![Example Code
int x = 1, y = 2, z[10];
int *ip; // ip is a pointer to an int, so it can point to x, y, or an element of z
ip = &x; // ip now points at the location where x is stored
y = *ip; // set y equal to the value pointed to by ip, or y = x
*ip = 0; // now change the value that ip points to to 0, so now x = 0
// but notice that y is unchanged
ip = &z[0]; // now ip points at the first location in the array z
*ip = *ip + 1; // the value that ip points to (z[0]) is incremented
int x, *y, z, *q;
x = 3;
y = &x; // y points to x
printf("%dn", x); // outputs 3
printf("%dn", y); // outputs x’s address, will seem like a random number to us
printf("%dn", *y); // outputs what y points to, or x (3)
printf("%dn", *y+1); // outputs 4 (print out what y points to + 1)
printf("%dn", *(y+1)); // this outputs the item after x in memory – what is it?
z = *(&x); // z equals 3 (what &x points to, which is x)
q = &*y; // q points to 3 – note *& and &* cancel out](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/c-arrays-pointers-231215002552-0734b1c1/85/c-arrays-pointer-basics-xxxx-yyyy-zzzzzzz-3-320.jpg)
![Arrays and Pointers
• We declare an array using [ ] in our declaration following the variable name
– int x[5]; // unlike Java, we can’t do int[ ] x;
• You must include the size of the array in the [ ] when declaring unless you are
also initializing the array to its starting values as in:
– int x [ ] = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5};
– you can also include the size when initializing as long as the size is >= the
number of items being initialized (in which case the remaining array elements are
uninitialized)
• As in Java
– you access array elements just as in Java as in x[4]
– array indices start at 0
– arrays can be passed as parameters, the type being received would be denoted as
int x[ ]
• Arrays in C are interesting because they are pointed to
– the variable that you declare for the array is actually a pointer to the first array
element
• You can interact with the array elements either through pointers or by using [
]
• One of the intriguing features of pointers in C is the ability to manipulate the
pointers through pointer arithmetic – a pointer is an int value, so we can add
or subtract
– this will be used for stepping through arrays rather than using array indices](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/c-arrays-pointers-231215002552-0734b1c1/85/c-arrays-pointer-basics-xxxx-yyyy-zzzzzzz-4-320.jpg)
![Using Pointers with Arrays
• Recall in an earlier example, we did
ip = &z[0];
• This sets our pointer to point at the
first element of the array
– In fact, z is a pointer as well and
we can access z[0] either using
z[0], *ip, or *z
• What about accessing z[1]?
– We can do z[1] as usual, or we
can add 1 to the location pointed
to by ip or z, that is *(ip+1) or
*(z+1)
– While we can reset ip to be ip =
ip+1, we cannot reset z to be z =
z+1
– adding 1 to ip will point to z[1],
but if z = z + 1 were legal, we
would lose access to the first
array location since z is our
array variable
• Notice that ip=ip+1 (or ip++)
moves the pointer 4 bytes
instead of 1 to point at the next
array location
– The amounted added to the pointer
is based on the size of the array
element
• 8 for an array of doubles
• 1 for an array of chars (strings)
• 4 for an array of ints
• We can declare our arrays using
pointers instead of [ ]
– notably, we might do this for our
formal parameters as this better
describes what we are dealing with)
– for instance, function1(int *array)
rather than function1(int[ ] array)
– We wouldn’t normally do this to
declare our arrays as the array’s
pointer exists but not the array
itself](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/c-arrays-pointers-231215002552-0734b1c1/85/c-arrays-pointer-basics-xxxx-yyyy-zzzzzzz-5-320.jpg)
![Iterating Through the Array
• Here we see two ways to iterate through an array, the usual way,
but also a method using pointer arithmetic
• Let’s consider the code on the right:
– pj is a pointer to an int
– We start with pj pointing at a, that is, pj points to a[0]
– The loop iterates while pj < a + n
• pj is a pointer, so it is an address
• a is a pointer to the beginning of an array of n elements so a + n is the size of the
array
• pj++ increments the pointer to point at the next element in the array
• The instruction (*pj)++ says “take what pj points to and increment it”
– NOTE: (*pj)++; increments what pj points to, *(pj++); increments the
pointer to point at the next array element
• what do each of these do? *pj++; ++*pj;
int j;
for(j = 0; j < n; j++)
a[j]++;
int *pj;
for(pj = a; pj < a + n; pj++)
(*pj)++;](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/c-arrays-pointers-231215002552-0734b1c1/85/c-arrays-pointer-basics-xxxx-yyyy-zzzzzzz-6-320.jpg)
![Array Example Using a Pointer
int x[4] = {12, 20, 39, 43}, *y;
y = &x[0]; // y points to the beginning of the array
printf("%dn", x[0]); // outputs 12
printf("%dn", *y); // also outputs 12
printf("%dn", *y+1); // outputs 13 (12 + 1)
printf("%dn", (*y)+1); // also outputs 13
printf("%dn", *(y+1)); // outputs x[1] or 20
y+=2; // y now points to x[2]
printf("%dn", *y); // prints out 39
*y = 38; // changes x[2] to 38
printf("%dn", *y-1); // prints out x[2] - 1 or 37
*y++; // sets y to point at the next array element
printf("%dn", *y); // outputs x[3] (43)
(*y)++; // sets what y points to to be 1 greater
printf("%dn", *y); // outputs the new value of x[3] (44)](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/c-arrays-pointers-231215002552-0734b1c1/85/c-arrays-pointer-basics-xxxx-yyyy-zzzzzzz-7-320.jpg)
![Strings
• There is no string type, we implement strings as arrays of chars
– char str[10]; // str is an array of 10 chars or a string
– char *str; // str points to the beginning of a string of unspecified
length
• There is a string.h library with numerous string functions
– they all operate on arrays of chars and include:
• strcpy(s1, s2) – copies s2 into s1 (including ‘0’ as last char)
• strncpy(s1, s2, n) – same but only copies up to n chars of s2
• strcmp(s1, s2) – returns a negative int if s1 < s2, 0 if s1 = = s2 and a positive
int if s1 > s2
• strncmp(s1, s2, n) – same but only compares up to n chars
• strcat(s1, s2) – concatenates s2 onto s1 (this changes s1, but not s2)
• strncat(s1, s2, n) – same but only concatenates up to n chars
• strlen(s1) – returns the integer length of s1
• strchr(s1, ch) – return a pointer to the first occurrence of ch in s1 (or NULL if
ch is not present)
• strrchr(s1, ch) – same but the pointer points to the last occurrence of ch
• strpbrk(s1, s2) – return a pointer to the first occurrence of any character in s1
that matches a character in s2 (or NULL if none are present)
• strstr(s1, s2) – substring, return a pointer to the char in s1 that starts a substring
that matches s2, or NULL if the substring is not present](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/c-arrays-pointers-231215002552-0734b1c1/85/c-arrays-pointer-basics-xxxx-yyyy-zzzzzzz-8-320.jpg)
![Implementing Some of These
int strlen(char *s)
{
int n;
for(n = 0; *s != ‘0’; s++)
n++;
return n;
}
void strcpy(char *s, char *t)
{
while((*s = *t) != ‘0’)
{
s++; t++;
}
}
void strcpy(char *s, char *t)
{
while((*s++ = *t++) != ‘0’);
}
void strcpy(char *s, char *t)
{
int i = 0;
while((s[i] = t[i]) != ‘0’)
i++;
}
int strcmp(char *s, char *t)
{
int i;
for(i=0;s[i] = = t[i];i++)
if(s[i] = = ‘0’)
return 0;
return s[i] – t[i];
}
Notice in the second
strcmp and second
and third strcpy the
use of pointers to iterate
through the strings
The conciseness of the last strcmp and strcpy make them
hard to understand
int strcmp(char *s, char *t)
{
for( ; *s = = *t; s++, t++)
if(*s = = ‘0’) return 0;
return *s - *t;
}](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/c-arrays-pointers-231215002552-0734b1c1/85/c-arrays-pointer-basics-xxxx-yyyy-zzzzzzz-9-320.jpg)
![More On Pointer Arithmetic
• We can also perform subtraction on pointers
• Here, we pass to a function the address of the third
element of an array (&a[2]) and use pointer subtraction to
get to a[0] and a[1])
int a[10] = {…};
int *ip;
for(ip = &a[9]; ip >= a; ip--)
…
int a[3] = {…};
printf(“%d”, addem(&a[2]));
int addem(int *ip)
{
int temp;
temp = *ip + *(ip – 1) + *(ip – 2);
return temp;
}
Recall:
a[0] = *a and
a[i] = *(a + i)
If a is an array, and p = &a[0] then we can reference array
elements as a[i], *(p+i), but we can also reference them as
p[i] and *(a+i) – that is, a and p are both pointers to the array
And can be dereferenced by * or by [ ]](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/c-arrays-pointers-231215002552-0734b1c1/85/c-arrays-pointer-basics-xxxx-yyyy-zzzzzzz-10-320.jpg)
![Multidimensional Arrays
• As in Java, C allows multidimensional arrays by using more [ ]
– Example: int matrix[5][10];
• Some differences:
– Because functions can be compiled separately, we must denote all but one
dimension of a multiple dimensional array in a function’s parameter list
• void afunction(int amatrix[ ][10]);
– Because arrays are referenced through pointers, there are multiple ways to
declare and access 2+ dimensional arrays
• This will be more relevant when dealing with an array of strings (which is a 2-D
array)
int a[10][20];
int *a[10];
int **a;
*a[4] –first element of 5th array element
*a[9] –first element of 10th array element
**a –first element of a[0]
int *a[3]; // array of 3 pointers
int x[2] = {1, 2};
int y[3] = {3, 4, 5};
int z[4] = {6, 7, 8, 9};
*a = &x[0]; // a[0] points to x[0]
*(a+1) = &y[0]; // a[1] points to y[0]
*(a+2) = &z[0]; // a[2] points to z[0]
// array a is a jagged array, it is not
// rectangular, or of equal dimensions](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/c-arrays-pointers-231215002552-0734b1c1/85/c-arrays-pointer-basics-xxxx-yyyy-zzzzzzz-11-320.jpg)
![Arrays of Strings Implementation
• We could implement an array of strings as a 2-D array of chars
– char array[10][10];
• This has two disadvantages
– All strings will be 10 chars long
– Requires 2 nested for-loops for most operations such as string comparison
or string copying, which can become complicated
• Instead, we will implement our array of strings as an array of
pointers
– char *array[10];
• Each pointer points to one string
– Follow the string through the pointer
– Go to the next string using a for-loop
– Because strcpy, strcmp, strlen all expect pointers, we can use these by
passing an array element (since each array element is a pointer to a string)](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/c-arrays-pointers-231215002552-0734b1c1/85/c-arrays-pointer-basics-xxxx-yyyy-zzzzzzz-13-320.jpg)
![Example
• Notice that if we had used char x[ ][ ] = {…}; then the storage
space would have been 4 strings of length 23 (the length of the
longest string) or 92 bytes instead of 42 bytes as it is above
char *x[ ] = {"hello", "goodbye", "so long", "thanks for all the fish"};
// our array of strings x is a set of 4 pointers
char *y; // let y be a pointer to a char so it can be used to move through a single string
int i;
for(i=0;i<4;i++) // iterate for each string in x
{
y = x[i]; // x[i] is an array, x is really a pointer, so this sets y to x’s starting addr.
while(*y!='0') // while the thing y points to is not the end of a string
{
printf("%c", *y); // print what y points to
y++; // and go on to the next char in x
}
printf("n"); // separate strings in output with n
}](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/c-arrays-pointers-231215002552-0734b1c1/85/c-arrays-pointer-basics-xxxx-yyyy-zzzzzzz-14-320.jpg)
![Passing Arrays
• When an array is passed to
a function, what is being
passed is a pointer to the
array
– In the formal parameter list,
you can either specify the
parameter as an array or a
pointer
• Because you can compile
functions separately, the
compiler must be able to
“know” about an array being
passed in to a function, so you
must specify all (or most) of
the definition:
– The type and all dimensions
except for the first
int array[100];
…
afunction(array);
…
void afunction(int *a) {…}
or
void afunction(int a[ ]) {…}
int array[5][10][15];
…
afunction(array);
…
void afunction(int a[ ][10][15]) {…} or
void afunction(int *a[10][15]) {…} or
void afunction(int a[5][10][15]) {…} or
void afunction(int **a[15]) {…} etc](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/c-arrays-pointers-231215002552-0734b1c1/85/c-arrays-pointer-basics-xxxx-yyyy-zzzzzzz-15-320.jpg)
c-arrays-pointer basics xxxx yyyy zzzzzzz
- 1. C Arrays and Pointers • In Java, pointers are easy to deal with – In fact, there is little that can go wrong in Java since pointer access is done for you • the only exception is in passing an object to a method without knowing if the method will change the object or not (for instance, Strings cannot be changed in a method like concat) • In C, pointers are more challenging – You will need to know • when to use a pointer • when to dereference the pointer • when to pass an address of a variable rather than the variable itself • when to use pointer arithmetic to change the pointer • how to use pointers without making your programs unreadable – Basically, you have to learn how to not “shoot yourself in the foot” with pointers
- 2. The Basics • A pointer is merely an address of where a datum or structure is stored – all pointers are typed based on the type of entity that they point to – to declare a pointer, use * preceding the variable name as in int *x; • To set a pointer to a variable’s address use & before the variable as in x = &y; – & means “return the memory address of” – in this example, x will now point to y, that is, x stores y’s address • If you access x, you merely get the address • To get the value that x points to, use * as in *x – *x = *x + 1; will add 1 to y • * is known as the indirection (or dereferencing) operator because it requires a second access – that is, this is a form of indirect addressing
- 3. Example Code int x = 1, y = 2, z[10]; int *ip; // ip is a pointer to an int, so it can point to x, y, or an element of z ip = &x; // ip now points at the location where x is stored y = *ip; // set y equal to the value pointed to by ip, or y = x *ip = 0; // now change the value that ip points to to 0, so now x = 0 // but notice that y is unchanged ip = &z[0]; // now ip points at the first location in the array z *ip = *ip + 1; // the value that ip points to (z[0]) is incremented int x, *y, z, *q; x = 3; y = &x; // y points to x printf("%dn", x); // outputs 3 printf("%dn", y); // outputs x’s address, will seem like a random number to us printf("%dn", *y); // outputs what y points to, or x (3) printf("%dn", *y+1); // outputs 4 (print out what y points to + 1) printf("%dn", *(y+1)); // this outputs the item after x in memory – what is it? z = *(&x); // z equals 3 (what &x points to, which is x) q = &*y; // q points to 3 – note *& and &* cancel out
- 4. Arrays and Pointers • We declare an array using [ ] in our declaration following the variable name – int x[5]; // unlike Java, we can’t do int[ ] x; • You must include the size of the array in the [ ] when declaring unless you are also initializing the array to its starting values as in: – int x [ ] = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5}; – you can also include the size when initializing as long as the size is >= the number of items being initialized (in which case the remaining array elements are uninitialized) • As in Java – you access array elements just as in Java as in x[4] – array indices start at 0 – arrays can be passed as parameters, the type being received would be denoted as int x[ ] • Arrays in C are interesting because they are pointed to – the variable that you declare for the array is actually a pointer to the first array element • You can interact with the array elements either through pointers or by using [ ] • One of the intriguing features of pointers in C is the ability to manipulate the pointers through pointer arithmetic – a pointer is an int value, so we can add or subtract – this will be used for stepping through arrays rather than using array indices
- 5. Using Pointers with Arrays • Recall in an earlier example, we did ip = &z[0]; • This sets our pointer to point at the first element of the array – In fact, z is a pointer as well and we can access z[0] either using z[0], *ip, or *z • What about accessing z[1]? – We can do z[1] as usual, or we can add 1 to the location pointed to by ip or z, that is *(ip+1) or *(z+1) – While we can reset ip to be ip = ip+1, we cannot reset z to be z = z+1 – adding 1 to ip will point to z[1], but if z = z + 1 were legal, we would lose access to the first array location since z is our array variable • Notice that ip=ip+1 (or ip++) moves the pointer 4 bytes instead of 1 to point at the next array location – The amounted added to the pointer is based on the size of the array element • 8 for an array of doubles • 1 for an array of chars (strings) • 4 for an array of ints • We can declare our arrays using pointers instead of [ ] – notably, we might do this for our formal parameters as this better describes what we are dealing with) – for instance, function1(int *array) rather than function1(int[ ] array) – We wouldn’t normally do this to declare our arrays as the array’s pointer exists but not the array itself
- 6. Iterating Through the Array • Here we see two ways to iterate through an array, the usual way, but also a method using pointer arithmetic • Let’s consider the code on the right: – pj is a pointer to an int – We start with pj pointing at a, that is, pj points to a[0] – The loop iterates while pj < a + n • pj is a pointer, so it is an address • a is a pointer to the beginning of an array of n elements so a + n is the size of the array • pj++ increments the pointer to point at the next element in the array • The instruction (*pj)++ says “take what pj points to and increment it” – NOTE: (*pj)++; increments what pj points to, *(pj++); increments the pointer to point at the next array element • what do each of these do? *pj++; ++*pj; int j; for(j = 0; j < n; j++) a[j]++; int *pj; for(pj = a; pj < a + n; pj++) (*pj)++;
- 7. Array Example Using a Pointer int x[4] = {12, 20, 39, 43}, *y; y = &x[0]; // y points to the beginning of the array printf("%dn", x[0]); // outputs 12 printf("%dn", *y); // also outputs 12 printf("%dn", *y+1); // outputs 13 (12 + 1) printf("%dn", (*y)+1); // also outputs 13 printf("%dn", *(y+1)); // outputs x[1] or 20 y+=2; // y now points to x[2] printf("%dn", *y); // prints out 39 *y = 38; // changes x[2] to 38 printf("%dn", *y-1); // prints out x[2] - 1 or 37 *y++; // sets y to point at the next array element printf("%dn", *y); // outputs x[3] (43) (*y)++; // sets what y points to to be 1 greater printf("%dn", *y); // outputs the new value of x[3] (44)
- 8. Strings • There is no string type, we implement strings as arrays of chars – char str[10]; // str is an array of 10 chars or a string – char *str; // str points to the beginning of a string of unspecified length • There is a string.h library with numerous string functions – they all operate on arrays of chars and include: • strcpy(s1, s2) – copies s2 into s1 (including ‘0’ as last char) • strncpy(s1, s2, n) – same but only copies up to n chars of s2 • strcmp(s1, s2) – returns a negative int if s1 < s2, 0 if s1 = = s2 and a positive int if s1 > s2 • strncmp(s1, s2, n) – same but only compares up to n chars • strcat(s1, s2) – concatenates s2 onto s1 (this changes s1, but not s2) • strncat(s1, s2, n) – same but only concatenates up to n chars • strlen(s1) – returns the integer length of s1 • strchr(s1, ch) – return a pointer to the first occurrence of ch in s1 (or NULL if ch is not present) • strrchr(s1, ch) – same but the pointer points to the last occurrence of ch • strpbrk(s1, s2) – return a pointer to the first occurrence of any character in s1 that matches a character in s2 (or NULL if none are present) • strstr(s1, s2) – substring, return a pointer to the char in s1 that starts a substring that matches s2, or NULL if the substring is not present
- 9. Implementing Some of These int strlen(char *s) { int n; for(n = 0; *s != ‘0’; s++) n++; return n; } void strcpy(char *s, char *t) { while((*s = *t) != ‘0’) { s++; t++; } } void strcpy(char *s, char *t) { while((*s++ = *t++) != ‘0’); } void strcpy(char *s, char *t) { int i = 0; while((s[i] = t[i]) != ‘0’) i++; } int strcmp(char *s, char *t) { int i; for(i=0;s[i] = = t[i];i++) if(s[i] = = ‘0’) return 0; return s[i] – t[i]; } Notice in the second strcmp and second and third strcpy the use of pointers to iterate through the strings The conciseness of the last strcmp and strcpy make them hard to understand int strcmp(char *s, char *t) { for( ; *s = = *t; s++, t++) if(*s = = ‘0’) return 0; return *s - *t; }
- 10. More On Pointer Arithmetic • We can also perform subtraction on pointers • Here, we pass to a function the address of the third element of an array (&a[2]) and use pointer subtraction to get to a[0] and a[1]) int a[10] = {…}; int *ip; for(ip = &a[9]; ip >= a; ip--) … int a[3] = {…}; printf(“%d”, addem(&a[2])); int addem(int *ip) { int temp; temp = *ip + *(ip – 1) + *(ip – 2); return temp; } Recall: a[0] = *a and a[i] = *(a + i) If a is an array, and p = &a[0] then we can reference array elements as a[i], *(p+i), but we can also reference them as p[i] and *(a+i) – that is, a and p are both pointers to the array And can be dereferenced by * or by [ ]
- 11. Multidimensional Arrays • As in Java, C allows multidimensional arrays by using more [ ] – Example: int matrix[5][10]; • Some differences: – Because functions can be compiled separately, we must denote all but one dimension of a multiple dimensional array in a function’s parameter list • void afunction(int amatrix[ ][10]); – Because arrays are referenced through pointers, there are multiple ways to declare and access 2+ dimensional arrays • This will be more relevant when dealing with an array of strings (which is a 2-D array) int a[10][20]; int *a[10]; int **a; *a[4] –first element of 5th array element *a[9] –first element of 10th array element **a –first element of a[0] int *a[3]; // array of 3 pointers int x[2] = {1, 2}; int y[3] = {3, 4, 5}; int z[4] = {6, 7, 8, 9}; *a = &x[0]; // a[0] points to x[0] *(a+1) = &y[0]; // a[1] points to y[0] *(a+2) = &z[0]; // a[2] points to z[0] // array a is a jagged array, it is not // rectangular, or of equal dimensions
- 12. Pointers to Pointers • As indicated in the last slide, we can have an array of arrays which is really an array of pointers or pointers to pointers – We may wish to use pointers to pointers outside of arrays as well, although it is more common that pointers to pointers represent array of pointers – Consider the following: int a; int *p; int **q; a = 10; p = &a; q = &p; printf(“%d”, **q); // outputs 10 We dereference our pointer p with *p but we dereference our pointer to a pointer q with **q *q is actually p, so **q is a
- 13. Arrays of Strings Implementation • We could implement an array of strings as a 2-D array of chars – char array[10][10]; • This has two disadvantages – All strings will be 10 chars long – Requires 2 nested for-loops for most operations such as string comparison or string copying, which can become complicated • Instead, we will implement our array of strings as an array of pointers – char *array[10]; • Each pointer points to one string – Follow the string through the pointer – Go to the next string using a for-loop – Because strcpy, strcmp, strlen all expect pointers, we can use these by passing an array element (since each array element is a pointer to a string)
- 14. Example • Notice that if we had used char x[ ][ ] = {…}; then the storage space would have been 4 strings of length 23 (the length of the longest string) or 92 bytes instead of 42 bytes as it is above char *x[ ] = {"hello", "goodbye", "so long", "thanks for all the fish"}; // our array of strings x is a set of 4 pointers char *y; // let y be a pointer to a char so it can be used to move through a single string int i; for(i=0;i<4;i++) // iterate for each string in x { y = x[i]; // x[i] is an array, x is really a pointer, so this sets y to x’s starting addr. while(*y!='0') // while the thing y points to is not the end of a string { printf("%c", *y); // print what y points to y++; // and go on to the next char in x } printf("n"); // separate strings in output with n }
- 15. Passing Arrays • When an array is passed to a function, what is being passed is a pointer to the array – In the formal parameter list, you can either specify the parameter as an array or a pointer • Because you can compile functions separately, the compiler must be able to “know” about an array being passed in to a function, so you must specify all (or most) of the definition: – The type and all dimensions except for the first int array[100]; … afunction(array); … void afunction(int *a) {…} or void afunction(int a[ ]) {…} int array[5][10][15]; … afunction(array); … void afunction(int a[ ][10][15]) {…} or void afunction(int *a[10][15]) {…} or void afunction(int a[5][10][15]) {…} or void afunction(int **a[15]) {…} etc
- 16. Some Additional Comments • In functions, do not do return p; where p is a pointer – Recall local variables are deallocated when the function ends • so whatever p is pointing to will no longer be available • but if you return the pointer, then you still are pointing at that memory location even though you no longer know what is there • We can declare a pointer to point to a void type, which means that the pointer can point to any type – However, this does require a cast before the pointer can be assigned • int x; float y; void *p; // p can point to either x or y • p = (int *) &x; // p can point to int x once the address is cast • p = (float *) &y; // or p can point to float y • Pointers that don’t currently point to anything have the special value NULL and can be tested as (p = = NULL) or (!p), and (p != NULL) or (p)