Chapter - 05 (Motivation) Chapter - 05 (Motivation).ppt

Editor's Notes

• #2: When defining motivation it is important to look at the interaction between the individual and the situation (20 mins to Harry Porter). The first is intensity or how hard the person tries to accomplish the task. The second element is direction and that is the effort that is channeled toward organizational goals. The final element is persistency or how long a person can maintain the effort. Four theories of employee motivation formulated during the 1950s, although now of questionable validity, are probably still the best known
• #3: Four theories of employee motivation formulated during the 1950s, although now of questionable validity, are probably still the best known. The first theory was developed by Abraham Maslow in the 1950s. As each need is met or satisfied the next need becomes dominant. His theory posits that individuals are stuck in their existing need level until it is satisfied and then they can move on to the next level. For example, until their safety needs are met they will not be able to move on to the social level. The organization of these need levels may vary across cultures.
• #9: The first myth is that one person can motivate another. This is simply not true. An employee has to motivate themselves. As a manager you have to establish an environment that will cultivate and bring forth the personal motivational factors of each individual. This can be accomplished through establishing team goals based on the goals of the individuals. If an individual is motivated towards a goal and the goal has no relation to the team goal, they will not continue to motivate themselves because their results will have no real team value. This is why it is important that managers fully and frequently discuss the organizational goals with their employees. The second myth is that money and fear are good motivators. According to McNamara, money can only help people from being less motivated. It does not typically increase motivation in an individual. Fear, like money, is only useful in the short term. The same repeated criticism or threat from a manager can negatively impact the motivation of the employee. "I know what motivates me, so I know what motivates my employees," is the third myth. Everyone is different. Motivational factors can vary to every extreme. However, what can be uniform for everyone is the goal they are trying to reach. Managers need to identify and understand what motivates each employee to reach the common organizational goal. This can be done by asking, observing and listening to your employees. They will give tremendous insight into their motivational factors through their daily, menial conversations. Often what motivates an individual is what they show the most enthusiasm for. This needs to be followed up with sincere one-on-one meetings to discuss accomplishments and to modify goals based on evolving
• #12: Hackman and Oldham job characteristics model The job characteristics model, designed by Hackman and Oldham, is based on the idea that the task itself is key to employee motivation. Specifically, a boring and monotonous job stifles motivation to perform well, whereas a challenging job enhances motivation. Variety, autonomy and decision authority are three ways of adding challenge to a job. Job enrichment and job rotation are the two ways of adding variety and challenge.
• #13: Douglas McGregor in the 1950s developed the theory called Theory X, Theory Y. He believed that there are two distinct views of human beings that managers hold. The Theory X view is basically negative and holds that workers have little ambition, dislike work and avoid responsibility. The Theory Y view is in contrast to X and sets forth that workers tend to be self-directed, enjoy work and accept responsibility. Managers will modify their behavior toward employees based on what view they hold about them.
• #14: Herzberg proposed a dual continuum: The opposite of “satisfaction” is “no satisfaction,” and the opposite of “dissatisfaction” is “no dissatisfaction.” These sets are distinct and the presence of hygiene factors does not cause satisfaction, it just helps avoid dissatisfaction. Satisfaction and dissatisfaction are not the opposites, but two separate ideas. There are a set of factors that when present will help to avoid dissatisfaction in workers. This group is called the hygiene factors and includes such things as salary, working conditions and company policies. There is another set of factors that when present will help to cause satisfaction in workers. This group is called motivators and includes things such as growth, responsibility and achievement.
• #15: Satisfaction and dissatisfaction are not the opposites, but two separate ideas. There are a set of factors that when present will help to avoid dissatisfaction in workers. This group is called the hygiene factors and includes such things as salary, working conditions and company policies. There is another set of factors that when present will help to cause satisfaction in workers. This group is called motivators and includes things such as growth, responsibility and achievement. Herzberg proposed a dual continuum: The opposite of “satisfaction” is “no satisfaction,” and the opposite of “dissatisfaction” is “no dissatisfaction.” These sets are distinct and the presence of hygiene factors does not cause satisfaction, it just helps avoid dissatisfaction.
• #17: The final earlier theory of needs we will look at is McClelland’s need theory. He bases his theory on the idea that people are motivated in the workplace by three main needs. The first need is the need for achievement or the drive to excel in relation to a set of defined standards. The second is the need for power, to make others behave in a way that they would not have behaved otherwise. The final need addressed in this theory is the need for affiliation. Affiliation looks at the relationship aspect and the desire for close relationships. People will have varying levels of these needs which make this theory difficult to measure.
• #18: The need that has received the most attention by researchers is the need for achievement. Achievers will carefully measure the odds and try to take on activities that are challenging, but not too high-risk. They tend to be motivated in jobs that are more individualistic in nature and provide regular and effective feedback. Achievers tend to not make good managers because they have more of a personal focus. Strong managers have a higher level of need for power and a lower level of need for affiliation as they are trying to motivate a team to move towards a given direction.
• #19: Self-Concordance Personal reasons for pursuing goals are consistent with personal interests and core values. Theory states that people prefer to have control over their actions. So when they are required to do something the previously freely chose, it will diminish their motivation. In fact, the presence of extrinsic rewards may decrease the intrinsic rewards. In addition to extrinsic rewards, managers need to realize the importance of using goal setting and verbal rewards as a method to increase motivation.
• #20: Theory states that people prefer to have control over their actions. So when they are required to do something the previously freely chose, it will diminish their motivation. An example is the Cognitive Evaluation Theory that sets forth that in the workplace intrinsic and extrinsic rewards are not independent of one another. In fact, the presence of extrinsic rewards may decrease the intrinsic rewards. In addition to extrinsic rewards, managers need to realize the importance of using goal setting and verbal rewards as a method to increase motivation.
• #21: Edwin Locke. The idea behind this theory is that goals which are specific and effectively difficult can lead to higher performance if they include self-generated feedback. A difficult goal will help the individual to focus and direct attention as well as energize them to work harder. The difficulty of the goal will increase persistence and force people to be more effective and efficient. The relationship between goals and performance depends on how committed the individual is to the goal as well as how specific the tasks are. Most of the research has been done in the United States so the applicability of this theory to other cultures is suspect.
• #22: Another theory of motivation is the self-efficacy theory developed by Albert Bandura. This theory is based on an individual’s belief that he or she is capable of performing a task. This theory is a complement to the goal-setting theory as it incorporates goals into the process. Higher efficacy is related to greater confidence, greater persistence in the face of difficulties and responding to negative feedback with working harder, not shutting down.
• #23: Self-fulfilling prophecy in which believing something can make it true Pygmalion and Galatea effects Cypriot sculptor, who fell in love with a female statue that was carved by him One can summarize the Pygmalion effect as follows: ⇨ Every manager, or supervisor has certain expectations for his subordinates. ⇨ They convey their expectations to them consciously and unconsciously. ⇨ The subordinates get the message of what is expected of them. ⇨ They strive to perform and live up to the expectations of their manager.
• #24: The idea is that employees compare their ratios of outcomes to inputs of others they see as relevant. When they see the ratios as equal there is a perceived state of equity and no tension arises. However, when they perceive the ratios to be unequal they may experience anger or guilt depending on the result of the equity analysis and then tension can arise. This tension can motivate people to act in a way to bring the situation into a more equitable state.
• #26: People behave differently when they are over-rewarded than under-rewarded. Sensitivity to over-rewarding is less. The equity theory is often hard to apply because sensitivities differ amongst individuals and it is hard to predict how they will respond to inequities.
• #27: Increasingly we think of equity as organizational justice, a larger perception of what is fair in the workplace. Employees perceive their organizations as just when they see that what they receive matches what they have put in. One key element of organizational justice is an individual’s perception of justice. In other words, fairness or equity can be subjective, residing in our perception. What one person sees as unfair, another may see as perfectly appropriate. The second component is procedural justice—the perceived fairness of the process used to determine the distribution of rewards. The final component is interactional justice, an individual’s perception of the degree to which she is treated with dignity, concern, and respect.
• #28: Equity theory is popular in the United States because U.S. style reward systems assume that employees are highly sensitive to equity in reward allocation. Research shows however, that in other cultures inputs and outputs may be valued differently. Managers need to determine what is considered “fair” in a particular culture. Managers need to be transparent, consistent, and unbiased in their decision making.
• #29: Victor Vroom’s Expectancy theory argues that the strength of a tendency to act in a certain way is dependent on the strength of the expectation that they will receive a given outcome and that the outcome is desired. Employees are willing to work harder if they believe that their actions will get them an outcome they desire. For example, employees are willing to work long and hard hours if they know that they will be rewarded through promotion, recognition or pay in response to their hard work.
• #30: Victor Vroom’s Expectancy theory argues that the strength of a tendency to act in a certain way is dependent on the strength of the expectation that they will receive a given outcome and that the outcome is desired. Employees are willing to work harder if they believe that their actions will get them an outcome they desire. For example, employees are willing to work long and hard hours if they know that they will be rewarded through promotion, recognition or pay in response to their hard work.