Chapter 1.docx
- 1. CHAPTER 1 Biology: The Study of Life Study Guide 1.1The Characteristics of Life A. Life Is Organized 1. Organization of living systems begins with atoms, which combine to form small molecules. 2. The cell is the basic structural and functional unit of all living things. a. Some cells are independent organisms, such as single-celled bacteria. b. Multicellular organisms are made up of many cells that work together. 3. Different cells combine to make up tissues (e.g., nerve tissue). 4. Tissues combine to make up an organ (e.g., the brain). 5. Specific organs work together as an organ system (e.g., the brain, spinal cord, etc.). 6. Multicellular organisms (each an “individual” within a particular species) contain organ systems. 7. A species in a particular area (e.g., elephants and trees in Africa) constitutes a population. 8. Interacting populations in a particular area comprise a community. 9. A community plus its physical environment is an ecosystem. 10.The biosphere is comprised of regions of the Earth’s crust, waters, and atmosphere inhabited by organisms. 11.Each level of organization is more complex than the level preceding it. 12.Each level of organization has emergent properties due to interactions between the parts making up the whole; all emergent properties follow the laws of physics and chemistry. B. Life Requires Materials and Energy 1. Maintaining organization and conducting life-sustaining processes requires an outside source of energy, which is defined as the capacity to do “work.” 2. Metabolism is all the chemical reactions that occur in a cell. 3. The ultimate source of energy for nearly all life on Earth is the sun; plants and certain other organisms convert solar energy into chemical energy by the process of photosynthesis. C. Living Organisms Maintain Homeostasis 1. All organisms must maintain a state of biological balance, or homeostasis. 2. Temperature, moisture level, pH, etc., must be maintained within the tolerance range of the organism. 3. In order to maintain homeostasis, body systems monitor internal conditions and make adjustments when needed. 4. Organisms have intricate feedback and control mechanisms to maintain homeostatic balance.
- 2. D. Living Organisms Respond 1. Living things interact with the environment and with other living things. 2. Response often results in movement of the organism (e.g., a plant bending toward the sun to capture solar energy, a turtle withdrawing into its shell for safety, etc.). 3. Responses help ensure survival of the organism and allow the organism to carry out its biological activities. 4. The collective responses of an organism constitute the behavior of the organism. E. Living Organisms Reproduce and Develop 1. Reproduction is the ability of every organism to give rise to another organism like itself. 2. Bacteria, protozoans, and other unicellular organisms can reproduce asexually by splitting in two (binary fission). 3. Multicellular organisms often reproduce sexually, uniting sperm and egg, each from a different individual, resulting in an immature individual that develops into the adult. 4. The instructions for an organism’s organization and development are encoded in genes. 5. Genes are comprised of long molecules of DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid); DNA is the genetic code in all living things. 6. Genes are passed on from generation to generation. Methods to ensure genetic variability include random combination of sperm and egg and mutations. F. Living Organisms Have Adaptations 1. Adaptations are modifications that make organisms better able to function in an environment. 2. Evolution includes the way in which populations change over the course of generations to become more suited to their environments. 1.2 Evolution and the Classification of Life A. Evolution: The Core Concept of Biology 1. Natural selection is the process by which species become modified over time. 2. In natural selection, members of a species may inherit a genetic change that makes them better suited to a particular environment. 3. These members would be more likely to produce higher numbers of surviving offspring. B. Organizing Diversity 1. Taxonomy is the discipline of identifying and grouping organisms according to certain rules. 2. Systematics is the study of the evolutionary relationships between organisms. 3. Taxonomic classification changes as more is learned about living things,
- 3. including the evolutionary relationships between species. 4. From smaller (least inclusive) categories to larger (more inclusive), the sequence of classification categories are: species, genus, family, order, class, phylum, kingdom, supergroup and domain. 5. The species within one genus share many specific characteristics and are the most closely related, while species in the same kingdom share only general characteristics with one another. 6. Biochemical evidence suggests there are three domains: domain Bacteria, domain Archaea, and domain Eukarya. 7. The domains Bacteria and Archaea contain prokaryotes; organisms in the domain Eukarya are eukaryotes that have a membrane-bound nucleus. 8. The prokaryotes are structurally simple but are metabolically complex. 9. Archaea can live in water devoid of oxygen, and are able to survive harsh environmental conditions (temperatures, salinity, pH). 10.Bacteria are adapted to live almost anywhere (water, soil, atmosphere, in/on the human body, etc.). 11.The domains Archaea and Bacteria are not yet categorized into kingdoms. 12.Eukarya contains four kingdoms: Protista, Fungi, Plantae, and Animalia. 13.Protists (kingdom Protista) range from single-celled forms to multicellular forms. 14.Plants (kingdom Plantae) are multicellular photosynthetic organisms. 15.Fungi (kingdom Fungi) are the molds and mushrooms. 16.Animals (kingdom Animalia) are multicellular organisms that ingest and process their food. 17.Supergroup has been developed to explain evolutionary relationships. There are currently six supergroups for domain Eukarya. 18. Binomial nomenclature refers to a two-part scientific name: the genus (first word, capitalized) and the specific epithet of a species (second word, not capitalized). 19.Scientific names are based on Latin and are used universally by biologists. 1.3The Process of Science 1. Biology is the scientific study of life, and it consists of many disciplines. 2. The scientific process differs from other ways of learning in that science follows the scientific method, which is characterized by observation, development of a hypothesis, experimentation and data collection, and forming a conclusion. A. Observation 1. Scientists believe nature is orderly and measurable, and that natural laws (e.g., gravity) do not change with time. 2. Natural events, called phenomena, can therefore be understood from observation. 3. Scientists also use the knowledge and experiences of other scientists to expand their understanding of phenomena.
- 4. B. Hypothesis 1. Inductive reasoning allows a person to combine isolated facts into a cohesive whole. 2. Alexander Fleming reasoned that the mold Penicillium produces an antibacterial compound based on his observation of a bacteria-free area associated with a mold-contaminated area of his petri dish. 3. A scientist uses inductive reasoning to develop a possible explanation (a hypothesis) for a natural event; the scientist presents the hypothesis as an actual statement. 4. Scientists only consider hypotheses that can be tested (i.e., moral and religious beliefs may not be testable by the scientific method). C. Predictions and Experiments 1. Testing a hypothesis involves either conducting an experiment, which relies on a prediction of the experimental results, or making further observations. 2. Deductive reasoning involves “if, then” logic to make a prediction based on knowledge of the factors in the experiment. 3. An experimental design is the manner in which an experiment is conducted. 4. An experiment should include a control group, which goes through all the steps of an experiment but lacks (or is not exposed to) the factor being tested, and an experimental group (tested with the independent variable). 5. Scientists may use a model (a representation of an actual object) in their experiments. 6. Results are based on examination of the responding variable (dependent variable) obtained from use of the model. D. Presenting and Analyzing the Data 1. Data are the results of an experiment, and are observable and objective rather than subjective. 2. Data are often displayed in a graph or table. 3. Results usually include a standard deviation, which is a statistical analysis that is a measure of how much the data in the experiment varies. 4. Many studies rely on statistical data which, among other things, determines the probability of error in the experiment. 5. Statistical significance means the experimental results were not due to chance or some factor other than the experimental (independent) variable. 6. Scientists report their findings in scientific journals so that their methodology and data are available to other scientists. 7. The experiments and observations must be repeatable or the research is suspect. E. Scientific Theory 1. The ultimate goal is to understand the natural world in scientific theories, which are concepts that join well-supported, related hypotheses, and are supported by a broad range of observations, experiments, and data. 2. Some basic theories of biology are: a. Cell: all organisms are composed of cells. b. Homeostasis: the internal environment of an organism stays relatively constant.
- 5. c. Evolution: all living things have a common ancestor. 3. A principle or a law is a theory that is generally accepted by most scientists. G. An Example of the Scientific Method 1. A controlled study ensures that the outcome is due to the experimental (independent) variable, the factor being tested. 2. The Experiment a. Hypothesis: Newly discovered antibiotic B is a better treatment for ulcers than antibiotic A, which is in current use. b. Prediction: Patients with ulcers who are matched by sex, age, weight, and other illnesses and treated with a placebo (no treatment), antibiotic A, or antibiotic B will show statistically significant responses to their treatments which will indicate that antibiotic B is a better treatment. c. Control group: Ulcer patients receive only a placebo. d. Test groups: Ulcer patients receive either antibiotic A or antibiotic B. e. All other variables are equal. f. Results: After endoscopy, antibiotic B proved to be more effective. Thus, the hypothesis is supported. 1.4Science and the Challenges Facing Society Science differs from technology in that technology is the application of scientific knowledge to the interests of humans and scientific investigation. A. Climate Change 1. Climate change refers to changes in the normal cycles in the Earth’s climate that may be attributed to human activity. 2. Normally carbon is cycled within an ecosystem; however, due to human activities, more carbon is being released into the atmosphere than being removed. 3. The increased amount of carbon dioxide and other gases is causing global warming due to the greenhouse effect, which is causing significant changes to Earth’s ecosystems. B. Biodiversity and Habitat Loss 1. Biodiversity is the total number and relative abundance of species, the variability of their genes, and their ecosystems. 2. Extinction is the death of a species or larger group; it is estimated that we are losing hundreds of species every year. 3. Two biologically diverse ecosystems—tropical rain forests and coral reefs— are severely threatened by the human population. 4. Destruction of healthy ecosystems has unintended effects including: loss of food, medicine, raw materials, and extinction of organisms. 5. The continued existence of the human species is dependent on the preservation of ecosystems and the biosphere. C. Emerging Diseases 1. H5N1 and H7N9, SARS, Ebola, and COVID-19 have been in the news as new or emerging diseases. 2. Increased exposure to insect or animal populations or changes in human behaviors and use of technologies may have resulted in these new diseases.
- 6. 3. Globalization results in the transport of diseases otherwise restricted to isolated communities.