Cell structure
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The document summarizes transport of substances across cell membranes. There are three main types of transport: diffusion, facilitated diffusion, and active transport. Diffusion involves simple movement through membrane pores or lipid layers. Facilitated diffusion uses carrier proteins to aid movement against a concentration gradient. Active transport requires energy and carrier proteins to move substances against gradients, such as the sodium-potassium pump maintaining ion concentrations.
Cell structure
- 1. Transport of substances across Cell membrane
- 2. • The basic living unit of the body is the cell. Each organ is an aggregate of many different cells held together by intercellular supporting structures. Each type of cell is specially adapted to perform one or a few particular functions. For instance, the red blood cells, numbering 25 trillion in each human being, transport oxygen from the lungs to the tissues. Although the red cells are the most abundant of any single type of cell in the body, there are about 75 trillion additional cells of other types that perform functions different from those of the red cell. The entire body, then, contains about 100 trillion cells.
- 3. • Each of the 100 trillion cells in a human being is a living structure that can survive for months or many years, provided its surrounding fluids contain appropriate nutrients.
- 4. • A typical cell has two major parts are the nucleus and the cytoplasm. The nucleus is separated from the cytoplasm by a nuclear membrane, and the cytoplasm is separated from the surrounding fluids by a cell membrane, also called the plasma membrane. The different substances that make up the cell are collectively called protoplasm. Protoplasm is composed mainly of five basic substances: water, electrolytes, proteins, lipids, and carbohydrates.
- 5. • Water. The principal fluid medium of the cell is water, which is present in most cells, except for fat cells, in a concentration of 70 to 85 per cent. Many cellular chemicals are dissolved in the water. Others are suspended in the water as solid particulates. Chemical reactions take place among the dissolved chemicals or at the surfaces of the suspended particles or membranes. • Ions. The most important ions in the cell are potassium, magnesium, phosphate, sulfate, bicarbonate, and smaller quantities of sodium, chloride, and calcium.
- 6. • Most substances pass through the cell membrane by diffusion and active transport. • Diffusion involves simple movement through the membrane caused by the random motion of the molecules of the substance; substances move either through cell membrane pores or, in the case of lipid soluble substances, through the lipid matrix of the membrane.
- 8. • Diffusion through the cell membrane is divided into two subtypes called simple diffusion and facilitated diffusion. • Simple diffusion means that kinetic movement of molecules or ions occurs through a membrane opening or through intermolecular spaces without any interaction with carrier proteins in the membrane.
- 9. The rate of diffusion is determined by • the amount of substance available • the velocity of kinetic motion • the number and sizes of openings in the membrane through which the molecules or ions can move.
- 10. • Facilitated diffusion requires interaction of a carrier protein. The carrier protein aids passage of the molecules or ions through the membrane by binding chemically with them and shuttling them through the membrane in this form. Simple diffusion can occur through the cell membrane by two pathways: • (1) through the interstices of the lipid bilayer if the diffusing substance is lipid soluble, and • (2) through watery channels that penetrate all the way through some of the large transport proteins
- 11. Simple diffusion • Simple diffusion can occur through the cell membrane by two pathways: • (1) through the interstices of the lipid bilayer if the diffusing substance is lipid soluble, and • (2) through watery channels that penetrate all the way through some of the large transport proteins
- 12. • Diffusion of Lipid-Soluble Substances Through the Lipid Bilayer. • The lipid solubilities of oxygen, nitrogen, carbon dioxide, and alcohols are high, so that all these can dissolve directly in the lipid bilayer and diffuse through the cell membrane in the same manner that diffusion of water solutes occurs in a watery solution. • The rate of diffusion of each of these substances through the membrane is directly proportional to its lipid solubility.
- 13. • Diffusion of Water and Other Lipid-Insoluble Molecules Through Protein Channels. • Even though water is highly insoluble in the membrane lipids, it readily passes through channels in protein molecules that penetrate all the way through the membrane.
- 14. Diffusion Through Protein Channels, and “Gating” of These Channels • Computerized three-dimensional reconstructions of protein channels have demonstrated tubular pathways all the way from the extracellular to the intracellularfluid. Therefore, substances can move by simple diffusion directly along these channels from one side of the membrane to the other. The protein channels are distinguished by two important characteristics: • (1) they are often selectively permeable to certain substances, • (2) many of the channels can be opened • or closed by gates.
- 15. • Gating of Protein Channels. Gating of protein channels provides a means of controlling ion permeability of the channels. • The opening and closing of gates are controlled in two principal ways: 1. Voltage gating. In this instance, the molecular conformation of the gate or of its chemical bonds responds to the electrical potential across the cell membrane.
- 16. Selective Permeability of Protein Channels
- 17. • For instance, when there is a strong negative charge on the inside of the cell membrane, this could cause the outside sodium gates to remain tightly closed; conversely, when the inside of the membrane loses its negative charge, these gates would open suddenly and allow tremendous quantities of sodium to pass inward through the sodium pores. This is the basic mechanism for eliciting action potentials in nerves that are responsible for nerve signals.
- 18. • Chemical (ligand) gating. Some protein channel gates are opened by the binding of a chemical substance (a ligand) with the protein; this causes a conformational or chemical bonding change in the protein molecule that opens or closes the gate. This is called chemical gating or ligand gating. One of the most important instances of chemical gating is the effect of acetylcholine on the so-called acetylcholine channel. Acetylcholine opens the gate of this channel, providing a negatively charged pore about 0.65 nanometer in diameter that allows uncharged molecules or positive ions smaller than this diameter to pass through. This gate is exceedingly important for the transmission of nerve impulse.
- 19. Facilitated diffusion • Facilitated diffusion is also called carrier- mediated diffusion because a substance transported in this manner diffuses through the membrane using a specific carrier protein to help. That is, the carrier facilitates diffusion of the substance to the other side.
- 20. • Facilitated diffusion differs from simple diffusion in the following important way: Although the rate of simple diffusion through an open channel increases proportionately with the concentration of the diffusing substance, in facilitated diffusion the rate of diffusion approaches a maximum, called Vmax, as the concentration of the diffusing substance increases.
- 22. • Among the most important substances that cross cell membranes by facilitated diffusion are glucose and most of the amino acids. In the case of glucose, the carrier molecule has been discovered, and it has a molecular weight of about 45,000; it can also transport several other monosaccharides that have structures similar to that of glucose, including galactose. Also, insulin can increase the rate of facilitated diffusion of glucose as much as 10-fold to 20-fold. This is the principal mechanism by which insulin controls glucose use in the body
- 23. Factors That Affect Net Rate of Diffusion • Effect of Concentration Difference on Net Diffusion Through a Membrane • The rate of net diffusion into the cell is proportional to the concentration on the outside minus the concentration on the inside, or: • Net diffusion is directly proportional to (Co - Ci) • in which Co is concentration outside and Ci is concentration inside.
- 24. • Effect of Membrane Electrical Potential on Diffusion of Ions— The “Nernst Potential.” • If an electrical potential is applied across the membrane, the electrical charges of the ions cause them to move through the membrane even though no concentration difference exists to cause movement.
- 25. • At normal body temperature (37°C), the electrical difference that will balance a given concentration difference of univalent ions—such as sodium (Na+) ions—can be determined from the following formula, called the • Nernst equation: EMF in millivolts = 61 log C1/ C2 • in which EMF is the electromotive force (voltage) between side 1 and side 2 of the membrane, C1 is the concentration on side 1, and C2 is the concentration on side 2. This equation is extremely important in understanding the transmission of nerve impulses.
- 26. • Effect of a Pressure Difference Across the Membrane. • At times, considerable pressure difference develops between the two sides of a diffusible membrane. This occurs, for instance, at the blood capillary membrane in all tissues of the body. The pressure is about 20 mm Hg greater inside the capillary than outside. Pressure actually means the sum of all the forces of the different molecules striking a unit surface area at a given instant.
- 27. • Therefore, when the pressure is higher on one side of a membrane than on the other, this means that the sum of all the forces of the molecules striking the channels on that side of the membrane is greater than on the other side. The result is that increased amounts of energy are available to cause net movement of molecules from the high-pressure side toward the low-pressure side.
- 28. Active transport • Active transport involves the actual carrying of a substance through the membrane by a physical protein structure that penetrates all the way through the membrane. • At times, a large concentration of a substance is required in the intracellular fluid even though the extracellular fluid contains only a small concentration. This is true, for instance, for potassium ions. Conversely, it is important to keep the concentrations of other ions very low inside the cell even though their concentrations in the extracellular fluid are great. This is especially true for sodium ions. Neither of these two effects could occur by simple diffusion, because simple diffusion eventually equilibrates concentrations on the two sides of the membrane.
- 29. • Instead, some energy source must cause excess movement of potassium ions to the inside of cells and excess movement of sodium ions to the outside of cells. When a cell membrane moves molecules or ions “uphill” against a concentration gradient (or “uphill” against an electrical or pressure gradient), the process is called active transport.
- 30. • Different substances that are actively transported through at least some cell membranes include sodium ions, potassium ions, calcium ions, iron ions, hydrogen ions, chloride ions, iodide ions, urate ions, several different sugars, and most of the amino acids.
- 31. Types of Active transport • Primary Active Transport and Secondary Active Transport. • Active transport is divided into two types according to the source of the energy used to cause the transport: primary active transport and secondary active transport.
- 32. Primary active transport • In primary active transport, the energy is derived directly from breakdown of adenosine triphosphate (ATP) or of some other high- energy phosphate compound. In secondary active transport, the energy is derived secondarily from energy that has been stored in the form of ionic concentration differences of secondary molecular or ionic substances between the two sides of a cell membrane, created originally by primary active transport.
- 33. • Sodium-Potassium Pump • Among the substances that are transported by primary active transport are sodium, potassium, calcium, hydrogen, chloride, and a few other ions. The active transport mechanism that has been studied in greatest detail is the sodium-potassium (Na+-K+) pump, a transport process that pumps sodium ions outward through the cell membrane of all cells and at the same time pumps potassium ions from the outside to the inside.
- 35. • This pump is responsible for maintaining the sodium and potassium concentration differences across the cell membrane, as well as for establishing a negative electrical voltage inside the cells. This pump is also the basis of nerve function, transmitting nerve signals throughout the nervous system. One of the most important functions of the Na+-K+ pump is to control the volume of each cell. Without function of this pump, most cells of the body would swell until they burst.
- 36. • Primary Active Transport of Calcium Ions • Another important primary active transport mechanism is the calcium pump. Calcium ions are normally maintained at extremely low concentration in the intracellular cytosol of virtually all cells in the body, at a concentration about 10,000 times less than that in the extracellular fluid. This is achieved mainly by two primary active transport calcium pumps. One is in the cell membrane and pumps calcium to the outside of the cell. The other pumps calcium ions into one or more of the intracellular vesicular organelles of the cell, such as the sarcoplasmic reticulum of muscle cells and the mitochondria in all cells.
- 37. • In each of these instances, the carrier protein penetrates the membrane and functions as an enzyme ATPase, having the same capability to cleave ATP as the ATPase of the sodium carrier protein. The difference is that this protein has a highly specific binding site for calcium instead of for sodium.
- 38. • Primary Active Transport of Hydrogen Ions • At two places in the body, primary active transport of hydrogen ions is very important: (1) in the gastric glands of the stomach, and (2) in the late distal tubules and cortical collecting ducts of the kidneys. • In the gastric glands, the deep-lying parietal cells have the most potent primary active mechanism for transporting hydrogen ions of any part of the body. This is the basis for secreting hydrochloric acid in the stomach digestive secretions.
- 39. • In the renal tubules are special intercalated cells in the late distal tubules and cortical collecting ducts that also transport hydrogen ions by primary active transport. In this case, large amounts of hydrogen ions are secreted from the blood into the urine for the purpose of eliminating excess hydrogen ions from the body fluids. The hydrogen ions can be secreted into the urine against a concentration gradient of about 900-fold.
- 40. Secondary Active Transport— Co-Transport and Counter-Transport • When sodium ions are transported out of cells by primary active transport, a large concentration gradient of sodium ions across the cell membrane usually develops—high concentration outside the cell and very low concentration inside. This gradient represents a storehouse of energy because the excess sodium outside the cell membrane is always attempting to diffuse to the interior. Under appropriate conditions, this diffusion energy of sodium can pull other substances along with the sodium through the cell membrane. This phenomenon is called co- transport; it is one form of secondary active transport.
- 41. • For sodium to pull another substance along with it, a coupling mechanism is required. This is achieved by means of still another carrier protein in the cell membrane. The carrier in this instance serves as an attachment point for both the sodium ion and the substance to be co- transported. Once they both are attached, the energy gradient of the sodium ion causes both the sodium ion and the other substance to be transported together to the interior of the cell.
- 42. • In counter-transport, sodium ions again attempt to diffuse to the interior of the cell because of their large concentration gradient. However, this time, the substance to be transported is on the inside of the cell and must be transported to the outside. Therefore, the sodium ion binds to the carrier protein where it projects to the exterior surface of the membrane, while the substance to be counter-transported binds to the interior projection of the carrier protein. Once both have bound, a conformational change occurs, and energy released by the sodium ion moving to the interior causes the other substance to move to the exterior.
- 43. • Co-Transport of Glucose and Amino Acids • Along with Sodium Ions • Glucose and many amino acids are transported into most cells against large concentration gradients; the mechanism of this is entirely by co- transport the transport carrier protein has two binding sites on its exterior side, one for sodium and one for glucose. Also, the concentration of sodium ions is very high on the outside and very low inside, which provides energy for the transport.
- 44. • A special property of the transport protein is that a conformational change to allow sodium movement to the interior will not occur until a glucose molecule also attaches. When they both become attached, the conformational change takes place automatically, and the sodium and glucose are transported to the inside of the cell at the same time. Hence, this is a sodium-glucose co-transport mechanism.