Ch8 Nationalist Revolutions

Bolívar fights
Spanish troops
in his
endeavors
to free South
America.

Simón Bolívar

1750-1914:
An Age of
Revolutions

Latin
American
Independence
Movements

4
Imperialism in the Caribbean and South America, 1898–1917
Referred to as Banana Republics

3

Latin American Wars of Independence

• What caused discontent in Latin America?

• How did Haitians, Mexicans, and people in Central America
win independence?

• How did nations of South America
win independence?

3

What Caused Discontent in Latin America?

By the late 1700s, the revolutionary fever that gripped Western
Europe had spread to Latin America. There, discontent was rooted
in the social, racial, and political system that had emerged during
300 years of Spanish rule.

• Peninsulares were those born of Spanish parents in Spain;
therefore, they had the most wealth, education, & status.
• Creoles resented their second-class status.
• Mestizos and mulattoes were angry at being denied
the status, wealth, and power available to whites.
• Native Americans suffered economic misery under the
Spanish.
• Enslaved Africans who worked on plantations longed
for freedom.

3

CENTRAL
HAITI MEXICO
AMERICA
In 1791, Toussaint Father Miguel Hidalgo and Spanish-ruled lands
L’Ouverture led slaves in José Morelas led popular declared their
revolt. revolts. independence in the
By 1798, enslaved Rebels led by Agustín de early 1820s.
Haitians had been freed. Iturbide overthrew the Local leaders set up the
In 1802, Napoleon sent Spanish viceroy, creating United Provinces of
an army to recapture an independent Mexico. Central America.
Haiti.
Napoleon’s forces Iturbide took the title of The union soon
agreed to a truce, or emperor, but was quickly fragmented into
temporary peace. overthrown. separate republics of
Liberal Mexicans set up Guatemala, Nicaragua,
In 1804, Haitian leaders Honduras, El Salvador,
the Republic of Mexico.
declared independence. and Costa Rica.

Struggles for Independence

Independence in South America
3

In South America, Native Americans had
rebelled against Spanish rule as early as
the 1700s, with limited results. It was
not until the 1800s that discontent
sparked a widespread drive for
independence.

Simon Bolívar, called “The Liberator,” :the
George Washington of South America,” led
an uprising that established a republic in
Venezuela. He then captured
Colombia, Ecuador, Peru, and Bolivia.
• In 1816, José de San Martín helped
Argentina win freedom from Spain. He then
joined forces with Bolívar.
• Bolívar tried to unite the liberated
lands into a single nation called Gran
Colombia. However, bitter rivalries made
that dream impossible. Before long, Gran
Columbia split into three independent
countries: Venezuela, Colombia, and
Ecuador. (Panama)

3
Independent Nations of Latin America About 1844

3

Independence Movements in Latin America

Long-Term Causes Immediate Causes

European domination of Latin America People of Latin America resent colonial
rule and social injustices
Spread of Enlightenment ideas
American and French revolutions Revolutionary leaders emerge
Growth of nationalism in Latin America Napoleon invades Spain and ousts
Spanish king

Immediate Effects Long-Term Effects
Toussaint L‘Ouverture leads slave Attempts made to rebuild economies
revolt in Haiti
18 separate republics set up
Bolívar, San Martín, and others lead
successful revolts in Latin America Continuing efforts to achieve stable
democratic governments and to gain
Colonial rule ends in much of Latin
economic independence
America

François Toussaint-
Simón Bolívar Louverture-
Padre Miguel Hidalgo
Key
People
Pedro I José de San
Martín

Latin American Independence Movements, 18th & 19th C.

Wars of
Independence
In Latin America

Many Latin
American
nations made a
break for
freedom while
Napoleon was in
power in Spain &
Portugal, but
alas…

Results
• Caudillos
– Strong military, usually selfish & greedy, leaders emerge
– Dictatorship and totalitarian systems emerge
• Dependency theory challenges “Modernity”
theory
– Western European markets determine the product
– South America dependent upon others buying their one
crop. They see it as the gringos controlling their lives!
• Banana Republics
– United Fruit Company controlled Central America in late
19th and early 20th century
– Phrase coined to designate politically unstable, dependent
on limited agriculture, and ruled by a small, wealthy and
corrupt clique put in power by the United States
government in conjunction with the CIA and the US
business lobby

Latin American social classes
Peninsulares were men born in Spain or Portugal
who held highest offices and important military
and political positions

Creoles were Spaniards born in the Latin American
colonies who were officers in army, but not in
government and controlled much of the land
and business in the colonies. But they deeply
resented power of the peninsulares.

Mestizos made up the majority of the society
because it was mixed European and Indian.
They worked as servant to the peninsulares
and Creoles and as plantation overseers and
farmhands.
Mulatto-European and African mixed ancestry.

The Native Americans/Africans were the lowest
society group but also the largest. They were
not known as citizens but did much labor.

French colonies: Revolution in Haiti
• Saint Domingue, now known as Haiti
• Western third of island of Hispanola in
Caribbean Sea.

• The first Latin American uprising was in the French colony of
Haiti, which was where huge plantations of sugar, cotton and
coffee spread across the mountains and valleys of the lush
tropical land. The Plantations were owed by French planters
and worked by the colony’s enslaved African population
• There was a high demand of sugar and coffee from the small
colony of Haiti
• 500,000 to 560,000 people living in Haiti in the late 1700s
were enslaved or had been
• Unrest erupted in the early 1790’s when enslaved Africans
led by François Toussaint-Louverture revolted by setting fires
to plantation homes and fields of sugarcane.
• Napoleon sent forces in 1802 in order to take control of the
colony and successfully captured Toussaint-L’Ouverture and
imprisoned him in France until his death in 1803.
• Yellow fever was the death of thousands of French soldiers
which is what the Haiti people needed to defeat the French
and gain their independence in 1804.

Toussaint L’Ouverture
• Former slave, self-educated.
• Untrained in military and political matters, but
became a skilled general and diplomat.
• Allegedly got name (“opening” in French) from being
able to find openings in enemy lines.
• Took leadership of a slave revolt that broke out in
1791.
• 100,000 slaves in revolt.
• By 1801, L’Ouverture moved into Spanish Santo
Domingo (the eastern two-thirds of the island of
Hispanola), took control of territory and freed slaves.
• In January 1802, French troops landed.
• Toussaint agreed to an end of fighting if the French
would end slavery
• French accused him of planning another uprising.
• Sent him to a prison in the French Alps.
• He died 10 months later, April 1803.

Liberty! Toussaint L’Ouverture and his army of former slaves battle for independence
from France and an end to slavery. Although Toussaint achieved his goal of ending
slavery, Haiti (see inset) did not become independent until after his death. Why do you
think Toussaint and his army were willing to risk death to achieve their goals?

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• Padre Miguel Hidalgo was a
Mexican priest who was the
leader of the Mexican war for
Independence. He started the
movement of independence
in 1810. With his help, the
fight for independence lasted
for 11 years but Miguel did
not see it to the end. He was
executed in 1811 because of
traitors who sold him out to
the Spaniards.
• Miguel Hidalgo was known as
a risk taker with the motto:
May 8, 1753 –July 30, 1811 “We want a free Mexico;”
with this motto, his fight for
independence never ended.

• Father Miguel Hidalgo led the fight against the
Spanish government in Mexico because of the deep
care he had for the poverty-stricken Native
Americans and mestizos.
• Hidalgo’s goals were political freedom, an end to
slavery, and improvements to living conditions for
Mexico’s poor and revolution was the only way to
bring change
• On September 16, 1810, Hidalgo gave a stirring
address that became known as “el Grito de Dolores”
that called for Mexicans to fight for “Independence
and Liberty.”
• In 1811 the well-trained Spanish army finally
overwhelmed the rebels and Hidalgo was captured
and executed

Independence: Mexican Independence Day
Today, the people of Mexico remember Father Hidalgo’s speech as ―el Grito de
Dolores.‖ Every September 15, the anniversary of the speech, the president of
Mexico rings a bell—suggestive of the church bell in Dolores. The president then
honors the Grito de Dolores by repeating the speech.
The next day, September 16, marks the anniversary of the beginning of the fight
against the Spanish. It is celebrated as Mexican Independence Day, a national
holiday. Schools and businesses shut down, and people throw huge parties.
Fireworks light the night sky.

Why is the ringing of bells an
important custom of Mexican
Independence Day?

Statue of Bolívar as
the Liberator in
Mexico City

Agustín de Iturbide José Francisco de San
Simón Bolívar July September 27, 1783 – Martín
24, 1783 – December July 19, 1824 February 25, 1778 –
17, 1830
August 17, 1850

• Agustín de Iturbide decisively ended the Mexican War of
Independence. After the liberation of Mexico was secured, he was
proclaimed President of Regency in 1821 and Constitutional Emperor
of the new nation, reigning as Emperor briefly from May 19, 1822 to
March 19, 1823. Agustín de Iturbide is also credited as the original
designer of the Mexican flag.
• Simón Bolívar led many colonies to independence because he
believed in equality and saw liberty as “the only object worth a
man’s life.” Bolívar’s nickname was “The Liberator” because he
devoted his life to the freedom for Latin Americans. In 1810, Simón
Bolívar started a revolt against the Spaniards in Caracas which lasted
9 years until he crushed Spain’s power in northern South America.
Also called “George Washington of South America”
• José de San Martín led Latin American armies over the Andes
Mountains and into Chile where he joined Bernardo O’Higgins. The
two men successfully achieved independence for Chile in 1818. In
1820, they also captured Lima and declared Peru independent. In
1826, Bolívar and his armies had liberated all of South America.

Chilean liberator Bernardo O’Higgins by the famous Mexican
muralist David Alfaro Siquieros at Chillán’s Escuela México.

The son of the Irish-born governor of
Chile, he was a leading figure in the
movement to overthrow the ruling
Spanish administration and was the first
head of state of the independent Chile.

O'Higgins Rides Again, Arica, Chile - Every
South American city displays its heroes in
bronze. In Arica, it's Bernardo O'Higgins
who does the honors. O'Higgins fought
alongside of Argentina's Jose San Martin,
defeating Spain at Chacabuco, bringing
independence to Chile in 1818, and served
as its first "Supreme Director".

Bolivar

San
Martín

O’ Higgins

Gran Colombia, 1820-1830
Bolivar’s vision of a united South America.
Present-day Colombia, Ecuador, Venezuela and
Panama.
Short-lived due to dissension amongst various
factions.
Bolivar resigned in 1828.
In 1830, Bolivar’s Gran Colombia divided into
Colombia, Ecuador and Venezuela.
Panama later split from Colombia with US assistance,
1903.

When the king returned to
Portugal, he left his son Dom
Pedro to rule Brazil. “If Brazil
demands independence,” the
king advised
Pedro, “proclaim it yourself
and put the crown on your
own head.”
In 1822, Pedro followed his
father’s advice.

Brazil gains Independence
• Brazil gains independence without the
bloodshed because when Napoleon’s French
army had invaded Portugal, causing the
Portuguese royal family to flee to Brazil.
• King João transferred his monarchy to Brazil
and immediately introduced governmental
reforms in Brazil. With the different reforms
made by King João, Brazil was a self-governing
kingdom without the Portuguese in 1815.
• In September 1822 Brazil won full
independence from Portugal and crowned
Dom Pedro as Emperor Pedro I of Brazil.
• In 1825, Portugal finally recognized Brazil’s
independence.

Challenges that come with Growth
• Because of the high mountains and thick jungles made
transportation and communication difficult, hindering trade and
economic growth, which let many fertile lands remaining
undeveloped.
• Stable food source is important to growth; building infrastructure is
equally important—schools, roads, hospitals…
• In the Colonies the executive branch of the government had the
political power.
• The judicial branch was weak and limited, and
• the legislative branch was practically nonexistent.
• The leaders were well educated but had no experience in the
legislative process, and with low literacy rates, the people were slow
to get a grip on democratic process.
• But there were still the separation between the upper and lower
classes, but now the creoles owned the best land and controlled
business and government, not the peninsulares.

• Although Catholicism remained the official religion and
Church and government continued to be closely tied.
• With the gain of independence came the increase of political
conflicts. Liberals called for separation of Church and
State, the breakup of large estates, higher taxes on
land, public social services, and civilian control of the
government. There were liberals than there were the
creoles, most of whom were rich landowners, church
leaders, and military officers. The decades that followed the
wars for independence saw an ongoing struggle for economic
strength and social justice.

4

Political Problems
During the 1800s, most Latin American nations were plagued
by revolts, civil war, and dictatorships.
• Many problems had their origins in colonial rule, as
independence barely changed the existing social and political
hierarchy.

• With few roads and no traditions of unity, the new nations were
weakened by regionalism, loyalty to a local area.

What they really needed:
• Land Reform
• a break with traditional customs
• experience with government
• infrastructure
• separation of Church and State

Opposing
1

Ideologies

At the Congress of Vienna, the powers of Europe tried to turn the
clock back to the way things had been before 1789.

Other voices, however, kept challenging the order imposed by the
Congress of Vienna.
The clash of people with opposing ideologies, or
systems of thought and belief, plunged Europe
into more than 30 years of turmoil.

1

What Were the Goals of Conservatives?

Conservatives pursued the following goals:
• Restore royal families to the thrones they had lost when
Napoleon swept across Europe.

• Maintain a social hierarchy in which lower classes respected and
obeyed their social superiors.

• Maintain an established church.

• Suppress revolutionary ideas.

1

The Liberal and Nationalist Challenge
Challenging the conservatives at every turn were liberals and
nationalists who were inspired by the Enlightenment and the French
Revolution.
LIBERALISM NATIONALISM

Liberals wanted: • National groups who shared
• Governments based on a common heritage set out
written constitutions and to win their own states.
separation of powers.
• Natural rights of • Nationalism gave people with
liberty, equality, and a common heritage a sense
prosperity. of identity.
• Rulers elected by the
people and responsible to
• Nationalism often bred
them.
intolerance and led to
• A republican form of persecution of other ethnic
government. or national groups.

Church on the Spilled Blood (Resurrection
Cathedral). Built as a memorial church
dedicated to Alexander II (the tsar who
abolished serfdom in Russia), this church
now represents the world`s largest
museum of mosaics. Outside the traditional
Russian onion domes make this church the
most un-St.Petersburg-like structure,

Church on Spilled Blood - built
between 1883 and 1907

1
Revolts Against the Old Order
Spurred by the ideas of liberalism and
nationalism, revolutionaries fought against the old
• In
order. the Balkans, first Serbia, and later Greece
fought for and won independence from their
Ottoman rulers and becomes “The Powder
Keg of Europe”.
• In Spain, Portugal, and various states in the Italian peninsula, rebels struggled
to gain constitutional governments. In response, a French army marched over
the Pyrenees to suppress the revolts in Spain. Austrian forces crossed the Alps
to smash rebellious outbreaks in Italy.

2
How Did Revolution
The revolts in Paris inspired uprisings Spread in 1830?
elsewhere in Europe. Most were
suppressed by military force. But here
and there, rebels did win changes from
conservative governments. Even when
they failed, revolutionaries frightened
rulers badly enough to encourage reform Poland
later in the century. Nationalists in
Poland staged an
Belgium The one notable success for uprising in 1830.
Europe’s revolutionaries in 1830 took However, the
place in Belgium. The Congress of Vienna
had united Belgium and Holland under
rebels failed to gain
the Dutch king. widespread
The Belgians resented this arrangement support, and were
and pushed for independence. brutally crushed by
In 1831, Belgium became an Russian forces.
independent state with a liberal
constitution.

2

Revolutions in
Europe,
1830 and 1848

2

Revolutions of 1848
In 1848, revolts in Paris again unleashed a tidal wave of revolution across Europe.

• In Austria, revolts caused Metternich to resign. The
Austrian government agreed to reforms, but these gains
were temporary. With Russian help, Austrian forces
defeated the rebels. Many were imprisoned, executed, or
exiled.
• Nationalists in Italy rebelled against Austrian Hapsburg
rulers. They expelled the pope and installed a nationalist
government. Before long, Austrian troops ousted the new
government and the French army restored the pope to
power.
• In Prussia, liberals forced King Frederick William IV to
agree to a constitution written by an elected assembly.
• Within a year, Frederick dissolved the assembly and issued
his own constitution keeping power in his own hands.

Conflicting Ideologies
This cartoon shows Prince
Metternich standing
resolute against the angry
crowd behind him who are
pushing for reform.
Metternich represented
the conservative order and
opposed revolutionary
ideals such as freedom and
progress.

How does the cartoonist
portray those in the
crowd?
What does the crowd
support?
What did Metternich do to
suppress revolutionary
ideas?

Serbs in Battle
Serb leader Karageorge (left) leads the Serbs against
the Ottomans at the Battle of Misar during the first
Serbian rebellion.

(a) Why would this battle and others like it help lead
to a sense of Serbian national identity?

(b) Why was this sense of nationalism important for
the Serbs?

Belgium Wins Independence
The one notable success in 1830 took place in Belgium. In 1815, the Congress of
Vienna had united the Austrian Netherlands (present-day Belgium) and the Kingdom
of Holland under the Dutch king. The Congress had wanted to create a strong barrier
to help prevent French expansion in the future.
The Belgians resented the new arrangement. They and the Dutch had different languages.
The Belgians were Catholic, while the Dutch were Protestant. The Belgian economy was
based on manufacturing; the Dutch, on trade.
In 1830, news of the Paris uprising ignited a revolutionary spark in Belgium. Students and
workers threw up barricades in Brussels, the capital. Britain and France believed that they
would benefit from the separation of Belgium and Holland and supported Belgian
demands for independence. As a result, in 1831, Belgium became an independent state
with a liberal constitution.
Rebels Fail in Poland
Nationalists in Poland also staged an uprising in 1830. But, unlike the Belgians, the
Poles failed to win independence for their country.
In the late 1700s, Russia, Austria, and Prussia had divided up Poland. Poles had hoped
that the Congress of Vienna would restore their homeland in 1815. Instead, the great
powers handed most of Poland to Russia.
In 1830, Polish students, army officers, and landowners rose in revolt. The rebels failed
to gain widespread support, however, and were brutally crushed by Russian forces.
Some survivors fled to Western Europe and the United States, where they kept alive
the dream of freedom.

2

Revolutions of 1830 and 1848

• Why did revolutions occur in France in
1830 and 1848?

• How did revolution spread in 1830?

• What were the results of the 1848
revolutions?

2
Why Did Revolutions Occur in France in 1830 and 1848?

1830 1848
Charles X, a strong believer in When the government tried
absolutism, suspended the to silence critics and
legislature, limited the right to prevent public
vote, and restricted the press. meetings, angry crowds
took to the streets.

Liberals and radicals rebelled
and took control of Paris.
Louis Philippe abdicated.

Moderate liberals put in
place a constitutional Revolutionary leaders
monarchy, and chose Louis proclaimed a Second
Philippe as king. Republic.

Revolt in France in 1830

• Wanted to restore absolute monarchs
• Had support of ultraroyalists- -nobles favoring
a return to the old order
• Dissolved the Assembly and held new elections Charles X
• Issued the July Ordinances
– Measures that showed the dissolved assembly, ended press
freedom, and restricted voting rights
• Les Trois Glorieuses—in return for July Ordinances
– Three glorious days of rioting and revolution, again!
– Parisian workers and students forced Charles to give up the
throne and flee to Great Britain

• Louis Philippe accepted the throne as “The Citizen King”
– Dressed and behaved like a middle class citizen
– Favored wealthy and ignored middle class demands
• Francois Guizot
– Prime minister of France
– Also refused middle class Louis-Philippe I
demands

François Guizot accepts the charter from Louis-
Philippe, the "Citizen-King".

France--The Revolution of 1848
• Guizot feared a demonstration and cancelled a
banquet
• February 22
– Crowds flooded the streets singing “The Marseillaise”
and shouted protests to Guizot
– Troops called to calm it sided with the rebels and joined
the parade
– 52 civilians were killed or wounded
– Louis Philippe fled to Great Britain
– Rebels declared France a republic

Marianne/Liberte

2

Why Did the Uprisings Fail?
By 1850 the rebellions had faded, ending the age of
liberal revolution that had begun in 1789.

• Rulers used military force to suppress the uprisings.

• Revolutionaries did not have mass support.

• A growing gulf divided workers seeking radical
economic change and liberals pursuing moderate
political reforms.

Giuseppe Mazzini, around 1865

Flag of Italy, 1833

In the 1830s, the nationalist leader Giuseppe Mazzini founded Young Italy. The goal of this
secret society was “to constitute Italy, one, free, independent, republican nation.” In
1849, Mazzini helped set up a revolutionary republic in Rome, but French forces soon toppled
it. Like many other nationalists, Mazzini spent much of his life in exile, plotting and dreaming
of a united Italy.

To nationalists like Mazzini, a united Italy made sense
not only because of geography, but also because of a
common language and history. Nationalists reminded
Italians of the glories of ancient Rome and the
medieval papacy. To others, unity made practical
economic sense. It would end trade barriers among
the Italian states and stimulate industry. The image is a draft of a speech
written by Camillo Cavour in
1861.

After 1848, leadership of the
Risorgimento or Italian
nationalist movement, passed to
the kingdom of Sardinia, which
included Piedmont, Nice, and
Savoy as well as the island of
Sardinia.
Its constitutional monarch, Victor Emmanuel II, hoped to join
other states to his own, thereby increasing his power.

3

Unifying Italy

• What were the key obstacles to Italian unity?

• What roles did Count Camillo Cavour and
Giuseppe Garibaldi play in the struggle for Italy?

• What challenges faced the new nation of Italy?

This Harper's Weekly cartoon glorifies Giuseppe
Garibaldi, the military leader of the Italian independence
and unification movement, as a liberator of the Italian
people from their oppressive rulers. He appears as
Perseus, the mythical Greek hero who rescued Princess
Andromeda (here, Sicily) from a sea monster
(here, "Bomba," King Ferdinand II of Sicily).

• Camillo Benso, conte di Cavour
was the statesman, while Garibaldi
was the warrior, but together they
created Italy.

• Giuseppe Garibaldi (1807-82) helping
Victor Emmanuel II (1820-78) put on the
boot of Italy. The Unification of Italy. John
Tenniel cartoon from "Punch", London, 17
November 1860. Wood engraving.

Without Garibaldi’s efforts
on his behalf, Victor
Emmanuel II would not have
become King of a united
Italy. VEII becomes king with
a constitutional monarchy
and a bicameral legislature

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Vittorio
Emanuele II

The Vittoriano in Rome, honoring King Victor
Emmanuel and celebrating the unity of Italy. The
decision to build it was reached in 1878, shortly after
the king's death that year; the site on the Capitoline
Hill was chosen in 1882; and the design of 28 year-old
Giuseppe Sacconi was selected in 1884. Construction
began in 1885 and the monument was inaugurated in
1911. It is fondly referred to as The Typewriter.

3

Obstacles to
Italian Unity

For centuries, Italy had been a battleground for ambitious foreign
and local princes. Frequent warfare and foreign rule had led people
to identify with local regions.

The Congress of Vienna divided Italy up among Austrian
rulers, Hapsburg monarchs, and a French Bourbon king.

Nationalist attempts to expel Austrian forces from northern Italy
were repeatedly crushed.

3

What Challenges Faced the New Nation of Italy?

• Italy had no tradition of unity. Strong regional ties left Italy
unable to solve critical national issues.

• An enormous gap existed between the north, which was richer
and had more cities, and the south, which was poor and rural.

• Hostility between Italy and the Roman Catholic Church further
divided the nation.

• In the late 1800s, unrest increased as radicals on the left
struggled against a conservative right.

The Struggle for Italy
3

CAVOUR GARIBALDI
Prime minister who believed in Long-time nationalist leader who
Realpolitik. wanted to create an Italian republic.

Wanted to end Austrian power in Led his Thousand Red Shirts into
Italy and annex its provinces of battle.
Lombardy and Venetia.
Captured Sicily and Naples and
Led Sardinia to provoke a war with turned them over to Victor
Austria. With help from Emmanuel. Shortly
France, Sardinia defeated Austria afterward, Victor Emmanuel II was
and annexed Lombardy. crowned king of Italy.

3
Unification
of
Italy, 1858–
1870

Italian Emigration
Emigrants crowd the
port of Naples.

Why did Italians
immigrate to other
countries in the early
1900s?

Otto von Bismarck
(center), chancellor
of Germany, meets
with European and
Turkish leaders at
the Congress of
Berlin.

Reaction and Nationalism

The Unification of Germany

An Alsatian

Terms People and Places to look for

PEOPLE AND PLACES TERMS
• William I • Realpolitik
• Otto von Bismarck • Kaiser
• Frankfurt • chancellor
• Austria
• Prussia
• Schleswig
• Holstein

“Germany does not look to
Prussia’s liberalism, but to
her power. . . . The great
questions of the day are not
to be decided by speeches
and majority resolutions—
that was the mistake of 1848
and 1849—but by blood and
Otto von Bismarck delivered his “blood and
iron” speech in 1862. It set the tone for his iron!”
future policies. Bismarck was determined to —Otto von Bismarck, 1862
build a strong, unified German state, with
Prussia at its head.

1

Building a German Nation
• What early changes promoted German unity?

• How did Bismarck unify Germany?

• What was the basic political organization of the new
German empire?

1

Steps Toward German Unity
• Between 1807 and 1812, Napoleon made important territorial
changes in German-speaking lands. Many Germans resented
Napoleon and his changes. As people fought to free their lands
from French rule, they began to demand a unified state.

• In the 1830s, Prussia created an economic union called the
Zollverein.

• In 1848, liberals again demanded German political unity. They
offered the throne of a united German state to Frederick William
IV of Prussia, but he refused it.

Steps Toward Unity
• In order to remake Europe after the downfall of
Napoleon I, an international conference, The
Congress of Vienna, was called.
• The Congress of Vienna created the German
Confederation in 1815 as a buffer against possible
future French expansion!
• Even though Austria dominated the
confederation, Prussia was the largest German state
that had a well-organized government and strong
economy.
• The power in the German states, at this time, was
liberal!!

Bismarck
Early Germany

• Military battles caused Germany to become
politically unified, but this did little to ease the
tension felt by German people. The Germans
still had many religious, social, economic and
political differences that divided them. This was
because the Germans had been separate
individual kingdoms for hundreds of years.
German leaders saw the need to bring the
people together as a whole. Otto von Bismarck
emerged as the man who would play a key role
in unifying the nation of Germany. Kaiser
William I will support Bismarck.

Notice stylish Prussian
helmet

Otto von BismarcK
BACKGROUND INFORMATION
• Son of Karl Wilhelm Ferdinand von Bismarck and Wilhelmine Luise Mencken,
• Otto von Bismarck was born into a wealthy family. He was educated at
secondary schools and studied law at the University of Gottingen. Otto also
served in the army for one year and became an officer in the Landwehr, reserve.

HIS ROLE IN GERMANY
• Bismarck was one of the most significant figures in Germany. In 1847 Bismarck
entered into politics as a ultraconservative champion of Junker interest.
• Junker is a member of the aristocratic landholders class, esp. in East
Prussia, strongly devoted to militarism and authoritarianism, from among whom the
German military forces recruited a large number of its officers.
• Bismarck was also a Chancellor of the Northern German Confederation. As
Chancellor of the N. German Confederation Bismarck played an important role in
government. He greatly influenced German and international politics both during
and after his time of service.
• Otto von Bismarck was also the Prime Minister of Prussia. He shared many of the
same views as the King of Germany at the time, William I. They both believed that
Prussia needed a government and army to achieve German unity.
• While alive Bismarck engaged in THREE major wars to unite Germany.

Bismarck Unites Germany
Otto von Bismarck succeeded where others had
failed. Bismarck came from Prussia’s Junker class,
made up of conservative landowning nobles.
Bismarck first served Prussia as a diplomat in
Russia and France. In 1862, King William I made
him prime minister. Within a decade, the new
prime minister had become chancellor, or the
Royal house medal
highest official of a monarch, and had used his of the Hohenzollerns
policy of “blood and iron” to unite the German
states under Prussian rule.
Bismarck’s success was due in part to his strong will. He was a master
of Realpolitik or realistic politics based on the needs of the state. In
the case of Realpolitik, power was more important than principles.

1
How did Bismarck unify Germany?
In 1862, Otto von Bismarck was made chancellor, or prime
minister, of Prussia. Within a decade, Bismarck had united
the German states under Prussia.
• Bismarck was a master of Realpolitik, or realistic politics based on the
needs of the state. He valued power over principles.
• Bismarck strengthened the army in preparation for pursuing an aggressive
foreign policy.
• In 1864, Bismarck formed an alliance with Austria. Together, they seized
the provinces of Schleswig and Holstein from Denmark and divided up the
spoils.
• In 1866, Bismarck attacked and defeated Austria in the Austro-Prussian
War, and then annexed, or took control of, several north German states.
• Bismarck dissolved the Austrian-led German Confederation and created a
new confederation dominated by Prussia.
• In 1870, Bismarck provoked France into the Franco-Prussian War and
quickly claimed victory.

Strengthening the
Army

Prussia Declares War
With Denmark and
Austria
France Declares War
on Prussia

Austro-Prussian War painting and
a medal of victory
Delighted by the victory over France, princes from the southern German states
and the North German Confederation persuaded William I of Prussia to take the
title kaiser ,or emperor. In January 1871, German nationalists celebrated the birth
of the Second Reich, or empire. They called it that because they considered it heir
to the Holy Roman Empire.
A constitution drafted by Bismarck set up a two-house legislature. The Bundesrat
, or upper house, was appointed by the rulers of the German states. The Reichstag
or lower house, was elected by universal male suffrage. Because the Bundesrat
could veto any decisions of the Reichstag, real power remained in the hands of
the emperor and his chancellor.

Kulturkampf

• Kulturkampf refers to the German
cultural struggle between church and
state.
• The Catholics in Germany organized the
Center party to represent their interests
in German government. They did this
because at this time, there were a lot of
Protestant Prussians who wanted to
oppress the Catholics.
• Bismarck viewed Catholics as a threat
to German unification. For this
reason, he usually supported the
Protestants in political affairs.

The Church
• In 1870, the Roman Catholic
Church declared the doctrine
of infallibility. This stated that
the pope is infallible when
speaking on religious issues.
• This was a threat to Germany,
because now the government
could not disagree with the
pope, without causing the
Catholics to feel alienated.
• The Church is not going to
back down from this
confrontation Pope Pius IX

Germany’s
Reaction
• Bismarck viewed the Jesuits as papal
agents working to bring down
Germany, so he banished all Jesuits
from Germany in 1872. The Jesuits
who had been living in Germany
were expelled out of the country.
• The next year, German legislature
started passing a series of laws that
were meant to lessen Catholic
influence in the country. These were
called the May Laws. Under the May
Laws, Catholic bishops lost most of
their authority and power.
Also, weddings had to be performed
by a secular official.
• In response to the May Laws, the
Catholic Church ended all diplomatic
ties with Germany and the Pope Pius
IX declared the laws invalid.

Map of Europe in 1871

A Political Game of Chess
This political
cartoon shows
Otto von
Bismarck and
Pope Pius IX
trying to
checkmate
each other in a
game of chess.

• Pope Pius IX died and was Healing the Rift
succeeded by Leo XIII.
• Leo XIII wanted to make peace
with Germany. He made an
effort to heal the rift and
come to a compromise with
the German legislature.
• Eventually the German
legislature agreed and
repealed most of the May
Laws. This was an effort by the
German government to
appease the Church and the
Catholic population of
Germany. This ended the
Kulturkampf.
Pope Leo XIII

Three Wars
• Bismarck’s initial goal was to raise money for an
army expansion. Then use the Prussian military and
economic power to reduce Austrian influence
among the German states.
– Bismarck went to war three times.

War against DENMARK!
• Denmark ruled the territories Schleswig and Holstein. Bismarck wanted to
avoid the Danish annexation of Schleswig so he persuaded Austria to join
Prussia in declaring war against Denmark. In 1864 the war took place.
• Effects of War
– Prussia and Austria won the war and Denmark was forced out of the
disputed Schleswig and Holstein.
– Prussia got Schleswig and Austria got Holstein.

• Accomplishments of this war...
• It made Europe aware of Prussia’s military might and influence.
• Also the tension stemming from the war gave Bismarck the
PERFECT excuse he wanted for going to war with Austria.

Seven Weeks War
• Bismarck stripped Austria of its alliances. By doing this he gained alliances
with Russia, France and Italy.
• On June 15, 1866 the war between Prussia and Austria began and shortly end
seven weeks later with the victory of Prussia.
Purpose
The purpose of this was to separate Austria from Germany and eliminate the
chance for Germany to be controlled under Austrian rule.
Effect of the Seven Weeks War
Even though Bismarck wanted to destroy Austria, Bismarck knew it wasn’t a
good idea because he would probably need an alliance with Austria in the
future.
The treaty that officially ended the Seven Weeks War was negotiated in the
city of Prague.
This treaty also dissolved the German Confederation.
After the war was over, a “new organization” was formed. It was called the
Northern German Confederation. This “new organization” gave the German
states the right to handle there own domestic affairs. However, the national
defense and the foreign policy was in Prussia’s hands.
* Because of this new strong government Bismarck was
made a hero among German nationalists.

The Franco-Prussian War
• The southern German states were largely Catholic so they
stayed out of the Confederation all together. They feared the
Protestant Prussian military and its immense control of
Germany!
• Now, France posed as a serious obstacle to the unification of
Germany. This is because Napoleon III would not accept or
allow the unification of Germany unless France got a cut and
received some territory in Germany.
• Bismarck went to war with France to resolve this situation. On
July 19, 1870 the fighting began! Because there were more
anti-French than there were anti-Prussian, the German states
allied with Prussia.
• It’s no a surprise that Prussia won and Bismarck had now
gained support from all of the German states for the unification
of Germany under Prussia!!

Formation of an
Empire
• On Jan. 18, 1871, William I assumed the title Kaiser, or
emperor, of a united Germany.
• Bismarck became the German chancellor, or chief minister.
• The new empire united 25 states into one federal union.
– The Kaiser headed the national government.
• However, unification did not make Germany a model
democratic state.

In January 1871, German princes
gathered in the glittering Hall of
Mirrors at the French palace of
Versailles. They had just defeated
Napoleon III in the Franco-Prussian
War. Once home to French
kings, the palace seemed the
perfect place to proclaim the new
German empire. To the winners as
well as to the losers, the symbolism
was clear: French domination of
Europe had ended. Germany was
now the dominant power in

Social Reform
Under Bismarck’s leadership, Germany
pioneered social reform. By
1884, Germans had health and accident
insurance. By 1889, they had disability
and old-age insurance. Why did Bismarck
introduce these social reforms?

2

Strengthening Germany

• What marked Germany as an industrial giant?

• Why was Bismarck called the Iron Chancellor?

• What policies did Kaiser William II follow?

2

The German Industrial Giant
By the late 1800s, German chemical and electrical industries were setting the
standard worldwide. German shipping was second only to Britain’s among the
European powers.
Germany possessed several characteristics that made
industrialization possible:
• Ample iron and coal resources in Ruhr
Valley
• Disciplined and educated work force
• Rapidly growing population
In the 1850s and 1860s, Germans had founded large companies and
built many railroads.
German industrialists were the first to see the value of applied
science in developing new products such as synthetic chemicals and
dyes.

Industrial Growth
• Before it unified, Germany was not a very
industrialized nation. The main source of
income was through agriculture. Germany did
not produce the same amount of
coal, textiles, iron and steel as industrial
nations like Great Britain.
• German leaders realized that a strong
economy is the foundation of a strong
country, so they worked to industrialize
Germany. Germany began mining coal along
the Rhine.

This coal will fuel the new factories and industrial plants. Many young German
citizens came to work at these new factories and by the end of the 1800’s
Germany was an industrial nation.
The upper class of Germany profited from industrialization and lived
lavishly, but the lower class was forced to live in crowded cities and work long
hours.

2

The Iron Chancellor
Called the Iron Chancellor, Bismarck applied ruthless methods to achieve his
goals.

Foreign policy goals:
• Bismarck wanted to keep France weak and isolated while building strong links
with Austria; then, defeat both.
• Later, Bismarck competed with Britain for colonies to expand Germany’s
overseas empire.
Domestic goals:
• Bismarck sought to erase local loyalties and crush all opposition to the
imperial state. He targeted the Catholic Church and the socialists, both of
which he saw as a threat to the new German state.

Bismarck vs. Socialists
• Bismarck believed that Socialists were a threat to the German
government. He decided to try to end the Socialist party. In
1878, German legislature passed a law that banned any Socialists
meeting or publication. It did not ban the party itself, but it made it
nearly impossible for the Socialists to communicate publicly.
• Bismarck also tried to convince the people that the German
government cared about the workers more than the socialists. German
legislature passed bills such as the Old Age Insurance Law and the
Sickness Insurance Law. The Old Age Insurance Law protected workers
after their retirement and the Sickness Insurance Law gave partial
compensation to sick workers.
• Bismarck’s success against the Socialists was short-lived, because the
Socialists won 35 seats in German legislature. These Socialists refused
to renew any anti-socialist bill that was proposed.

2

• When William II came to power, he wanted to Kaiser
put his own stamp on Germany. During his
reign, he asked Bismarck to resign, believing William II
that his right to rule came from God and that
“there is only one master in the Reich.”
• resisted efforts to introduce democratic
reforms.
• provided services, such as programs for social
welfare, cheap transportation, and electricity.
• spent heavily on the German military machine.
• launched an ambitious campaign to
expand the German navy and win an overseas He was born with a withered
arm, carefully disguised in
empire. photos, but this may have
affected his self-esteem. He
over-compensates, especially
with the mustache!

Bismarck’s Resignation
Kaiser
In 1888 Kaiser William I, an influential Wilhelm II
supporter of Bismarck, died at the age of 91.
His son, Prince Frederick, replaced him.
Frederick was very liberal-minded, but
accomplished very little because he died less
than a year after his coronation. Frederick’s
son, William II, will take the throne. At the
time of his coronation William II is 29 years
old. He was very conservative. He also
believed strongly in militarism. Militarism is
the idea that a country needs a strong
military prepared for war at all times. Kaiser
Bismarck and the Kaiser disagreed many William II—
times and eventually this caused Bismarck to notice the
resign. Bismarck resigned in 1890 after many arm! This is a
years of changing Germany into a world painting!!!
power.

What if Annie Oakley had shot
Kaiser Wilhelm II in 1889?
By David Clay Large

One chilly November afternoon in 1889, a fur-coated crowd assembled in
Berlin’s Charlottenburg Race Course to enjoy a performance of Buffalo
Bill’s Wild Wild West Show, which was touring Europe to great popular
acclaim. Among the audience
was the Reich’s impetuous young ruler, Kaiser Wilhelm II, who had been
on the throne for a year. Wilhelm was particularly keen to see the show’s
star attraction, Annie Oakley, famed throughout the world for her skills
with a Colt. 45.

On that day, as usual, Annie announced to the crowd that she would attempt to
shoot the ashes from the cigar of some lady or gentleman in the audience. “Who
shall volunteer to hold the cigar?” she asked. In fact, she expected no one from
the crowd to volunteer; she simply asked for laughs. Her long-suffering husband,
Frank Butler, always stepped forward and offered himself as her human Havana-
holder.

This time, however, Annie had no sooner made her
announcement then Kaiser Wilhelm himself leaped out of the
royal box and strutted into the arena. Annie was stunned and
horrified but could not retract her dare without losing face. She
paced off her usual distance while Wilhelm extracted a cigar
from a gold case and lit it with flourish. Several German
policeman, suddenly realizing that this was not one of Kaiser's
little jokes, tried to preempt the stunt, but were waved off by His
All-Highest Majesty. Sweating profusely under her buckskin, and
regretful that she had consumed more than her usual amount of
whiskey the night before, Annie raised her Colt, took aim, and
blew away Wilhelm's ashes.
Had the sharpshooter from Cincinnati creased the Kaiser's head
rather than his cigar, one of Europe's most ambitious and volatile
rulers would have been removed from the scene. Germany might
not have pursued its policy of aggressive Weltpolitik that
culminated in war twenty-five years later.
Annie herself seemed to realize her mistake later on. After World
War I began, she wrote to the Kaiser asking for a second shot. He
did not respond.

Key Terms

• Romanticism- The artistic movement of the early 1800s
emphasizing individuality and emotion.
• Realism- The artistic and literary style of the mid-1800s that
pictured the realities of everyday life.
• Symbolism- Anti-realism artistic movement that focused on
dreamlike images and symbols.
• Impressionism- artistic style in which painters tried to capture
quick impressions and the effects of light.
• Postimpressionism- Artistic movement whose members
experimented with form and color.

4

Romanticism
Romantic writers, artists, and composers rebelled against the
Enlightenment emphasis on reason. They glorified nature and
sought to excite strong emotions in their audiences.

ART LITERATURE MUSIC

Painters broke free Writers created a new kind of Composers tried to stir
from the discipline and hero, a mysterious, deep emotions.
rules of the melancholy figure out of step Ludwig van Beethoven
Enlightenment. with reality. combined classical forms
J.M.W. Turner Lord Byron described the with a stirring range of
captured the beauty romantic hero in his poetry. sound.
and power of nature. Charlotte Brontë wove a Frederic Chopin conveyed
Eugène Delacroix mysterious tale in Jane Eyre. the sorrow of people
painted dramatic living under foreign
action. occupation.

Romanticism : The emphasis of human
emotion over reason
• Romantic artists tried to free themselves from the rigid forms and structures of
neoclassical art. In doing this, the rejected the mechanization and the ugliness of
industrialized society, and turned to nature, glorifying its awesome power and
beauty.
• Many Romantic artists looked to the past, admiring the mythical heroes of old.
- Romantic Music
• Meant to stir emotions, either in large works, aka symphonies, written by Russian
composer Peter Tchaikovsky, or in smaller works like piano pieces.
- Romantic Literature
• Romantic writers created emotion-filled, imaginative works. One early leader of
the romantic movement in literature is Johann Wolfgang von Goethe. France’s
most popular romantic writer was probably Aurore Dupin AKA George Sand.
- Romantic Painting
• Romantic painters, like writers and composers, reflected romantic ideals. Painters
began to portray exotic, powerful subjects in a dramatic and colorful way. Most of
the romantic works were meant to stir emotions, and not appeal to the intellect.

• Beethoven
• Chopin
• Wagner

Peter Tchaikovsky
(1840-1893)
Tchaikovsky wrote music across a range of
genres, including symphony, opera, ballet,
instrumental, chamber and song.

Johann Wolfgang von Goethe
(1749-1832)

• He was a German
poet, novelist, playwright, co
urtier, and natural
philosopher.
• Goethe was one of the
greatest figures in Western
literature.
• He is best known for Faust, a
drama about human striving
and the need for
redemption: the classic
bargain with the Devil.

Aurore Dupin AKA George Sand
(1804-1876)
• Aurore was a French
author who made peasants
and workers heroes in her
fiction.
• She was born with the
name Aurore, but she was
called George Sand, her
pen name.

The Lady of Shalott John William Waterstone 1888

Realism : The presentation of real and
concrete things.

• In the mid-1800s, some artists began to reject the
sentimentality of romanticism. They wanted to portray life
in a realistic manner.
- Realism in Literature
• Realism also flourished in literature. French writer Honore
de Balzac described the greed and stupidity that he saw in
The Human Comedy.
• Charles Dickens was the foremost English realistic writer. He
spoke out on behalf of the poor.
• Russian writer Leo Tolstoy also reflected his compassion for
the peasants and gave his analysis of social customs.

4

Realism

By the mid-1800s, a new artistic movement, realism, took hold in the West.
Realism was an attempt to represent the world as it was.

Realists often focused their work on the harsh side of life in cities or villages.
Many writers and artists were committed to improving the lot of the
unfortunates whose lives they depicted.
• The English novelist Charles Dickens vividly portrayed the lives
of slum dwellers and factory workers.
• The Norwegian dramatist Henrik Ibsen wrote plays that
attacked the hypocrisy he observed around him.
• The French painter Gustave Courbet focused on ordinary subjects.

Realism
Realism in the visual arts and literature is the depiction of
subjects as they appear in everyday life, without
embellishment or interpretation. The term also describes
works of art which, in revealing a truth, may emphasize the
ugly or sordid.
Realism often refers to the artistic movement, which began
in France in the 1850s. The popularity of realism grew with
the introduction of photography—a new visual source that
created a desire for people to produce things that look
“objectively real.”

Honore de Balzac
(1799-1850)
• He is a French journalist
and writer, and also one
of the creators of realism
in literature.
• The Human Comedy was
about 90 of his novels
and short stories of
French life, grouped
together

Charles Dickens
(1812-1870)

• Dickens is probably the most
known English realistic writer.
• He focused on the deplorable
conditions in the
prisons, hospitals, and
poorhouses of London.
• In his novel Hard Times, he
attacked the materialism of
Coketown, a fictional city.

Leo Tolstoy
(1828-1910)
• He was a Russian
author, essayist and
philosopher
• War and Peace is a
family novel in which
Tolstoy takes five
families through the
stages of life.

Symbolism
• Some writers became disgusted with what
they viewed as the ugly and brutal realities
of European industrial civilization.

• Symbolism spread to the other arts and to
other countries.

A daguerreotype (original French:
daguerréotype) is an early type of
photograph, developed by Jacques Daguerre, in
which the image is exposed directly onto a
mirror-polished surface of silver bearing a
coating of silver halide particles deposited by
iodine vapor. In later developments bromine and
chlorine vapors were also used, resulting in
shorter exposure times. The daguerreotype is a
negative image, but the mirrored surface of the
metal plate reflects the image and makes it
appear positive when the silvered surface has a
dark ground reflected into it.
Thus, daguerreotype is a direct photographic
• process withoutTemple, Paris,for duplication.
Boulevard du the capacity 1838, by Daguerre. The first picture of a person. The
image shows a busy street, but because exposure time was over ten minutes, the
traffic was moving too much to appear. The exception is the man at the bottom
left, who stood still getting his boots polished long enough to show.

The process revealed on that day seemed magical.
Each daguerreotype is a remarkably detailed, one-
of-a-kind photographic image on a highly
polished, silver-plated sheet of copper, sensitized
with iodine vapors, exposed in a large box
camera, developed in mercury fumes, and
stabilized (or fixed) with salt water or "hypo”.
Although Daguerre was required to
reveal, demonstrate, and publish detailed
instructions for the process, he wisely retained the
patent on the equipment necessary to practice the
new art.

From the moment of its
birth, photography had a dual
character—as a medium of artistic
expression and as a powerful scientific
tool—and Daguerre promoted his
invention on both fronts.

Mathew Brady • Mathew Brady (1822 – January 15, 1896) was one
of the most celebrated 19th century American
photographers, best known for his portraits of
celebrities and the documentation of the
American Civil War. He is credited with being the
father of photojournalism.

Impressionism

• During the 1870s, a group of
French artists developed a
style called impressionism.
• Claude Monet, one of the
most famous impressionists,
painted series of paintings on
the same subject to show
variations in light and color
during various times of the
day and seasons of the year.

Claude Monet
• The most lyrical of the
impressionist painters, Claude
Oscar Monet, b. Nov. 14, 1840, d.
Dec. 5, 1926, was also the most
committed to recording transient
effects of light and atmosphere.
This aim led Monet and his
colleagues to develop the
techniques of impressionism.
Monet advised his fellow painters
to concentrate on the play of light
and color of the objects that they
had before them.

EDGAR
DEGAS

• The art of Edgar Degas, b.
Paris, July 19, 1834, d. Sept.
26, 1917, reflects a concern for
the psychology of movement
and expression, the harmony
of line and continuity of
contour. These characteristics
set Degas apart from the other
impressionist
painters, although he took part
in all but one of the 8
impressionist exhibitions
between 1874 and 1886.

Post-Impressionism
• In the late 1880s some artists
turned away from
impressionism.
• By this time, Paul Cezanne had
laid the foundation for
Postimpressionism.
• Georges Seurat, another
Postimpressionist, applied
science to his paintings.
• Vincent van Gogh used brilliant
colors and distorted forms to
make intense statements in his
paintings.

Georges-Pierre Seurat

A Sunday Afternoon on the Island of La Grande Jatte

Pointillism is a style of painting in which small
distinct dots of color create the impression of a
wide selection of other colors and blending. Aside
from color "mixing" phenomena, there is the
simpler graphic phenomenon of depicted
imagery emerging from disparate points.
Historically, Pointillism has been a figurative
mode of executing a painting, as opposed to an
abstract modality of expression.
The technique relies on the perceptive ability of
the eye and mind of the viewer to mix the color
spots into a fuller range of tones and is related
closely to Divisionism, a more technical variant of
the method. It is a style with few serious
practitioners and is notably seen in the works of
Seurat, Signac and Cross. The term Pointillism
was first coined by art critics in the late 1880s to
ridicule the works of these artists and is now
used without its earlier mocking connotation.

• Paul Cézanne 19 January 1839 – 22 October 1906) was a
French artist and Post-Impressionist painter whose work Paul
laid the foundations of the transition from the 19th
century conception of artistic endeavor to a new and
radically different world of art in the 20th century.
Cézanne
Cézanne can be said to form the bridge between late
19th century Impressionism and the early 20th century's
new line of artistic enquiry, Cubism. The line attributed to
both Matisse and Picasso that Cézanne "is the father of
us all" cannot be easily dismissed.
• Cézanne's work demonstrates a mastery of
design, color, composition and draftsmanship. His often
repetitive, sensitive and exploratory brushstrokes are
highly characteristic and clearly recognizable. He used
planes of color and small brushstrokes that build up to
form complex fields, at once both a direct expression of
the sensations of the observing eye and an abstraction
from observed nature. The paintings convey Cézanne's
intense study of his subjects, a searching gaze and a
dogged struggle to deal with the complexity of human
visual perception.

Self portrait c. 1875

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