansion of vocational guidance in colleges and univer- 1959) was characterized as the expansion of vocational guidance in colleges and univer- 1959) was characterized as the expansion of vocational guidance in colleges and univer sities and the training of counselors. In the fourth stage (1960-1979), Pope described the theme of vocational guidance as “meaningful work” (p. 200). Young people in the 1960s and 1970s wanted more than an income-generating job; they wanted a job that would fulfill their ideals of improving the well-being of society. Pope also discussed the launch of career counseling services in other settings than schools and universities such as governmental agencies, nonprofit community agencies, and business and industrial settings during this period. The last two stages of Pope’s classification were the fifth stage (1980-1989), a time when there was a growing number of career counseling professionals engaged in independent practice and a demand for career counseling services related COPYRIGHT 2019 SAGE Publications, Inc.
- 36. 10 Career Development and Counseling to job outplacement, an inevitable outcome of economic decline in 70s; and the sixth stage (1990 to present) with a focus on the school-to-job transition, increasing interna- tionalization of career counseling, emphasis on multicultural career counseling, and the prevalence of technology advancement and complexity in career counseling. Pope (2015) classified historical development of career intervention into three periods, namely, voca- tional guidance, career education, and life design. The emergence of life design career intervention is the new reality of insecure and anxious workers due to the project-based model of employment that does not provide stability or loyalty. The life design proposed by Savickas (2012) will be elaborated in Chapter 5. A merger of NVGA, the American College Personnel Association, and the Guidance Supervisors and Counselor Trainers led to the foundation of the American Personnel and Guidance Association (APGA) in 1952. As a founding division of APGA (now American Counselors Association [ACA]), NVGA played a key role in advocating and providing leadership in seeking professional identity for career development practice practitioners. As a result, career development and counseling remains one of the core training requirements of counselor certification and licensing. The broadened role and services of vocational guidance were solidified when the name of the organization NVGA was changed to National Career Development Association (NCDA) in 1985 as career development captures the changing nature and mission of the profession better career development captures the changing nature and mission of the profession better career development than vocational guidance. Lin Tsu had become a high school counselor after 12 years of teaching English in an inner-city school, home to the poorest children in the Rust Belt city where she made her home. In those 12 years, she had become increasingly convinced that the relationships she built with her students were more useful than the literature she was required to teach, which often felt irrelevant to the students’ lives. After receiving her master’s degree in counseling, she was fortunate to move into a position in the same high school in which she had been teaching. She was committed to the ASCA model of personal, academic, and career domains in her work. Although all three were important to Lin, it was the career aspect of her job that really gave her the most satisfac- tion. She firmly believed that without good job opportunities, her students were condemned to remain in poverty. So, she took advantage of all opportunities for classroom guidance and lob- bied strongly for computer-assisted career guid- ance programs and for a career development facilitator available to the students at least part time. She hoped that by motivating her students to seek satisfying work, she could motivate them to stay in and succeed in school. Discussion Questions 1. How can a school counselor effectively help the students lacking motivation become engaged in learning? 2. Why does Lin so strongly believe in helping her students to be motivated to seek satisfying work? Do you agree with her or not? CASE ILLUSTRATION 1.2 HELPING STUDENTS GET MOTIVATED COPYRIGHT 2019 SAGE Publications, Inc.
- 37. Chapter 1 ■ Roots, Growth, and Trends of Career Development and Intervention 11 Year Events 1908 The Vocational Bureau in Boston was founded; Frank Parsons played a major role in establishing this first organization to provide vocational guidance and counseling. 1909 Parson’s book Choosing a Vocation was published posthumously. This book provided the concepts and procedures of vocational guidance. 1910–1903 Jesse Davis introduced the vocational and moral guidance in the city schools of Grand Rapids, Michigan. 1910 The first national conference on vocational guidance was held in Boston. 1913 The National Vocational Guidance Association (NVGA) was formed in Grand Rapids, Michigan. 1915 The first publication of NVGA, the Vocational Guidance Bulletin, was started. 1918 The U.S. government instituted programs in 1918 for World War I veterans with disabilities, marking the beginning of vocational rehabilitation counseling. 1933 The U.S. Employment Service was created by the Wagner-Peyser Act. 1939 The Dictionary of Occupational Titles was published by the Bureau of Labor Statistics. 1940 The Occupational Outlook Services was established in the Bureau of Labor Statistics. 1946 The George Barden Act authorized the salaries and travel expenses of vocational counselors and supported counselor-training courses. 1948 The Occupational Outlook Handbook was first published. 1951 The historic NVGA definition of vocational guidance was changed from an emphasis on what is to be chosen to the nature of the chooser. 1951 The NVGA, merged with several student personnel and guidance organizations, and formed American Personnel and Guidance Association, the predecessor of the American Counseling Association. 1958 The National Defense Education Act was passed, providing funds for training school counselors 1963 The Vocational Education Act was passed, providing students vocational guidance and counseling. BOX 1.1 CHRONICLE OF VOCATIONAL GUIDANCE AND CAREER DEVELOPMENT (Continued) COPYRIGHT 2019 SAGE Publications, Inc.
- 38. 12 Career Development and Counseling Year Events 1964 Civil Rights Act was passed; the civil rights movement accelerated the democratization of educational and occupational opportunities for minority groups. 1968 Vocational Education Act Amendment was passed, advocating for career programs, responses to the disadvantaged and physically handicapped, and the expansion of a broadened concept of guidance and counseling. 1971 Career education was introduced as a priority of the U. S. Office of Education 1984 The Carl D. Perkins Vocational Education Act advocates programs designed to improve, extend, and expand career guidance and counseling programs to meet the needs of vocational students. 1985 The NVGA changed its name to National Career Development Association. 1992 The Americans with Disability Act (ADA) was passed, requiring employers to provide reasonable work accommodations to persons with disabilities. 1994 The School-to-Work Opportunities Act provided funds for supporting career exploration for all students in school settings. Adapted from Herr and Shahnasarian, 2001 (Continued) Career Development Theories Boom: Starting in the late 1940s and continuing to today, many career development theories came into existence. These career development theories became major sources for enrichment of practice, research, and professional iden- tity for career development professionals. The trend of career development theories in the last five decades also reflected the changing nature of career development practice. The early model of the trait-factor approach focused on matching the people to the work. Holland’s (1985) typology model is an example of trait-and-factor theoretical approaches in modern time. In the 1950s, Super (1957) started his 50 years of work on career devel- opment from a developmental perspective and emphasized that the goal of career coun- seling is self-understanding and self-acceptance. In the 1970s and 1980s, Krumboltz’s Learning Theory (Krumboltz, 1976) brought attention to addressing cognitive learning experiences and situational factors to understand career development of individuals. The late 1970s and early 1980s were the time when researchers and practitioners started to attend to the differences among diverse populations. Research about women and ethnic minorities began to appear in scholarly journals (e.g., Betz and Hackett’s [1981] work on women entering nontraditional occupations, Leong [1995] on ethnic minority career development). From the 1990s until the first decade of the 21st century, multiple career COPYRIGHT 2019 SAGE Publications, Inc.
- 39. Chapter 1 ■ Roots, Growth, and Trends of Career Development and Intervention 13 development theories have emerged. The common feature of these new emerging career development theories is the focus on the interaction of person and environment, and they are a more comprehensive and integrated approach to career development and coun- seling. Some examples include Social Cognitive Career Development (Lent, Brown, & Hackett, 1994), Hansen’s Integrated Life Planning (1997), and Ecological Career Coun- seling (Cook, Heppner, & O’Brien, 2002). PROFESSIONALISM When Parsons started the first vocational guidance in Boston at the beginning of the 20th century, the goal was to help youth and new immigrants to find a job. At that time, there was no theoretical approach or guidelines for those guidance workers at the bureau to follow, no empirically tested assessment tools to use in the helping process, or any com- prehensive occupational information readily available to share with clients. There was no systematic training or credentials for vocational guidance workers then. The professional organizations to provide leadership and guidelines did not exist either. One hundred years later, vocational guidance has transitioned to career development and intervention; career development theories and strategies flourish; career assessment for various career development areas is widely used; and information about occupations is not only compre- hensive but also available to everyone who needs it. Professionals need not only training but also credentials to practice career counseling. Professional organizations certainly played a key role in moving the practice of career counseling as a profession to its current status and continue to provide leadership in advancing career development intervention. Training and Credentials Career development is a fundamental component of the curriculum for counselor edu- cation. It is one of the eight foundations of CACREP (Council of Accredited Counseling and Related Education Programs) standards (CACREP, 2016). The CACREP Standards about career development are as follows: CAREER DEVELOPMENT—studies that provide an understanding of career development and related life factors, including all of the following: • Theories and models of career development, counseling, and decision making • Approaches for conceptualizing the interrelationships among and between work, mental well-being, relationships, and other life roles and factors • Processes for identifying and using career, avocational, educational, occupational and labor market information resources, technology, and information systems • Approaches for assessing the conditions of the work environment on clients’ life experiences • Strategies for assessing abilities, interests, values, personality, and other factors that contribute to career development • Strategies for career development program planning, organization, implementation, administration, and evaluation COPYRIGHT 2019 SAGE Publications, Inc.
- 40. 14 Career Development and Counseling • Strategies for advocating for diverse clients’ career and educational development and employment opportunities in a global economy • Strategies for facilitating client skill development for career, educational, and life-work planning and management • Methods of identifying and using assessment tools and techniques relevant to career planning and decision making • Ethical and culturally relevant strategies for addressing career development In addition to the foundation areas, the CACREP also has a specialty in career coun- seling, which means counselor training programs can seek accreditation to offer a mas- ter’s degree in career counseling. The details of accreditation standards can be found at the CACREP website: www.cacrep.org. The National Board of Certified Counselors (NBCC), an organization providing national certification and a variety of counseling certification and license exams, also offers National Certification of Career Counselors. Persons interested in career development occupations may obtain a graduate degree in counseling, career counseling, student personnel, rehabilitation counseling, or counseling psychology. The National Career Development Association is the leading organization in career development, and has stated that, “Career professionals practice only within the boundaries of their competence, based on their education, training, supervised experience, state and national professional credentials, and appropriate professional experience” (National Career Development Association, 2015). Thus, a person without appropriate training or credentials should not claim to be a career development professional. There are several certification or credentialing offered by the NCDA. Certified Career Services Provider (CCSP) is the credential for individuals from a wide range of backgrounds to deliver services and demonstrate core competency in the field of career services. The other credentials include Certified Master of Career Services (CMCS), Certified Career Counselor (CCC), Certified Clinical Supervisor of Career Counseling (CCSCC), Certified Career Counselor Educator (CCCE), and Certified School Career Development Advisor (CSCDA). More details can be found at the NCDA website (https://www.ncda.org/aws/NCDA/pt/sp/credentials_ccsp). LEARNING ACTIVITY 1.2 CAREER DEVELOPMENT AND MY COUNSELING SPECIALTY Review the NCDA career counseling compe- tencies (located at https://www.ncda.org/aws/ NCDA/pt/sd/news_article/37798/_self/layout_ ccmsearch/true). Discuss each area in relation to your personal goal now as a student in a coun- selor training program. Choose the ones that you think are most relevant to your future role as a counselor (be specific to your program now, e.g., mental health counselor, school counselor, marriage and family counselor, career coun- selor, substance abuse counselor, etc.). Provide a rationale for your choice. COPYRIGHT 2019 SAGE Publications, Inc.
- 41. Chapter 1 ■ Roots, Growth, and Trends of Career Development and Intervention 15 Work Settings There are multiple work settings for career development practitioners. Vocational guid- ance started in community settings to reach new immigrants and migrants from farms to citieswhoneededhelptoseekjobs.Onehundredyearslater,careerdevelopmentservicesare available to diverse groups of individuals in a variety of settings. In K-12 settings, licensed school counselors are primarily responsible for helping students with career related issues, including identifying students’ career aspirations, helping students understand themselves and the world of work, providing assistance in postsecondary planning, and implement- ing students’ plans for postsecondary career options. At colleges and universities, career counseling professionals usually work in the career development center, sometimes named career planning and placement centers, on campus. They help students with issues such as deciding on a major that can lead to the career in which they are interested, dissemination of employment information, and coordination between employers and students for job placement. Career development facilitators often work in career centers, providing the informational counterpart to counselors’ work and administering assessments. They also help students with job search skills such as resume writing, networking, and interviewing. Though K-12 and postsecondary educational settings are the two predominant places where career development practice occurred during much of the 20th century, career counseling practitioners work nowadays in many diverse settings. Career counseling practitioners can work in government agencies, military settings, and organizations such as those in business and industry. They can also work in nonprofit social service agen- cies or community-based mental health services agencies. In recent years, an increasing number of career counseling professionals have worked in private practice settings or contracted with large agencies to provide career counseling services. The massive layoffs of recent decades have also created a need for career counselors who work in outplace- ment firms or directly for the organizations that are downsizing. Employee assistance programs (EPAs) are an example of workplace-based career and mental health services provided by career counselors. The expansion of EPAs also attests to the interconnection of health and work. A new horizon for career counseling practice is moving from face-to-face meetings with clients to the virtual world. Career counselors might work with clients through an online platform, or even computer-assisted career counseling programs, as a result of information technology advancement. The increased use of and availability of the Internet and media technology enables people to become less dependent on an office space to provide services, and consequently, more people to become independent prac- titioners. Social media is used by career practitioners as a means for delivering informa- tion, a medium for interpersonal communication, and a working space for interaction (Kettunen, Vuorinen, & Sampson, 2015). It becomes clear that information and com- munication technology (ICT) provides alternative tools for career service practitioners to extend services to reach more people. Professional Organizations The premier professional organization for career development professionals is the NCDA, a founding division of the American Counseling Association. NCDA, formerly NVGA, founded in 1913, continually provides leadership in guidance and direction of COPYRIGHT 2019 SAGE Publications, Inc.
- 42. 16 Career Development and Counseling career development practice (Savickas et al., 2011). NCDA publishes the journal, the Career Development Quarterly; a magazine, Career Developments; and an online publi- cation, Career Convergence, as well as many books for members and other professionals interested in career development issues. It also sponsors an annual convention, connect- interested in career development issues. It also sponsors an annual convention, connect- interested in career development issues. It also sponsors an annual convention, connect ing educators, researchers, and practitioners at one location. The other relevant professional organizations for career development include the American School Counselor Association, American Counseling Association, American College Counseling Association, American Rehabilitation Counseling Association, National Employment Counseling Association, and the Society of Counseling Psychology and its subgroup, Society of Vocational Psychology. These organizations represent different focuses, but each has a focus on one or more aspects of career devel- opment. Also, at an international level, the International Association of Educational and Vocational Guidance provides information through their journal, newsletter, and annual conferences. Career Counseling Competencies According to NCDA, professionals engaged in career services must demonstrate minimum competencies in 11 areas (National Career Development Association, 2009), which are as follows: • Career Development Theory: Theory base and knowledge considered essential for professionals engaging in career counseling and development • Individual and Group Counseling Skills: Individual and group counseling competencies considered essential for effective career counseling • Individual/Group Assessment: Individual/group assessment skills considered essential for professionals engaging in career counseling • Information/Resources: Information/resource base and knowledge essential for professionals engaging in career counseling • Program Promotion, Management, and Implementation: Skills necessary to develop, plan, implement, and manage comprehensive career development programs in a variety of settings • Coaching, Consultation, and Performance Improvement: Knowledge and skills considered essential in enabling individuals and organizations to impact effectively upon the career counseling and development process • Diverse Populations: Knowledge and skills considered essential in providing career counseling and development processes to diverse populations • Supervision: Knowledge and skills considered essential in critically evaluating counselor performance, maintaining and improving professional skills, and seeking assistance for others when needed in career counseling • Ethical/Legal Issues: Information base and knowledge essential for the ethical and legal practice of career counseling COPYRIGHT 2019 SAGE Publications, Inc.
- 43. Chapter 1 ■ Roots, Growth, and Trends of Career Development and Intervention 17 Career: The course of events constituting a life (Super, 1980); the total constellation of roles played over the course of a lifetime (Herr & Cramer, 1996) Career Development: Refers to lifelong psychological and behavioral process as well as a contextual influences shaping one’s career over the life span; involves the person’s creation of a career pattern, decision-making style, integration of life roles, values expression, and life-role self-concepts (Herr & Cramer, 1996) Career Development Involves any activities that empower people to cope effectively with career Intervention: development tasks (Spokane, 1991) Career Counseling: Involves a formal relationship in which professional counselors assist a client or group of clients to cope more effectively with career concerns Career Education: A systematic effort through academic curriculum that connects classroom learning and the work world to help all students develop knowledge and skills needed for employment and to function in society (Hoyt, 2005) Career Development A systematic program of counselor-coordinated information and experiences Programs: designed to facilitate individual career development (Herr & Cramer, 1996, p. 33) Vocational Guidance: Specific activities targeted at assisting individuals in making decisions, developing plans, and learning skills to enter into the workforce and implement the plan; 1937 definition by NVGA: the process of assisting individuals to choose an occupation, enter upon it, and progress in it (Super, 1951, p. 92) Work: Blustein’s (2006) definition: integrated social, psychological and contextual aspects, work as a means for survival and power, for social connection, a means for self-determination (p. 22) Vocation: A term used interchangeably with job and occupation but associated with the idea that people are “called” (Isaacson & Brown, 2000) Job: A group of similar positions in a single business (Isaacson & Brown, 2000) Occupation: A group of similar jobs in several businesses (Isaacson & Brown, 2000) Life Style and Systematic preventions and interventions to help individuals develop a plan that Planning: incorporates multiple roles they have at various settings Career Coaching: A specific intentional effort to help individuals enter or advance in organizations (Isaacson & Brown, 2000) BOX 1.2 VARIOUS TERMS RELATED TO CAREER DEVELOPMENT COPYRIGHT 2019 SAGE Publications, Inc.
- 44. 18 Career Development and Counseling • Research/Evaluation: Knowledge and skills considered essential in understanding and conducting research and evaluation in career counseling and development • Technology: Knowledge and skills considered essential in using technology to assist individuals with career planning Meeting these competencies is an ongoing ethical obligation on the part of career professionals, mandating reading current literature, attending training and conferences, and engaging in supervision. CURRENT STATUS AND FUTURE TRENDS OF CAREER DEVELOPMENT Changing Workforce The American population has become increasingly diverse over the last few decades. Immigrants have and will continue to come from diverse countries and regions, rather than from predominantly European counties as a century ago. With the changing demo- graphics of the country, the American workforce also will become even more diverse. The trend of racial and ethnic diversity in the workforce is expected to continue in the next 10 years (Bureau of Labor Statistics, 2016). As the Hispanic population continues to increase at faster rates, so does the group’s labor force. BLS projects that the share of Hispanics in the total labor force over the next decade will continue to increase and will make up nearly 20% of the labor force in 2024. The largest two groups contributing to the diverse workforce are women and ethnic minorities. The number of women in the workforce, particularly the women with school- aged children, changed dramatically from the 1960s to the mid-1990s, and change also occurred in where women worked (DeBell, 2001). Starting in the 1960s, women entered into occupations that had in the past been predominantly held by men. An increasing number of women since civil rights movement in the 1960s hold high-level positions in both business and professional organizations as well as in other arenas such as medicine and law. The income gap between women and men has reduced, but there is still a gap, with women making 82% of men’s earning for the same job (Bureau of Labor Statistics, 2017a). The glass ceiling is cracked but not entirely broken yet. Racial and ethnic minority groups in the United States have a similar history of work experiences as women, often working in low paid, hard-labor jobs with poor working conditions in the past and now moving to more professional jobs. A higher proportion of Hispanic and African American males hold jobs in service and sales than White and Asian American males. Hispanic women have the lowest participation in the labor force than any other ethnic minority group (Bureau of Labor Statistics, 2017a). Structure and Meaning of Work At the beginning of the 20th century, the United States experienced a major change in the occupational structure from agricultural dominance to industrial dominance COPYRIGHT 2019 SAGE Publications, Inc.
- 45. Chapter 1 ■ Roots, Growth, and Trends of Career Development and Intervention 19 as the result of industrialization and urbanization. In the last decade of the 20th cen- tury and now, the first two decades of the 21st century, the U.S. economy has again gone through a substantial change, from manufacturing jobs to service jobs, largely due to the Information Age (DeBell, 2001; Bureau of Labor Statistics, 2017a). As put by DeBell (2001), the majority of the American workforce used to be farmers. They then worked in manufacturing and recently have become clerks. Along with these changes came emergence of some new jobs, for instance, database administrators and many com- puter- or information-related new job titles; simultaneously, some jobs became obsolete. The changed economic structure was influenced by computer and telecommunication technology advancement, globalization, collapse of many communist states and the rise of American-style capitalism, and domestic deregulations (Whittman, 1999 as cited in DeBell, 2001). These factors changed the American economic structure from manufac- turing to service and information provision to the world. Changes in the work structure have significant impacts on the relationship or mean- ing associated with work for many people. In the past, one could have a career built upon one occupation and even, in many cases, one job over a life span. In today’s work environment, few people can hold one job for their entire adult work life, and the trend is for people to hold many contract-based, freelance-style or project-based jobs, sometimes across various occupations. See Box 1.2 for the definition of career, career, career occupation, and jobs. One consequence of the changing work structure is loss of job security. When downsiz- ing, reorganization, layoff, and outsourcing become routine daily news, few people are free from the fear of being the next one who could face unemployment. The economic recession in the last 10 years simply worsened the hardship experienced by many average American families. There are few supportive work environments or systems that reward workers’ loyalty; instead, workers feel insecure or are overworked due to the loss of col- leagues. The meaning of work common in the last century is fading. We are losing the work common in the last century is fading. We are losing the work aspect of working that, “functions to provide people with a way to establish an identity and a sense of coherence in their social interactions. . . . [and] furnishes at least part of our external identity in the world” (Blustein, 2006, p. 3). Technology and Social Media Technological innovation in the last 100 years has had an enormous impact. Originally innovations such as steam engines and automobiles were welcomed because they brought people at a distance together closer and faster. Others such as washing machines and dishwashers were appreciated and sought after because they freed people from laborious duties at home and work. Interestingly enough, the new innovative computer technol- ogy created a very different psychological impact on people. On the one hand, those benefits enjoyed at the last technical innovation boom are still there: Automation of almost everything makes banking services and clerical assistance available 24 hours/ 7 days per week, and social media technology connects people across the globe at any time. On the other hand, because of newer technical innovations, many people have lost their jobs or have become isolated or alienated at work settings (Blustein, 2006). It is ironic and perplexing that social media, with the intention and means to bring people closer despite distance, in fact, makes people feel the loss of human connection at work or sometime even at home. COPYRIGHT 2019 SAGE Publications, Inc.
- 46. 20 Career Development and Counseling Technology advancement and sophistication have changed not just the human inter- Technology advancement and sophistication have changed not just the human inter- Technology advancement and sophistication have changed not just the human inter action part of work; they have also changed the ways that business is done. Face-to-face communications are greatly reduced and often only used when e-mail or text messaging channels are inoperative. Work from home is possible and becoming more common due to the advancement of information and communication technologies. Osborn Kronholz, Finklea, and Cantonis (2014) added called for technology savvy career intervention prac- tice and summarized functions of available technologies as enhancing decision making, job search, and expanding service delivery. Social media such as Facebook and LinkedIn are used by both job seekers and job hirers. Osborn et al. also raised ethical concerns for professionals to be mindful of, such as access and social equity. Globalization Globalization is not just a concept or buzzword in business literature; the consequences of globalization are extensive and far-reaching (Blustein, 2006). Blustein (2006) analyzed the definition of globalization by Friedman (1999), which basically indicated that globaliza- tion means the spread of free-market capitalism to everywhere in the world and concluded that competitiveness of economies changed the priority of the organization from the loy- that competitiveness of economies changed the priority of the organization from the loy- that competitiveness of economies changed the priority of the organization from the loy alty between worker and organization to the company’s viability (remaining competitive). Further he stated that globalization created a labor market without national or linguistic boundaries, therefore, jobs move to wherever high quality and low cost can be accomplished. Competitiveness and the free market economy in conjunction with technology has led to a growing number of international businesses. Some large multinational corporations with annual profits greater than the gross national products of some countries have the power to create and destroy the local economy (DeBell, 2001). Social cultures, national security, and the environment are all tremendously affected by globalization (DeBell, 2001). “On a more individual level, globalization has created vast pockets of despair and social disengagement” (Blustein, 2006, p. 44). Multiple Life Roles and Adaptive Roles Across the Life Span The experience of having one occupation for one’s entire life in one organization is probably unknown to younger generations. Because of technology advances and the glo- balization of the economy, many new jobs are contract and freelance jobs, requiring people to provide the services needed for the company at the time but without longevity or commitment from the employer to the workers. This uncertainty creates stress and harms health. Research has supported the notion that unemployment or underemploy- harms health. Research has supported the notion that unemployment or underemploy- harms health. Research has supported the notion that unemployment or underemploy ment impacts both physical health (Kramer & Chung, 2015) and mental health (Olesen, Butlerworth, Leach, Kelaher, & Pirkis, 2013). The relationship of health and work will be further discussed in Chapter 2. Gibson and Mitchell (2006) listed seven traditional expectations about work by Americans in the past: 1. America is the land of opportunity. 2. One should enter a career at least as good as, but preferably better than, one’s parents. COPYRIGHT 2019 SAGE Publications, Inc.
- 47. Chapter 1 ■ Roots, Growth, and Trends of Career Development and Intervention 21 3. One prepares for and enters into a career choice for life. 4. With honest and hard work, one will advance in one’s career. 5. Many careers are more suitable and primarily limited to men and some—a much smaller number—are more suitable and primarily limited to women. 6. The vast majority of available jobs are in the business and industrial sectors. 7. The level of education one achieves is related to level of career opportunities available. How many of these expectations are still valid remains uncertain. It is assured, though, that one cannot prepare for and enter a career choice for life. What is also certain is that growth employment is in the health care industries and associated occupations (Bureau of Labor Statistics, 2017b). It becomes questionable whether people can do better than their parents as more and more young people are underemployed after graduation from college. That makes the seventh expectation questionable, too. It is often believed that higher education should lead to jobs or better jobs, but that is not always true, because as stated earlier, many of the available jobs are service oriented, seasonal, or temporary, such as personal care aides or home health aides (the two fastest growing jobs from 2016 to 2026 according to BLS, 2017b), and do not require a four-year college degree. At the same time, a higher percentage of college graduates are underem- ployed or even unemployed, and this discrepancy between job skill requirements from employers and education/training preparation led to the Career Pathways initiative to address the gap in workforce preparation (Schwartz, 2016). The changing world of work no longer provides stability; therefore, the challenge for workers is not only to seek a meaningful job but also to find ways to keep themselves mobile and adaptive to new work requirements. “Multiple careers across the life span are now the norm” (Capuzzi & Stauffer, 2006, p. 29). Thus, lifelong learning is now necessary for people to keep up with the changes and to be competitive. Individuals need the skills of mobility, adaptability, flexibility, and transferability in order to be successful in their careers. Career development professionals, accordingly, should expand their roles to effec- tively help their students and clients (Herr, 2001). Career development professionals need to help clients develop awareness, attitudes, and competencies in planning and managing their careers across the life span. The traditional role of only helping people make career decisions is no longer sufficient in the context of today’s world of work. Career decision is only one dimension of career counseling. Counselors can help clients with such tasks as implementation of choices, managing multiple roles at work and home, becoming a LEARNING ACTIVITY 1.3 MULTIPLE ROLES Chart your roles at different settings and at different times. Discuss the implications of multiple and adaptive roles across the life span for you as an individual citizen and as a helping professional as well. COPYRIGHT 2019 SAGE Publications, Inc.
- 48. 22 Career Development and Counseling lifelong learners, and managing transitions. Life design (Savickas, 2012) approach seems to fit more to the needs of career counseling in the midst of the unpredictable work world. Or in other words, career counseling is an integral part of counseling. Multiculturalism, Social Justice, and Advocacy The career development profession has its roots in progressive social reform, out of a need to help youth and new immigrants to find jobs. A century later, the need for career development professionals to help the less fortunate remains the same. And, as the work- development professionals to help the less fortunate remains the same. And, as the work- development professionals to help the less fortunate remains the same. And, as the work force becomes more diverse, there is increasing need for career counselors to become culturally competent. When envisioning the future of career development practice, Herr (2001) stated the importance of addressing ageism, sexism, racism, and diminished feelings of self-worth and called for career development professionals to help people achieve human dignity. Yes, indeed, human dignity for everyone. To achieve this goal, culturally appropriate career intervention is needed to help individuals. As Leong and Flores (2015) stated, despite the progression in career research, more studies are needed to understand mar- ginalized groups and underserved populations. Counselors are expected by professional code of ethics to advocate for clients’ benefits. The various forms of discrimination based on personal characteristics and backgrounds and their impact on one’s career development will be discussed in more detail in Chapter 3. Social justice and advocacy were the driving forces of Parsons’s work over 100 years ago and continue to be the mission of career intervention in the 21st century. Summary: Challenges and Opportunities In today’s Information Age, we are overloaded with information and face many unprecedented challenges. These challenges often coexist with opportunities. Although globalization and techno- logy present challenges for workers everywhere, career development professionals have the possi- bility of turning these challenges to the opportunity to broaden services and roles. Technology can be helpful or hurtful. In other words, everything is rela- tional. Helping people gain awareness of the rela- tional nature of their struggles, develop positive and hopeful perspectives of career paths across the life span, acquire adaptive and transferrable skills to manage their multiple careers, and become advo- cates for themselves are a few things that career development professionals can do in the future. Keystone • The change in our approach to career and vocations came when many unprecedented new jobs emerged as the result of industrialization. • The long history of career development illustrates the core functions of the career counseling profession: to respond to the social and economic situation, particularly for people who are disadvantaged. • Frank Parsons laid out the foundations of career counseling that still influence the practice and COPYRIGHT 2019 SAGE Publications, Inc.
- 49. Chapter 1 ■ Roots, Growth, and Trends of Career Development and Intervention 23 research today. Parsons’s approach aimed at helping people find work that accommodated their abilities and needs. • Progressive education, development of standardized testing, and legislation had great impacts on the evolution of vocational guidance. • The merger of professional organizations, publications about career-related information and practice, and necessary services for veterans after WWII led to the establishment of career counseling as a specialty and profession. • The focus of career counseling is no longer a job placement; instead, it is broadened to help individuals develop self-understanding and engage in a satisfying work and life across the life span. • Career development professionals work in various settings, including K-12 schools, colleges, government and nonprofit agencies, private practices, the military, and businesses. • The changing workforce and occupational structure, advancement of technology and social media, globalization of the economy, and the need for multicultural competency and social justice have significant impacts on people’s life and work, resulting in people having multiple and adaptive life roles across the life span. Additional Resources American Counseling Association: http://www.coun seling.org American School Counselor Association: https:// www.schoolcounselor.org Bureau of Labor Statistics: http://www.bls.gov CACREP: http://www.cacrep.org/template/index. cfm International Association of Educational and Vocational Guidance: http://iaevg.net/ NCDA: http://associationdatabase.com/aws/NCDA/pt/ sp/guidelines National Board of Certified Counselors: http://www .nbcc.org Society of Vocational Psychology: https://www.div17 svp.org U.S. Department of Labor: http://www.dol.gov U. S. Bureau of Census: http://www.census.gov References Betz, N. E., & Hackett, G. (1981). The relationship of career-related self-efficacy expectations to perceived career options in college women and men. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 28, 399-410. Blustein, D. L. (2006). The psychology of work- ing: A new perspective to career development, counseling and public policy. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. Bureau of Labor Statistics, U.S. Department of Labor. (2016). Hispanics will make up nearly 20 percent of the labor force in 2024. Ted: The Economics Daily. Retrieved from https://www.bls.gov/opub/ted/2016/ COPYRIGHT 2019 SAGE Publications, Inc.
- 50. 24 Career Development and Counseling hispanics-will-make-up-nearly-20-percent- of-the-labor-force-in-2024.htm. Bureau of Labor Statistics, U.S. Department of Labor. (2017a). A look at women’s edu- cation and earnings since the 1970s. TED: The Economics Daily. Retrieved from https:// www.bls.gov/opub/ted/2017/a-look-at- womens-education-and-earnings-since- the-1970s.htm. Bureau of Labor Statistics. (2017b). Employment projections—2016-26 USDL-1429. Retrieved from www.bls.gov/emp. Bureau of Labor Statistics. (n.d.). Revising the standard occupational classification system. Retrieved from https://www.bls.gov/soc/ socrpt929.pdf. Brewer, J. M. (1942). History of vocational guid- ance. New York, NY: Harper. Capuzzi, D., & Stuffer, M. D. (2006). Career coun- seling: Foundations, perspectives, and appli- cations. Boston, MA: Allyn and Bacon. Cook, E. P., Heppner, M. J., & O’Brien, K. M. (2002). Career development of women of color and white women: Assumptions, con- ceptualization, and interventions from an ecological perspective. Career Development Quarterly, 50, 291-304. Council for Accreditation of Counselor and Related Educational Program. (2016). 2016 Standards. Retrieved from http://www.cacrep .org/for-programs/2016-cacrep-standards. DeBell, C. (2001). Ninety years in the world of work in America. Career Development Quarterly, 50, 77-88. Dewey, J. (1916). Democracy and education: An introduction to philosophy of education. New York, NY: Macmillan. Friedman, T. L. (1999). The Lexus and the olive tree: Understanding globalization. New York, NY: Farrar, Strauss, & Giroux. Gibson, R. L., & Mitchell, M. H. (2006). Introduction to career counseling for the 21st century. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson Merrill Prentice Hall. Hansen, L. S. (1997). Integrative life planning— Critical tasks for career development and changing life patterns. San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass. Herr, E. L. (2001). Career development and its practice: A historical perspective. Career Development Quarterly, 49, 196-211. Herr, E. L., & Cramer, S. H. (1996). Career guid- ance and counseling through the life span: Systematic approaches (5th ed.). New York, NY: HarperCollins. Herr, E. L., & Shahanasarian, M. (2001). Selected milestones in the evolution of career devel- opment practices in the twentieth century. Career Development Quarterly, 49, 225-232. Holland, J. L. (1985). Making vocational choices: A theory of vocational personalities and work environments (2nd ed.). Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall. Hoyt, K. B. (2005). Career education: History and future. Tulsa, OK: National Career Development Association. Hoyt, K. B., Evans, R. N., Mackin, E. F., & Mangum, G. L. (1972). Career education: What it is and how to do it (2nd ed). Salt Lake City, UT: Olympus. Isaacson, L. E., & Brown, D. (2000). Career information, career counseling and career development (7th ed.). Boston, MA: Allyn & Bacon. COPYRIGHT 2019 SAGE Publications, Inc.
- 51. Chapter 1 ■ Roots, Growth, and Trends of Career Development and Intervention 25 Kettunen, J., Vuorinen, R., & Sampson, J. P. J. (2015). Practitioners’ experiences of social media in career services. The Career Development Quarterly, 63(3), 268-281. 10.1002/cdq.12018 Kramer, A., & Chung, W. (2015). Work demands, family demands, and BMI in dual-earners families: A 16-year longitudinal study. Journal of Applied Psychology, doi:10.1037/a0038634. Krumboltz, J. D. (1976). A social learning theory of career choice. Counseling Psychologists, 6, 71-80. Lent, R. W., Brown, S. D., & Hackett, G. (1994). Toward a unifying social cognitive theory of career and academic interest, choice ad per- formance. Journal of Vocational Behavior, 45, 79-122. Leong, F. T. L. (1995). Career development and vocational behavior of racial and ethnic minorities. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum. Leong, F. L., & Flores, L. Y. (2015). Career inter- ventions with racial and ethnic minority cli- ents. In P. J. Hartung, M. L. Savickas, W. B. Walsh, P. J. (Eds.), APA handbook of career intervention:Vol.1.Foundations(pp.225-242). Washington, DC: American Psychological Association. doi:10.1037/14438-013 National Career Development Association. (2009). Career counseling competencies. Retrieved from https://www.ncda.org/aws/ NCDA/pt/sd/news_article/37798/_self/ layout_ccmsearch/true. National Career Development Association. (2015). 2015 NCDA code of ethics. Retrieved from https://www.ncda.org/aws/NCDA/ asset_manager/get_file/3395. Niles, S. G., & Harris-Bowlsbey, J. (2002). Career development interventions in the 21st century. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson Merrill Prentice Hall. Olesen, S. C., Butterworth, P., Leach, L. S., Kelaher, M., & Pirkis, J. (2013). Mental health affects future employment as job loss affects mental health: Findings from a lon- gitudinal population study. BMC Psychiatry. Retrieved from http://www.biomedcentral .com/1471-244X/13/144. Osborn, D. S., Kronholz, J. F., Finklea, J. T., & Cantonis, A. M. (2014). Technology savvy career counseling. Canadian Psychology, 55, 258-265. Parsons, F. (1909). Choosing a vocation. Boston, MA: Houghton-Mifflin. Pope, M. (2000). A brief history of career counseling in the United States. Career Development Quarterly, 48, 194-211. Pope, M. (2015). Career intervention: From the industrial to the digital age. In P. J. Hartung, M. L. Savickas, W. B. Walsh, P. J. Hartung, M. L. Savickas,&W.B.Walsh(Eds.),APAhandbookof careerintervention:Vol.1.Foundations (pp. 3-19). Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.10.1037/14438-001. Savickas, M. L. (2012). Life design: A paradigm for career intervention in the 21st century. Journal of Counseling and Development, 90, 13-19. Savickas, M. L., Pope, M., & Niles, S. G. (2011). The career development quarterly: A cen- tennial retrospective. Career Development Quarterly, 59, 528-538. Schwartz, R. B. (2016). The Career path- ways movement: A Promising strategic for increasing opportunities and mobility. Journal of Social Issues, 72, 740-759. doi: 10.1111/josi.12192 COPYRIGHT 2019 SAGE Publications, Inc.
- 52. 26 Career Development and Counseling Spokane, A. R. (1991). Career intervention. Englewood, NJ: Prentice Hall. Super, D. E. (1951). Vocational adjustment: Implementing a self-concept. Occupations, 30, 88-92. Super, D. E. (1957). The psychology of careers. New York, NY: Harper & Row. Super, D. E. (1980). A life-span, life-space, approach to career development. Journal of Vocational Behavior, Vocational Behavior, Vocational Behavior 16, 292-298. Tang, M., & Erford, B. T. (2010). History of school counseling. In B. T. Erford (Ed.), Handbook of school counseling, theory, programs, and practices (2nd ed., pp. 9-22). Austin, TX: Pro-ED. Zunker, V. G. (2002). Career counseling: Applied concepts of life planning (6th ed.). Pacific Grove, CA: Brooks/Cole. Zytowski, D. G. (1972). Four hundred years before parsons. Personnel and Guidance Journal, 50(6), 443. Zytowski, D. G. (2001). Frank Parsons and the progressive movement. Career Development Quarterly, 50, 57-65. COPYRIGHT 2019 SAGE Publications, Inc.
- 53. 27 2 WORK IN GLOBAL CONTEXT After introducing the history and current status of career development and interven- tion in the last chapter, it is necessary to discuss several pertinent issues to further understand why it is important to understand career development of individuals and why counselors need to gain knowledge and skills in career intervention. What does work mean to individuals? How is work related to a person’s self-concepts and life in general? What factors have a significant impact on individuals’ career development? There may not be readily available consensus in the answers to these questions; however, presenting various views and updated research findings to these questions assists us to gain better under- standing what kind of role work plays in our lives and how it influences our well-being. Thus, this chapter will explore these fundamental issues from both historical and cross-cultural perspectives and present a synthesis of how work is related to individuals’ self-concepts, life roles, and health in the global context. LEARNING OBJECTIVES After completing the reading and exercises provided in this chapter, you will be able to: • describe the meaning of work across historical contexts and various cultures, • recognize the relationship between the global economy and the changing work environment, • explain the relationship between work and health, • identify the interrelatedness of work and family roles, • examine the personal and contextual factors influencing career development, • develop an integrated view of career development in the diverse and changing work world, and • apply an ecological career counseling perspective to career intervention for personal growth and change. COPYRIGHT 2019 SAGE Publications, Inc.
- 54. 28 Career Development and Counseling MEANING OF WORK Defining work is not as easy as it seems to be. Does work have to be paid or compensated? work is not as easy as it seems to be. Does work have to be paid or compensated? work Is taking care of family members without pay considered work? How about volunteering work? The definition of work is probably different for different people at different times. work is probably different for different people at different times. work Back in the early days when women did not have the right to vote or work outside of the home, women might not have been compensated for their contribution to taking care of family members and house chores, but would their share of the family responsibilities have been considered work? It seems that we need to define work first before discussing the meaning of work. Definition of Work and Related Terms “What do you do for a living?” “Where do you work?” and “What kind of job do you have now?” are typical questions asked when people try to get acquainted at social occasions. Occupation is a popular item as part of the demographic background on almost any survey. These questions solicit the information about one’s occupation, and the expected responses imply information such as social status, income level, and educa- tional background. Therefore, the terms work, job, and occupation are used in daily life interchangeably to indicate one’s employment status. In Chapter 1, we provided defini- tions of these terms without much elaboration. The following definitions provide more discussion from the perspective of how these terms are conceptualized in the discourse of career development. Job—an activity people do to satisfy basic needs, for instance, to pay the bills Job—an activity people do to satisfy basic needs, for instance, to pay the bills Job so that people can support themselves and families for a living. A job requires certain qualifications, or otherwise, the employer would not be satisfied with the performance, so paid employment is the core of job performance, so paid employment is the core of job performance, so paid employment is the core of . Occupation—occupation is a title given to a type of job that a group of people share. In other words, the nature of the job is similar, the entry requirements are the same, and the occupation can be across different organizations and settings. Work—an activity people do to satisfy multiple needs of life; can be paid or unpaid, Work—an activity people do to satisfy multiple needs of life; can be paid or unpaid, Work but with a purpose to produce something. David Jepsen (2013) listed three hallmark qualities of work: (1) work involves purposeful effort; (2) work requires skills and talent; and (3) work yields a lasting product (p. 24). From this perspective, work is certainly more than a paid employment although it can be one’s employment. Blustein said, “working involves effort, activity and human energy in given tasks that contribute to the overall and economic welfare of a given culture. This includes paid employment as well as work that one does in caring for others within one’s family and community” (p. 3). Therefore, job and job and job occupation can be conceptualized as the terms to mean paid work one does, while work may be paid or unpaid and can be either in employment settings or work may be paid or unpaid and can be either in employment settings or work at home. Work provides more than just financial compensation; it provides a purpose of life for people, or it provides meaning of one’s deeds that may satisfy multiple dimensions COPYRIGHT 2019 SAGE Publications, Inc.
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- 60. Fire Run, Colon Department Under Cocoanut Tree. Jack the Kisser. Jamaica Negroes Doing a Two-Step. Lost in the Alps. Machete Men Clearing a Jungle. Making the Dirt Fly. Nine Lives of a Cat. Old Market Place, Panama. Panorama from Columbus Point of Atlantic Entrance to the Canal. Panorama, La Boca Harbor and Pacific Entrance to Canal. Panorama of Culebra Cut. Panorama Ruins of Old French Machinery. Race for Millions. Rivals. Stage Struck. Teddy Bears. Three American Beauties. U. S. Sanitary Squad Fumigating a House. EDISON [THOMAS A.] INC. 1911. Adventures of a Baby. Aïda. All for the Love of a Lady. April Fool. At Jones’ Ferry. At the Threshold of Life. Awakening of John Bond. B.P.O.E.—the Benevolent Protective Order of Elks Convention at Atlantic City, July 10 to 15, 1911. Baby of the Boarding House. Baby’s Fall. Battle of Bunker Hill. Battle of Trafalgar. Betty’s Buttons. Between Two Fires. Big Dam. Black Arrow.
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- 69. Revenge Is Sweet. Romance of the Ice Fields. Rowdy and His New Pal. St. Johns, Newfoundland, and Its Surroundings. Scenes in Delhi, India. Shadow on the Blind. Simla, India. Sketch with the Thumb Print. Spanish Cavalier. Spring Log Driving. Stolen Nickel. Stranger and the Taxicab. Street Beautiful. Sunset Gun. Target Practice of Atlantic Fleet, U. S. Navy. Ten Days with a Fleet of U. S. Battleships. Tenacious Solicitor. Their Hero. Thirty Days at Hard Labor. To Save Her Brother. Tommy’s Geography Lesson. Tony’s Oath of Vengeance. Treasure Island. Triangle. Two Flats. Two Knights in a Barroom. U. S. Volunteer Life Saving Corps, New York City. Unusual Sacrifice. Usurer’s Grip. Very Much Engaged. Views in Calcutta, India. Von Weber’s Last Waltz. War on the Mosquito. Western Prince Charming. Westminster Kennel Club Dog Show. When She Was About Sixteen. Winnie’s Dance. Winter Logging in Maine. Winter Visit to Central Park, New York City.
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- 71. Jester. King’s Pardon. Lady or the Tiger. Leprechaun. Life’s a Game of Cards. Little Coxswain of the Varsity Eight. Lord Feathertop. Lost New Year’s Dinner. Love Will Find a Way. Lover’s Guide. Lover’s Telegraphic Code. Merry Widow Waltz Craze. Minstrel Mishaps. Miss Sherlock Holmes. Nellie, the Pretty Typewriter. Nero and the Burning of Rome. New Stenographer. Old Maid’s Temperance Club. Painter’s Revenge. Persistent Suitor. Pioneers Crossing the Plains in ’49. Playmates. Pocahontas. Rescued from an Eagle’s Nest. Romance of a War Nurse. Sandy McPherson’s Quiet Fishing Trip. Saved by Love. Sculptor’s Welsh Rabbit Dream. She. Skinny’s Finish. Stage Memories of an Old Theatrical Trunk. Street Waif’s Christmas. Suburbanite’s Ingenious Alarm. Tale the Autumn Leaves Told. Tale the Ticker Told. Tales the Searchlight Told. Ten Pickaninnies. Turning Over a New Leaf. Unexpected Santa Claus.
- 72. Voice from the Dead. When Ruben Comes to Town. Wifey’s Strategy. Yankee Man-o-Warsman’s Fight for Love. 1909. Absent-Minded Cupid. Adventures of an Old Flirt. Affair of Art. All’s Fair in Love. Amateur William Tell. Annual Celebration of School Children. Apprentice Boys at Newport Naval Training Station. Atlanta Automobile Speedway Races. Bachelor’s Supper. Backward, Turn Backward, O Time, in Your Flight. Bill, the Bill Poster. Bird in a Gilded Cage. Bluebeard. Boots He Couldn’t Lose. Boyhood Dreams. Bride and Groom’s Visit to the Zoological Gardens. Bridegroom’s Dilemma. Brothers in Arms. Burglar Cupid. Buying Manhattan. Canadian Winter Carnival. Cap of Fortune. Casey’s Jumping Toothache. Caught by the Coupon Craze. Child of the Forest. Child’s Prayer. Closed Sunday. Colored Stenographer. Comedy and Tragedy. Coward. Cry from the Wilderness. Cup of Tea and She. Curfew Bell. Dangerous Pair.
- 73. Dash to Death. Daughter of the Sun. Doctored Dinner Pail. Drawing the Color Line. Duel in Mid-Air. Egyptian Mystery. Ethel’s Luncheon. Expert Glass Blowing. Fallen Idol. Far from the Madding Crowd. Father’s First Half-Holiday. Faust. Fenton of the 42nd. Fishing Industry at Gloucester, Mass. Fox Hunt. Furnished Rooms To Let. Fuss and Feathers. Gift from Santa Claus. Great Game. Hansel and Gretel. Happy Accident. Hard To Beat. He Wouldn’t Go Under a Ladder. Heart of a Clown. His Masterpiece. Hold-up, Held up. House of Cards. How the Landlord Collected His Rents. How the Tramp Got the Lunch. Imp of the Bottle. In the Days of Witchcraft. Interrupted Joy Ride. Janitor’s Bottle. Keeper of the Light. Knight for a Night. Laddie. Landlady’s Portrait. Left Out. Legend of Sterling Keep.
- 74. Lie. Little Miss Moffit and Simian Stone. Little Shepherd of Tumbling Run. Little Sister. Lochinvar. Lost Handbag. Lost Invitation. Love and War. Love Is Blind. Love’s Sacrifice. Lunatics in Power. McGinty’s Sudden Rise. Making of Honey. Man with Three Wives. Man Without a Country. Marie Dressler. Mary Jane’s Lovers. Midnight Supper. Minister’s Daughter. Mischievous Elf. Missionary and the Maid. Modest Young Man. Mother Goose. Mulligan’s Waterloo. My Lord in Livery. New Life. New Policeman. Oh, Rats! On the Western Frontier. 100 Per Cent Jealousy. Ordeal. Origin of Beethoven’s Moonlight Sonata. Other Fellow. Pagan and Christian. Parted on Their Honeymoon. Patience of Miss Job. Pony Express. Price of a Soul. Prince and the Pauper.
- 75. Professor Fix Fixed. Road to Love. Romance of Old Madrid. Rose of the Tenderloin. Rural Tragedy. Saleslady’s Matinee Idol. Sandman. Secret of the Locket. See a Pin and Pick It Up, All That Day You’ll Have Good Luck. Simple Home Dinner. Somnambulistic Hero. Squeedunk Sherlock Holmes. Star of Bethlehem. Strolling Players. Suffer Little Children ... For Such Is the Kingdom of Labor. Taking His Photograph. Temptation. Their Social Education. Then and Now. Three Kisses. Three Thanksgivings. ’Tis Now the Very Witching Time of Night. Tobacco Edict, Old New York, 1648. Tobacco Mania. True Love Never Runs Smoothly. Two of a Kind. Unappreciated Genius. Uncle Tom Wins. Under Northern Skies. Unsuccessful Substitution. Up the Ladder with Tom Bowline. Uplifting of Mr. Barker. Wallace Jewels. Web of Fate. What the Cards Foretold. Where Is My Wandering Boy Tonight? Whitler’s Witless Wandering. Whole World Kin. Who’s Who.
- 76. Why Girls Leave Home. Wife’s Ordeal. Winter’s Tale. Wonderful Electro-Magnet. Wood-Chopper’s Child. Worm Will Turn. Wright Brothers’ Aeroplane. 1910. Accidents Will Happen. Adoption. Alice’s Adventures in Wonderland. All on Account of a Laundry. Almost a Hero. Amateur Night. Arms and the Woman. Ashes. Attack on the Mill. Bad Man from Riley’s Gulch. Bear Hunt in the Rockies. Bellringer’s Daughter. Big Scoop. Bottles’ Baby. Boy Scouts of America in Camp at Silver Bay, Lake George, N. Y. Bradford’s Claim. Breach of Discipline. Bumptious As a Fireman. Bumptious As an Aviator. Bumptious Plays Baseball. Bumptious Takes Up Automobiling. Captain’s Bride. Capture of the Burglar. Carminella. Carrie De Mar. Case of Identity. Central American Romance. Christmas Carol. Chuncho Indians of the Amazon River, Peru. Cigarette Maker of Seville. Coquette.
- 77. Cowpuncher’s Glove. Daughter of the Mines. Drowsy Dick, Officer No. 73. Eldora, the Fruit Girl. Eleventh Hour. Engineer’s Romance. Equal to the Emergency. Equine Hero. Family of Vegetarians. Farmer’s Daughter. Footlights on the Farm. For Her Sister’s Sake. Fortune’s Fool. Frankenstein. From the Arctics to the Tropics. From Tyranny to Liberty. Frontier Hero. Fruit Growing, Grand Valley, Colorado. Gallegher. Georgia Possum Hunt. Great Ball Game Between the East and West. Great Secret. Greater Love. Heart of the Rose. Her First Appearance. His First Valentine. His Just Deserts. His Mother’s Thanksgiving. His New Family. History Repeats Itself. House of the Seven Gables. House on the Hill. How Bumptious Papered the Parlor. How the Squire Was Captured. In the Nick of Time. Into the Jaws of Death. It Pays To Advertise. Japanese Peach Boy. Jar of Cranberry Sauce.
- 78. Joke They Played on Bumptious. Judgment of the Mighty Deep. Key of Life. King Cotton. Lady and the Burglar. Lassie’s Birthday. Lazy Farmer Brown. Life of a Salmon. Little Fiddler. Little Station Agent. Livingston Case. Lost and Regained. Love and Marriage in Posterland. Love and the Law. Love Drops. Luck of Roaring Camp. Man Under the Bed. Man Who Learned. Man with the Weak Heart. Michael Strogoff. ’Mid the Cannon’s Roar. Miner and Camille. Miniature. Mr. Bumptious on Birds. More Than His Duty. Moths and the Flame. Mountain Blizzard. Mountain Maid. Mule Driver and the Garrulous Mute. My Milliner’s Bill. New York of Today. Old Loves and the New. Old Silver Mine in Peru. Onoko’s Vow. Out of the Night. Over Mountain Passes. Panoramic Railway View from Front of Train. Pardners.
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