Categories for data collection methods
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This document provides information on various qualitative data collection methods, with a focus on observation and interview techniques. It discusses three broad categories of data collection: indirect observation, direct observation, and elicitation. For observation, it describes different types of observers and challenges of observation. It emphasizes the importance of practicing observational skills. For interviews, it outlines types of interviews, issues to consider, and describes the in-depth interview process from planning to conducting the interview. Key functions of communication in interviews are also summarized.
Categories for data collection methods
- 1. CATEGORIES FOR DATA COLLECTION METHODS • There are three broad categories of methods for collecting data about human thought andhumanbehavior (Bernard & Ryan, 2010) • Indirect Observation • Direct ObservationTechniquesfor Producing Qualitative Data • Indirect Observations • Direct Observations • Continuous Observation • Spot Observation • ElicitationTechniques • Unstructured • Semistructured • Structured • Mixed • Mixed Methods • • ElicitationTechniques • Mixed Methods which is based onthe first three. INDIRECT OBSERVATIONS • Studyingtraces ofhumanbehavior andthought. It is everywhere. • Analyzing archival data. • Secondarydata. TRACES OR REMAINS • Traces ofhumanthought or remains is everywhere. – MaterialObjects (pots, statues, buildings, steel mills) – Texts (diaries, speeches, interviews, lyrics) – Still Images(paintings, graffiti, magazine ads, photographs) – Moving Images (tapesof oldradioshows, home videos offamilyevents, newsreels, television ads) ARCHIVAL DATA • Researchwitharchival data is inexpensive and nonreactive – Court proceedings – Hospital visits – Credit card purchases • People can’t change their behavior after the fact. • Archives of qualitative data canbe examined again and again to answer different researchquestions SECONDARY DATA • Secondarydata consists ofcollecting data that were used for other research projects • A corpora of qualitative data are available for secondaryanalysis • Largest archive ofethnographic data inthe worldis the HumanRelations Area File (HRAF). The archive has grownto a millio npages of text extractedfrom nearly7000 books andarticles on7000 societies. • Types of Interviews • Unstructured • Informal or Casual
- 2. • Ethnographic • Semistructured • Structured • Surveys and Questionnaires • Close-Ended • Open-Ended • DomainElicitation • Free Lists, Pile Sorts, TriadTests etc • Mixed Strategies ELICITING CULTURAL DOMAINS • Cultural domains comprise a list of words ina language that somehow belong together i.e. names ofracialandethnic groups e tc • Cultural domains are typicallyhierarchical. • Some culturaldomains comprised fixedlists • Some culturaldomains are the province of experts i.e. tools ofa carpenter or list of muscles/bonesinhumanleg OBSERVATIONS • Is the most basic andsingle trickiest skill for qualitative researchers to master (Shank, 2002) • We as human beings are programmedto observe • But though it sounds easy, observation as part of researchis one of the trickiest skillfor qualitative researchers to master THE CHALLENGE OF OBSERVATION • The older we get the more accustomed we are to tuning out ‘details’ from our perception. • Observation is usuallyintense andis verytaxing. • When we bringour focus to bear—we tend to forget the settings surrounding our focus. Paying careful attention to detail is a skill not a talent. And as qualitative researchers, we needto build explicit awareness that it becomes a part of us (Bernard & Ryan, 2010) TYPES OF OBSERVERS TYPES THE POSITIVE THE NEGATIVE Embracer-Seeks to take inas muchdetailas is humanlypossible. Nothing is toounimportant. Dazzling inthe richness and texture of its data Always fall short of recreatingthe experience and somehow misses the focus in representation Photographer-Overwhelminglyvisual. Observation is looking. Findings from other sensorymodels maybe dulynoted but it is groundedinthe visual. Visual information is incrediblyuseful and important Focusing onthe visualarraycauses us to miss crucial informationunfolding via other sensorymodalities Tape Recorder-Drawnto sound andsound patterns. Drawnmost deeplyto humanspeech and conversation. Speechis criticalfor most human interactions Speechis too often overrated as a source of information—howwas somethingsaid, what are the facial expressions ofthe speaker, mannerisms etc TYPES THE POSITIVE THE NEGATIVE Categorizer:Is anobserver whocreates sorting categoriesandassigns observations to them as a basic andongoingpart of the observational process Process of observingbecomes an active and evolving process ofunderstanding. If we are particularlyskilled categorizers, then we alsoenrich and expandour observational processes Tend to alloworganizational structure to swayobserving insteadof vice versa. It is difficult to modifyor abandon categoricalscheme. Abstracter:There is anabstract level of description. Overallconceptual links become more important thanspecific sensory information Abstracter reports are the easiest to coordinate directly andallow for easy integrationintoother forms of theoretical thinking. More likelyto see complex patterns inobservationaldata Abstracters can actuallydiscardcrucial informationthat is not easilytranslatedinto abstract form. Further, forcing canbecome an issue. The Reflecter:Tends to seeobservationat least in part as anexercise inself-discovery, andso constantlymonitors the impact of observation on him/herself. The reflector stance is humane ofall other observational processes. When we readthroughhis work, we can almost see throughthat person’s eyes. Theyusuallyfocus andreflect on things that are universal to others Reflector stance canbe prone to narcissm. The process can become one of self-absorption rather thangrowth GROUNDINGOBSERVATIONAL SKILLS
- 3. Adler andAdler (1994) summarizeskeypoints that impacts the practice of observationinqualitative research • Subordination • Selection issues • Focus issues • Saturation SUBORDINATION • Observation is oftenviewed as subordinate to other aspects of research. At best, observationis most often seenas part of the process, or as a means to a larger and more complex methodological end. • Gold (1958) lays out a four stage continuum – The complete observer – Observer as participant—Joining into observe – Participant as observer—joining andobserving – Complete participant SELECTION ISSUES • Where to do your observing?Site of observation(Permission, Safety, Richness of data, Impact ofobserver onobservees) • Whom are youobserving?Going from maximum variation to homogeneity; – Theoretical Strategies:Observingbecause of level ofcontribution (purposive/theoretical) – Logistical strategies:Because ofthe trickiness of the setting, you are willingto take what you canget i.e. convenience, opportunistic, andsnowballing FOCUS ISSUES • What sort ofthings dowe concentrate on whenwe observe? Spradley (1980) arguedthat we should beginwith descriptionandthen shiftingto more focusedmatters. • Spradley(1980) arguedto use the grandtour observation strategy(p. 78) consistingof nine elements:Space, Actor, Activity, Object, Act, Event, Time, Goal, Feelings. • Spradleyargued(correctly) that as you move fromdescriptions to focused matters, youare shifting fromdescriptions to stru ctures that can initiallybeginto answer the whyquestions. • Space:What doesthe physical settinglooks like? Is this a commonunique type of setting? How might the setting restrict certainpossible activitiesandinteractions? How might it encourage others. • Actor:Who are the people involved?Whyare theyinvolved?Is there presence usualor unusual?Are theyrelatedin fashion to other people present. • Activity:What are people doing? How are these activities related to each other? Are theyexpected or unexpected? Are theyeasyor skilled activities? • Object:What are the physicalprops in this particular setting? What roles dotheyplay? Howwouldthe settingchange ifthese objects were missing? • Act: An act is a single event performedbya participant. How commonis it?Is it related to other’s acts? Are other people d oing the same or similar acts? • Event:An event is a set of related activities that people carryout. How dowe know whenacts come together to make events? Which events are most common? Which events seem to be most important? Is it coordinated? • Time:What kinds of sequencing can be observed?Are these sequences cyclical or unique? Are theyapparent or subtle? How are they linked to the physicalnature ofthe setting?To the motives ofthe participants? • Goal:What sorts ofthings are the participants tryingto accomplish?Howare these goals present in the setting and the actions? Are they steadyor do theychange? • Feelings:What sorts of emotions are being expressed bythe participants?How canyou be sure? What sorts offeelings does th issetting bring out inyou? SATURATION • Saturationis the point whenyou are in the setting long enoughthat your findings become repetitious i.e. youare findings thing already found. • Saturationis a restatement of the lawof diminishing return.
- 4. MASTERING OBSERVATIONAL SKILLS • Build onyour observationalstrengths • Reflect onkeyissues • Focus onthe big picture • Keep a record:Separate your fieldnotesandyour theoretical memos i.e. insights/interpretations • Observation is masteredthroughpractice. INTERVIEWS • At the endof the day, interviews are conversations. • Conversations are one of the primaryways that we gaininformation. • The dynamics ofconversationare muchricher thanjust sending and receivingof information • To understandinterviews, we needto see it through the lens of communicationtheorists. • One of the most complete modelsto describe communicationis Jakobson’s (1976) model. TERMS FOR INTERVIEWEES • Traditional experimentalresearch, the person beingstudiedis usuallycalled the Subject. • In anthropologyterms, the personis calledthe informant. • In ethnography, the personis called the participant • Feminists tend to use the term, co-researcher • Rubin& Rubin(2005) uses interviewees, informants, and conversational partners. JACOBSEN BASICMODEL FUNCTIONS OF VERBAL COMMUNICATION • Jacobson (1976) fromhis basic structure argued six functions of anyact ofverbalcommunication:referential, emotive, conative, metalingual, poetic, andphatic. • These six functions have a role to playin the interviewand understanding them would allow youto evaluate howwell or poorlyyou have done in aninterview. REFERENTIAL FUNCTION • When messages pass from the sender to receiver, we analyze the information interms ofwhat we alreadyknowabout the world • The role of RF inthe interview process centers onthe flowandevaluation ofthe information. • Is the message beingconveyedtrue or not? • An interviewee can lie in twoways:deliberatelyand unintentionally. • Knowingwhenaninterviewee liesandwhether it is deliberate or not is a skillthat comeswi thpractice. – DO NOT CHALLENGE YOUR INTERVIEWEE EMOTIVE FUNCTION • The message has animpact onus over andbeyond the information theypossess. • The role of EF in the interviewprocessoftencenters on our abilityto process all the nonverbal information that the interviewee sends along withhis or her message. – Tone of voice, passionate, confident, uncertain
- 5. • Interviewtapes maypreserve tones but noauditoryrecord cancapture paratactic sources ofinformation. Paratactic informationusually involves such things as posture, distance betweenyou andthe interviewee, andbodylanguage CONATIVE FUNCTION • Messages have a persuasive function. Persuasion is most clearlyseeninthose cases where words bythe sender lead to actions onthe part of the receiver • The role of the CF inthe interview process centers around the impact of the interviewon the researcher • The interviewee wants the interview process to be easyfor the researcher andwill onlytell youwhat youneed to hear. • Strive to steer interviewee from trying to please you toward informing you. METALINGUAL FUNCTION • The metalingualprocessinvolves building a joint awareness ofallcodes involved, what theymean, and how theyare used. • The role of the metalingual function inthe interviewprocess centers around the evolutionof understandingthat goeson in aninterview process. • In a real sense, it is oftena matter of speakingthe same language. Inthe dialogue, it is important to buildup that understanding of the different “codes” that the interviewee communicates by. POETICFUNCTION • The PF functionis usedina technical sense and it means not just gettinggood informationbut alsoinformation told well. • By poetics, it means a close andcareful attentionto the form of the communicationact itself • The role of the PF inthe interview process centers around the waythe interviewee tells his or her story. • When people speak ofthings theyknow and understand quite well, theyoftenhave a natural eloquence…capturing that ‘voice’ is often an essential part of the research. PHATICFUNCTION • PF consists of those things that we do to signalto the receiver and thenbackto the sender that there is an openchannelbetweenus. • The role of the phatic functioninthe interview process centers around making sure the channel is as openas possible withinthe grounds of propriety. • Misunderstanding ofthe channel openness usuallykills aninterview. • Phatic process alsosignals when aninterview is winding down. SUMMARY OF FUNCTIONS FUNCTIONS ROLE IN INTERVIEW Referential Analyzing informationto determine whether it is true accordingto experience andlearning Emotive Abilityto process nonverbal information that the interviewee sends alonghis or her message-includesparatactic information Conative Messages plays a persuasive function. Thiscenters on the impact of the interviewprocesson the researcher. Metallingual Centers aroundthe evolutionof understanding that goes oninan interviewprocess Poetic The form inwhichinformationis conveyed and trying to capture the “voice” Phatic Abilityto keepthe channel is as open as possible within the grounds of propriety. Signal when aninterview is finishing. THREE TYPES OF INTERVIEWS • Structured Interview:Structured or standardized interviews are when the questions andformat for those questions are the same for each individual. • Semi-Structuredor Guided Interview:The interviewinvolves developinga general set of questions andformat that you will follow and use withallparticipants. The general structure is the same for eachparticipant but the interviewer canvarythe questions as the situation demands • UnstructuredInterviews or in-depthinterview andwill be explained later fully. ISSUES IN INTERVIEWS
- 6. • Identificationof Participants:Who are your participants?What qualifies someone to be a participant?Use ofpurposive, snow balling, or theoretical techniques. • Determining Number ofParticipants:The issue of sample size is not yet resolved inthe literature (Lichtmann, 2013). Sandelowski (1995) suggestedthat this is a matter of judgment. • Developing Rapport:Important to learnto developrapport in order to conduct aninterview that generates meaningful anduseful data. • Selecting a Setting:Most interviews you conduct will be ina mutuallyagreedlocation. It is obvious that the location shouldbe quiet a nd private. Even better if ifis inthe office/home of the participant • Qualityof the Interview:An interview shouldgo beyondthe superficial levels. To shift the interviews fromthe superficialto the deep comes withexperience and practice. IN-DEPTH INTERVIEWING • An in-depth intervieware a type of qualitative interviewing that is described bysome as a conversationbetweenthe interviewer and interviewee. • Its purpose is to hear what the participant has to sayinhisownwords, voice, and narrative. • In-depthinterviewingis a process not a predeterminedlist of questions. • The process builds in several stages and willbe discussedas follows THE INTERVIEWPROCESS • Planning • Beginningof the Interview • The bodyof the interview • The endof the interview • Post-interview tasks THE PLANNING PROCESS • Since this is not a structuredinterviews with a standardizedset of questions, you needto think about what youwill be doing prior to the actual interview. Here are some tips: – Identify3-8 topics that you want to make sure you will cover inaninterview. (Write themdown) – Use your knowledge and commonsense to generate specific areas – Identifydemographic areas that you will want to cover witheachparticipant (e.g. marital status, children, work, education level, favorite activityetc) – Think about questions that you willaskandhow you willphrase them. 3 KINDS OF QUESTIONS • Personal Questions: – Tell me a little about yourself – Wouldyou like to share something • Concrete Questions: – Tell me how it happened – Tell me about your boss reactionwhen… • Feeling Questions: – What is it like to be spanked bymommy? – How didyou react? These are not YES/NO questions. This are questions that engages participants. THE BEGINNING OF INTERVIEWS • It is criticalto give considerable thought to how youwill begin an interview. • The first fewminutesshouldbe usedto develop rapport • Your demeanor andtone will set the stage for what is to come
- 7. • Before youbeginthe interview, you must provide some preliminaryinformation: – Who you are andwhyyou are there – Purpose – What willyou dowiththe information – How will you treat the information – How longthe informationwilltake SOME OTHER TIPS • Obtainpermissionto conduct the interviews • Ask permissionto use a recording device • Ask for permissionto publish the informationat a later date • Developrapport byintroducing somethingpersonal or something that you can relate to • Make the personfeel comfortable. This canbe done throughlaughter, smiles, andnods • Ask people a little bit about themselves. (Theyusuallyask what? Usuallyanything you want to share.) BODY OF THE INTERVIEW • Use your guidelines (3-8 topic areas) to make the interview progress more smoothly. • Don’t tryto take complete notes;it is almost impossible. Take notes ofquestions or comments that you want to followup • Learn to listen!LEARN TO LISTEN!Listento the content of what is being said, of the wayit is said, andthe passion involved in what is being said. • Learn to probe after the participant but not interrupt while he is still speaking. Chances are, he will loose hiscurrent train ofthoughts. END OF THE INTERVIEW • As the endof the interviewapproaches, it is important to stayaware of time. • Choose a closing questionandusuallyit is, “doyou have anythingyou want to add that we have not talkedabout?” • Remember to thank the participant for their participation. POST INTERVIEW TASKS • As much as possible, do not have too manyinterviews at a single session. • Upon completion, take some time to get your materials inorder. • Mark the tapes, put your notes awayandrecord the lengthof the interview or stoptime. • Write downyour thoughts andreactions inyour journal after the interview is over. • Keep track ofthings at this point to smooththe wayfor the work that is to come. THOUGHTS ON IN-DEPTH INTERVIEWS • Conductingin-depthinterviews takes a considerable amount of planning andexperience. • The more it is used, the better you will get indoingit. • In-depthinterviews are veryrich data sources but are alsoquite time consumingandtaxing onthe interviewer. QUESTIONINGOPTIONS • Most beginners tend to focus on content questions and are more inclinedto developa list of questions that theythink theywant to ask. • Questioninginan interviewshouldbe a natural process. Thus it is important to consider how you goabout asking questions. • There are two ways to thinkabout questions: – What is the type of questions that you shouldask? – What questioning strategiesshould you employ? TYPES OF QUESTIONS • Grand tour • Concrete example
- 8. • Compare or contrast • New elements • Closing GRAND TOUR QUESTIONS • Spradley(1979) suggested this type ofquestion as a good wayto beginan interview. • It is a verygeneral questionandits purpose is to get the participants to start talkingat length • It is important to remember that youwant to capture the words andideasof the personyou are interviewing. This will be a rich source of data as you beginyour qualitative analysis. SPECIFICEXAMPLES • This type of questiongives the participant anopportunityto be concrete andspecific andprovide relevant information • A concrete example works well because it is personal andimmediate • It is important to ask for a specific storyrather thana general statement. • It is a rich source of data because it allows the researcher to understandthe rationale and how it is enactedinconcrete examples. EXAMPLES • Tell me something that happened that made you less inspired to work. • What happened at the workplace that contributedto your stress? • So tell me howyour husbandmade you happyon your anniversary. • So tell me some ofthe things that your bossdoesthat annoys you. COMPARISON/CONTRAST QUESTIONS • This type of questionchallenges participants to thinkabout other times, situations, places, events, or people and drawcomparisons betweenthem • Choose comparisons aare meaningful to the respondent;i t helps themput their current situationintoa meaningful framework. • Contrasts andcomparisons provide additional insight andserve to highlight what you are studying. NEW TOPICS/ELEMENTS • Shifting to a newtopic must be done ina verysubtle manner. • You might findthe participant stuck ona particular thing andkeeps repeating information. • This means that you need to shift gears inorder to unearth newinformation(not all qualitative researchers agree onthis) • Avoid leading the respondents to saywhat you want himto say. Use transitionstatements to move fromone area to another. CLOSING QUESTION • A closingquestion providesa chance for participant to addanythingelse that has not beenmentioned. EXAMPLES • Can you think of anything else you would like to sayabout workingina school? • Is there anything else you wouldlike to addto what you have alreadysaid? QUESTIONINGSTRATEGIES • Strategies for questioning are techniques that canbe usedto get the respondent to talk and revealwhat he or she thinks or believes about something. Here are a commonsix: – Elaboration – Probing – Neutral – Single Questioning – Wait Time – Special Areas ELABORATION
- 9. • Expand ideas – You’ve talkedabout being frustratedwiththe seminar. What else can yousayabout whyyou feelsofrustrated? – You’ve saidthat you feel so happyworkingwith children. What else can youtell me about children that makes youhappy? – You have talked about his leadershipstyle. What elsecanyou tellme about the new principal? PROBING • This strategyprovides the interviewer a chance to get the underlyingmeaningof what is said. Always follow upquestions to make sure you understandthe meaning. • You can echo probe byrepeating words that are said • You can do a silent probe byraisinganeyebrow • The “uh-huh” / “tell me more” probe for elaboration purposes • The “why” probe for meaning BAITING:PHASED- ASSERTIONPROBE • Journalists know this technique verywell andthisis whenyou act like you alreadyknowsomething to get people to openup. • As you learna bit more from one person, youuse it withthe next informant to get more information • The more you seem to know, the more people will feel comfortable around you. • Phasedassertions also prompts some people to jumpinandcorrect you if theythink youdon’t know enoughor you have got it allwrong. NEUTRALS • This strategyputs the interviewer in a neutral position, neither for nor against something—andit is somethingverytricky. • Avoid letting your nonverbal andverbal cues leadthe participant ina particular direction. • How you react hasaneffect on what the respondent says. • Ask questions ina nondirectional manner. SINGLE QUESTIONS • Ask one questionat a time. Stop andgive the participant a chance to respond. • Limit your questions to one idea at a time. WAIT TIME • After you aska question, be quiet andlet the participant thinkandthen talk. • Use nonverbal cues. Inan individual interview, youmight lookat your paper or fiddle with your recordingdevice to give th e participant a chance to formulate hisor her thoughts. • If you remain quiet, your participant willtalk. SPECIAL AREAS • Encourage the respondent to tell her storyinher ownwords. • Don’t assume that youknow what she means when she says something • Be aware of whento cut the respondent off andwhen not to cut the respondent off • This comes withpractice. QUESTIONINGSTRATEGIESTO AVOID • Leading questions:Setting respondents upto answer ina certain way. • Complex questions:Convoluted questions that the persondoesnot understand. • Double-barreledquestions:Asking two or more things inone question • Questions with jargonor technicallanguage: Involve the use of technical language or abstract concepts. • Excessive chatter. DEVELOPAN INTERVIEW GUIDE • This is a guide andnot a predeterminedlist of questions that you follow in a certainorder. Rather it is a rubric you canuse as you planto conduct aninterview.
- 10. • Biographical anddemographic informationabout the participant • Topics to be covered • Types of questions. IN SUMMAY:Dos • DevelopRapport • Use a recorder andhave a notepadto jot downnotes • Make eye contact • Ask open-endedquestions • Provide anatmosphere for respondents to tell their own storyin their own terms • Remainunobtrusive. • Phrase questions ina general andnondirective manner • Use probes • Get specific and detailedinformation IN SUMMARY:DON’Ts • Don’t dependonyour memory • Don’t answer questions for respondents • Don’t ask more than one questionat a time • Don’t ask leading questions • Don’t stopthe respondent ina middle of a conversation • Don’t allow the respondent to keep repeatinghimself. Move discussion. • Don’t act nervous • Don’t act uninterested • Don’t chatter FOCUS GROUP • Definition: An interview style for smallgroups ofunrelated individuals( 5 to 10) led in a group discussionabout their biographiesa nd life structures. • Used as standalone or as triangulation • Led bya moderator • It encourages participants to speakfreelyandcompletely • 1 to 2 hours-long Difference betweenFocus GroupandOther Types of Interviews Depth Interviews Focus Groups 30 min, 1 person 60-90 min, 5-10 people More detail More breadth Can be done byphone Requires a physical location Might get individualswhodon’t have time for focus groups Less individual attention, harder to coordinate, get participants
- 11. Better for sensitive subjects Better for exploration, brainstorming, finding workable solutions Doingmanyinterviews is repetitive Repetitionis cut out as focus groupis less likelyto repeat what others say Easyto listento one person Requires skilledmoderationto make sure all participate fairly/equally When Is Focus Group Appropriate? 1. General backgroundinformation about topic 2. Generating researchhypothesis 3. Stimulatingnew ideas 4. Diagnosing potential for problems 5. Learning about howparticipants talk about the phenomenon 6. Interpreting previouslyobtainedqualitative results Advantages of Focus Group • Highlyflexible(number of participants, cost, duration) • Informationfrom manypeople in 1 hour or so • New insights or concepts • Relatedbut unanticipatedtopics can be explored • No complex sampling strategies required Challenges ofFocus Groups • Affected bythe moderator’s skills • Limitednumber of questions • No time for well-detaileddata (70% of what could be obtainedfrom one-on-one interviews) • Onlygroup opinions matter • Dominant vs. shypersonalities Moderator’s Guide • Introductoryactivities • Basic rules • Q&A discussions • Special activities/exercises • Dealing withsensitive issues Characteristics ofGood Focus Group • Clearlydefinedobjective/problem • Group selection • Environment & rapport • Listening facilitator • Well-organizedandprepared moderator • Structure ineveryone’s contribution • Researchassistance (1 assistant for logistics)
- 12. • Systematic data analysis PRACTICAL RULES • Keep your topics few. There must be enoughtime to discuss eachtopics indepth. • Make sure you canidentifyparticipants later. One of the ways of doing this is asking themto saytheir names. • Make sure that eachparticipant hasa turnto answer eachquestion. • Make sure you consider lengthof time for focus groups. • Always ask for more participants thanyou need.