7. Selecting a data collection method
- 1. KNOWLEDGE FOR THE BENEFIT OF HUMANITYKNOWLEDGE FOR THE BENEFIT OF HUMANITY RESEARCH METHODOLOGY (HFS4343) SELECTING A DATA COLLECTION METHOD Dr.Dr. MohdMohd RazifRazif ShahrilShahril School of Nutrition & DieteticsSchool of Nutrition & Dietetics Faculty of Health SciencesFaculty of Health Sciences UniversitiUniversiti SultanSultan ZainalZainal AbidinAbidin 1
- 2. S C H O O L O F N U T R I T I O N A N D D I E T E T I C S • U N I V E R S I T I S U L T A N Z A I N A L A B I D I N Topic Learning Outcomes At the end of this lecture, students should be able to; • identify differences in method of data collection in quantitative and qualitative research • describe major approaches to information gathering • explain data collection methods using primary sources • explain data collection methods using secondary sources 2
- 3. S C H O O L O F N U T R I T I O N A N D D I E T E T I C S • U N I V E R S I T I S U L T A N Z A I N A L A B I D I N Differences in methods of data collection • What philosophical epistemology is underpinning your approach to research enquiry? • How was the information collected? Structured or unstructured/flexible format? • Were the questions or issues discussed during data collection predetermined or developed during data collection? • How was the information you gathered recorded? Descriptive, narrative, categorical, quantitative form or on a scale? • How was the information analysed? Descriptive, categorical or numerical analysis? • How do you propose to communicate the findings? Descriptive or analytical manner? 3
- 4. S C H O O L O F N U T R I T I O N A N D D I E T E T I C S • U N I V E R S I T I S U L T A N Z A I N A L A B I D I N Differences in methods of data collection 4
- 5. S C H O O L O F N U T R I T I O N A N D D I E T E T I C S • U N I V E R S I T I S U L T A N Z A I N A L A B I D I N Information gathering 5 1111 2222
- 6. S C H O O L O F N U T R I T I O N A N D D I E T E T I C S • U N I V E R S I T I S U L T A N Z A I N A L A B I D I N Information gathering • Primary data – Primary sources e.g. measured, observed, interviewed, questionnaire • Secondary data – Secondary sources e.g. Census Bureau Data, public health data, economic data, historical search, medical records etc 6
- 7. S C H O O L O F N U T R I T I O N A N D D I E T E T I C S • U N I V E R S I T I S U L T A N Z A I N A L A B I D I N Collecting data using primary sources • Methods for collecting data using primary sources 7 OBSERVATION INTERVIEWING QUESTIONNAIRE
- 8. S C H O O L O F N U T R I T I O N A N D D I E T E T I C S • U N I V E R S I T I S U L T A N Z A I N A L A B I D I N Observation • Purposeful, systematic and selective way of watching and listening to an interaction or phenomenon as it takes place • Most appropriate when; – you are more interested in the behaviour than in the perceptions of individuals, – subjects are so involved in the interaction that they are unable to provide objective information about it 8
- 9. S C H O O L O F N U T R I T I O N A N D D I E T E T I C S • U N I V E R S I T I S U L T A N Z A I N A L A B I D I N Types of observation • Participant observation – Researcher participate in activities of the group being observed in the same manner • Non-participant observation – researcher do not get involved in the activities of the group but remain a passive observer, watching and listening to its activities and drawing conclusions from this 9
- 10. S C H O O L O F N U T R I T I O N A N D D I E T E T I C S • U N I V E R S I T I S U L T A N Z A I N A L A B I D I N Problems with using ‘observation’ • Hawthorne effect – individuals or groups become aware that they are being observed and change their behaviour – What is observed may not represent their normal behaviour • Possibility of observer bias • Interpretation drawn from observation varies between observer • Possibility of incomplete observation and/or recording 10
- 11. S C H O O L O F N U T R I T I O N A N D D I E T E T I C S • U N I V E R S I T I S U L T A N Z A I N A L A B I D I N Situation where we can ‘observe’ • Natural observation – Observing a group in its natural operation rather than intervening in its activities • Controlled observation – Introducing stimulus to the group for it to react to and observing the reaction 11
- 12. S C H O O L O F N U T R I T I O N A N D D I E T E T I C S • U N I V E R S I T I S U L T A N Z A I N A L A B I D I N Recording observation • Narrative recording • Using scales • Categorical recording • Recording on electronic devices 12 What are the advantages and disadvantages of eachWhat are the advantages and disadvantages of each recording observation method? Lets shout some ideas at: http://padlet.com/razifshahril/recordingobservation
- 13. S C H O O L O F N U T R I T I O N A N D D I E T E T I C S • U N I V E R S I T I S U L T A N Z A I N A L A B I D I N The interview • Any person-to-person interaction, either face to face or otherwise, between two or more individuals with a specific purpose in mind is called an interview. 13
- 14. S C H O O L O F N U T R I T I O N A N D D I E T E T I C S • U N I V E R S I T I S U L T A N Z A I N A L A B I D I N Types of interview • Ensure 14
- 15. S C H O O L O F N U T R I T I O N A N D D I E T E T I C S • U N I V E R S I T I S U L T A N Z A I N A L A B I D I N Unstructured interview • The researcher is free to order these in whatever sequence they wish. • Have complete freedom in terms of the wording they use and the way they explain questions to their respondents. • The researcher may formulate questions and raise issues on the spur of the moment, depending upon what occurs to them in the context of the discussion. • Common in qualitative research. 15
- 16. S C H O O L O F N U T R I T I O N A N D D I E T E T I C S • U N I V E R S I T I S U L T A N Z A I N A L A B I D I N Structured interview • the researcher asks a predetermined set of questions, using the same wording and order of questions as specified in the interview schedule. – A written list of questions, open ended or closed, prepared for use by an interviewer in a person-to-person interaction – Note that an interview schedule is a research tool/instrument for collecting data, whereas interviewing is a method of data collection. • One of the main advantages of the structured interview is that it provides uniform information, which assures the comparability of data. 16
- 17. S C H O O L O F N U T R I T I O N A N D D I E T E T I C S • U N I V E R S I T I S U L T A N Z A I N A L A B I D I N 17
- 18. S C H O O L O F N U T R I T I O N A N D D I E T E T I C S • U N I V E R S I T I S U L T A N Z A I N A L A B I D I N The questionnaire • Written list of questions, the answers to which are recorded by respondents. • Respondents read the questions, interpret what is expected and then write down the answers. 18 Interview scheduleInterview schedule QuestionnaireQuestionnaire interviewer who asks the questions (and if necessary, explains them) and records the respondent’s replies replies are recorded by the respondents themselves.
- 19. S C H O O L O F N U T R I T I O N A N D D I E T E T I C S • U N I V E R S I T I S U L T A N Z A I N A L A B I D I N Qualities of a good questionnaire • Questions clear and easy to understand • Layout easy to read and pleasant to eyes • Sequence should be easy to follow • Developed in interactive style – respondents should feel as if someone is talking to them • Sensitive questions prefaced by an interactive statement (different fonts) explaining the relevance of the questions 19
- 20. S C H O O L O F N U T R I T I O N A N D D I E T E T I C S • U N I V E R S I T I S U L T A N Z A I N A L A B I D I N Methods of administering a questionnaire • Mailed questionnaire – send the questionnaire to prospective respondents by mail. – usually it is a good idea to send a prepaid, self- addressed envelope with the questionnaire. – must be accompanied by a covering letter – major problems - low response rate. 20
- 21. S C H O O L O F N U T R I T I O N A N D D I E T E T I C S • U N I V E R S I T I S U L T A N Z A I N A L A B I D I N Methods of administering a questionnaire • Collective administration – captive audience - people assembled in one place. – ensures a high response rate – can explain the purpose, relevance and importance of the study and clarify any questions that respondents may have 21
- 22. S C H O O L O F N U T R I T I O N A N D D I E T E T I C S • U N I V E R S I T I S U L T A N Z A I N A L A B I D I N Methods of administering a questionnaire • Administration in a public area – administer a questionnaire in a public place such as a shopping centre, health centre, hospital, school or pub. – depends upon the type of study population you are looking for and where it is likely to be found. – slightly more time consuming 22
- 23. S C H O O L O F N U T R I T I O N A N D D I E T E T I C S • U N I V E R S I T I S U L T A N Z A I N A L A B I D I N Interview or questionnaire?? • The choice should be based on; – The nature of investigation • Sensitive issues? Anonymity? – The geographical distribution of the study population • population scattered or stays in one place – The type of study population • Age, physical and mental abilities 23
- 24. S C H O O L O F N U T R I T I O N A N D D I E T E T I C S • U N I V E R S I T I S U L T A N Z A I N A L A B I D I N Advantages and disadvantages of a questionnaire 24 AdvantagesAdvantages DisadvantagesDisadvantages • Less expensive • Offers greater anonymity • Application is limited • Low response rate • Self-selecting bias • Opportunity to clarify issues is lacking • Spontaneous responses are not allowed for • Response to a question may be influenced by the response to other questions • It is possible to consult others (mailed questionnaire)
- 25. S C H O O L O F N U T R I T I O N A N D D I E T E T I C S • U N I V E R S I T I S U L T A N Z A I N A L A B I D I N Advantages and disadvantages of the interview 25 AdvantagesAdvantages DisadvantagesDisadvantages • More appropriate for complex situation • Useful for collecting in-depth information • Information can be supplemented • Questions can be explained • Interviewing has a wider application • Time consuming • Quality of data depends upon the quality of the interaction • Quality of data depends upon the quality of the interviewer • Quality of data depends vary when many interviewer are used • The researcher may introduce his/her bias
- 26. S C H O O L O F N U T R I T I O N A N D D I E T E T I C S • U N I V E R S I T I S U L T A N Z A I N A L A B I D I N Contents of the covering letter • Introduce you and the institution you are representing • Describe the main objectives of the study • Explain the relevance of the study • Convey any general instructions • Indicate that participation in the study is voluntary • Assure respondents of the anonymity of the information provided by them • Provide a contact number in case they have any questions; • Give a return address for the questionnaire and a deadline for its return; • Thank them for their participation in the study. 26
- 27. S C H O O L O F N U T R I T I O N A N D D I E T E T I C S • U N I V E R S I T I S U L T A N Z A I N A L A B I D I N Forms of question • Open ended questions – Possible responses are not given. – respondents write down the answers in his/her words. – investigators records the answers either verbatim or in a summary • Closed questions – possible answers are set out and the respondent or the investigator ticks the category that best describes the respondent’s answer – category ‘Other/please explain’ to accommodate any response not listed 27
- 28. S C H O O L O F N U T R I T I O N A N D D I E T E T I C S • U N I V E R S I T I S U L T A N Z A I N A L A B I D I N Open-ended questions 28 What are the advantages and disadvantages?What are the advantages and disadvantages?
- 29. S C H O O L O F N U T R I T I O N A N D D I E T E T I C S • U N I V E R S I T I S U L T A N Z A I N A L A B I D I N Closed questions 29 What are the advantages and disadvantages?What are the advantages and disadvantages?
- 30. S C H O O L O F N U T R I T I O N A N D D I E T E T I C S • U N I V E R S I T I S U L T A N Z A I N A L A B I D I N Closed questions 30
- 31. S C H O O L O F N U T R I T I O N A N D D I E T E T I C S • U N I V E R S I T I S U L T A N Z A I N A L A B I D I N Formulating effective questions • Always use simple and everyday language • Do not use ambiguous (more than one meaning) questions • Do not ask double-barrelled (a question within a question) questions • Dot not ask leading questions (e.g. Smoking is bad, isn’t?) • Do not ask questions based on presumptions (e.g. Everyone is asked on how many cigarettes do they smoke in a day) – assuming everyone is a smoker 31
- 32. S C H O O L O F N U T R I T I O N A N D D I E T E T I C S • U N I V E R S I T I S U L T A N Z A I N A L A B I D I N Other qualities of a good question • Will answer the research questions • Written at a 5th grade language • Ask for an answer on only one dimension • Nonthreatening • Does not imply a certain type of answer • Avoid words that might create a negative reaction in some people regardless of the content of the statement 32
- 33. S C H O O L O F N U T R I T I O N A N D D I E T E T I C S • U N I V E R S I T I S U L T A N Z A I N A L A B I D I N Constructing a research instrument in quantitative research 33 • Clearly define study objectives, research questions or hypothesis Step 1 • For each study objectives, research questions or hypothesis, list all associated questions you want to answer in your study Step 2
- 34. S C H O O L O F N U T R I T I O N A N D D I E T E T I C S • U N I V E R S I T I S U L T A N Z A I N A L A B I D I N Constructing a research instrument in quantitative research (cont.) 34 • Take each questions that you identified in Step 2 and list the information required to answer it Step 3 • Formulate questions that you want to ask your respondents to obtain the required information Step 4
- 35. S C H O O L O F N U T R I T I O N A N D D I E T E T I C S • U N I V E R S I T I S U L T A N Z A I N A L A B I D I N 35
- 36. S C H O O L O F N U T R I T I O N A N D D I E T E T I C S • U N I V E R S I T I S U L T A N Z A I N A L A B I D I N Methods of data collection in qualitative research • Unstructured interviews – In-depth interviews – Focus group interviews – Narratives – Oral histories • Participant observation • Secondary sources 36
- 37. S C H O O L O F N U T R I T I O N A N D D I E T E T I C S • U N I V E R S I T I S U L T A N Z A I N A L A B I D I N Collecting data using secondary sources • Both qualitative and quantitative research studies use secondary sources as a method of data collection. – In quantitative research the information extracted is categorical or numerical. – In qualitative research you usually extract descriptive (historical and current) and narrative information. • Categories of secondary sources; – Government or semi-government publications – Earlier research – Personal records – Mass media 37
- 38. S C H O O L O F N U T R I T I O N A N D D I E T E T I C S • U N I V E R S I T I S U L T A N Z A I N A L A B I D I N Problems with using data from secondary sources • Validity and reliability • Personal bias • Availability of data • Format 38