CH-4 Constructing an Instrument for Data Collection.pptx
- 1. Chapter 4 CONSTRUCTING AN INSTRUMENT FOR DATA COLLECTION 1
- 2. Considering Ethical Issues in Data Collection • Being ethical means adhering to the codes of conduct that has been involved over the years for an acceptable professional practice. With regard to participants, ethical considerations concern the following. 1. Collecting Information 2. Seeking Consent 3. Providing Incentives 4. Seeking Sensitive Information 5. The Possibility of Causing Harm to Respondents 6. Maintaining Confidentiality 2
- 3. Considering Ethical Issues in Data Collection Ethical Issues Related to the Researcher 1. Avoid Biases 2. Using Inappropriate Research Methodology 3. Incorrect Reporting 4. Inappropriate Use of the Information Ethical Issues Related to the Sponsoring Organization 1. Restriction Imposed by the Sponsoring Organization 2. The Misuse of Information 3
- 4. Methods of Data Collection • There are two major approaches to gathering information about a situation, person, problem or phenomenon • Sometimes, information required is already available and need only be extracted. • However, there are times when the information must be collected. 4
- 5. Methods of Data Collection Approaches to information gathering 1. Primarily data, and 2. secondary data • Information gathered using the first approach is said to be collected from primarily sources, • where as the sources used in the secondary approach are called secondary sources. 5
- 6. Methods of Data Collection The choice of a particular method of data collection depends upon the purpose collecting information, the type if information is being collected, the resources available to you, your skill in the use of a particular method of data collection, and the socio-economic demographic characteristics of your study population 6
- 7. Collecting Data using Primary Sources • Advantages – They are collected to fit the precise purpose of the current research topic. – information is current – The methodology of data collection is controlled. – All the findings are available to the researcher. – They are not conflicting from different sources. – a study can be replicated ,if desired, – When a secondary data dose not resolves all questions; collecting and analyzing primarily data are the only way to acquire information. 7
- 8. Collecting Data using Primary Sources • Disadvantages – collecting may be time-consuming – costs may be high – some type of information cannot be collected – The researcher’s perspectives may be limited. – the researcher may be incapable of collecting primarily data 8
- 9. Collecting Data using Primary Sources 9
- 10. Observation • Observation is a purposeful, systematic and selective way of watching and listening to an interaction or phenomenon as it takes place. • when you are more interested in the behavior than in the perceptions of the individuals, or when subjects are so involved in the interaction that they are unable to provide objective information about it, observation is the best approach to collect the required information 10
- 11. Observation Types of Observation 1. Participant observation is when you, as a researcher, participate in the activities of the group being observed; in the same manner, as its members, with or without their knowing that they are being observed. 2. Non-participant observation, on the other hand, is when you, as a researcher, do not get involved in the activities of the group but remains a passive observer, watching and listening to its activities and drawing conclusion from it. 11
- 12. Observation Problems with Using Observation • When individuals or groups become aware that they are being observed, they may change their behavior. • There is always the possibility of observer’s bias. • The interpretation drawn from observations may vary from observer to observer. • There is the possibility of incomplete observation and/or recording, which varies with the method of recording. 12
- 13. Observation Situation in which Observations can be made 1. Observing a group in its natural operation rather than intervening in its activities is classified as natural observation. 2. Introducing a stimulus to the group for it to react to and observing the reaction is called controlled observation. 13
- 14. The Interview • Any person to person interaction between two or more individuals with a specific purpose in mind is called an interview. Advantages – It is useful for collecting in-depth information. – The interview is more appropriate for complex situations and sensitive areas. – Information can be supplemented. – Questionnaires can be explained. – Interviewing has a wider application with almost any type of information. 14
- 15. The Interview • Disadvantages – interviewing time-consuming and expensive – The quality of the data depends on the quality of interaction. – the quality of the data depends on the quality of the interviewer – The quality of the data may vary when many interviewers are used. – The interviewer may be biased. 15
- 16. The Interview 16
- 17. The Interview Unstructured interviews • Complete freedom in terms of content and structure. • You are free to order these questions in whatever sequence you wish. • You also have complete freedom in terms of the wording you use and the way you explain questions to your respondents. 17
- 18. The Interview Unstructured interviews • Complete freedom in terms of content and structure. • You are free to order these questions in whatever sequence you wish. • You also have complete freedom in terms of the wording you use and the way you explain questions to your respondents. 18
- 19. The Interview Unstructured interviews 1. In-depth interviews, interviewing is repeated face-to-face encounters between the researcher and informants directed towards understanding informants’, perspectives on their lives, experience or situations as their expressed in their own words. 2. Focus group interviews: The only difference between a focus group interview and an in-depth interview is that the former is undertaken with a group and the latter with an individual. 3. Narratives: have almost no predetermined contents except that the researchers seek to hear the personal experience of a person with an incident or happening in his/her life. Essentially the person tells his/her story about an incident or situation and you, as a researcher, listen passively. 19
- 20. The Interview Structured interview • in a structured interview, the researcher asks a predetermined set of questions using the same wording(content) and order (structure) of questions as specified in the interview schedule. • An interview schedule is a written list of questions, open-ended or closed-ended, prepare for use by the interviewer in a person-to-person interaction (this may be face-to-face, by telephone or by other electronic media). 20
- 21. The Questionnaire • A questionnaire is a written list of questions, the answers to which are recorded by respondents. • In a questionnaire respondents read the questions, interprets what is expected and write down the answers. • The only difference between an interview schedule and a questionnaire is that in the former it is the interview that asks the questions and records the respondents’ replies; and in the latter replies are recorded by the respondents themselves. 21
- 22. The Questionnaire Advantages 1. it is less expensive 2. it offers greater accuracy Disadvantages 1. application is limited 2. response rate is low 3. there is a self-selecting biases 4. opportunity to clarify issues is lacking 5. spontaneous responses are not allowed for 6. the response to a question may be influenced by the response to other questions 7. it is possible to consult others 8. A response cannot be supplemented with other information. 22
- 23. The Questionnaire Different Types of Administrating a Questionnaire • A questionnaire can be administered in different ways. • The mailed questionnaire • Collective administration • Administration in a Public Place 23
- 24. The Questionnaire The Contents of the Covering Letters • Introduce you and the institution you are representing, • Describe in two or three sentences the main objective of the study • Explain the relevance of the study, • Convey any general instructions, • Indicate that participation in the study is voluntary, • Assure respondents of the confidentiality of the information provided by them, • Provide a contact number in case they have any questions, • Give a return address for the questionnaires and a dead line for its return, • Thank them for their participation in the study. 24
- 25. The Questionnaire Forms of Questions 1. In an open-ended question, the possible responses are not given. 2. In a closed-ended question the possible answers are set out in the questionnaire/schedule and the respondent/investigator ticks the category that best describes the respondents’ answer. It is usually wise to provide a category “Other, Please explains” to accommodate any response unlisted. 25
- 26. Collecting Data using Secondary Sources • Some of the many secondary sources that can be grouped into the following are listed below: – Governmental or semi-governmental publications – Non-government organizations – Earlier research – Personal records – Mass-media-news papers, magazines 26
- 27. Collecting Data using Secondary Sources • Advantages – it is inexpensive – data assembly is fast – there may be several sources/and perspectives – a source may obtain data a research could not get itself – there is a high credibility for data assembled by independent sources – They are helpful when exploratory research is conducted. • Disadvantages – available data may not fit the current research purpose due to incompleteness and generalness – information may be out-dated or obsolete – The methodology used in collecting the data may be unknown. – all the findings of a research may not be made possible – Conflicting results may exist. – The reliability of the data may not be proven. 27
- 28. Thank You! 28