Chapter 2 A Claim with Reasons Learning Objectives

Chapter 2
A Claim with Reasons
Learning Objectives
In this chapter you will learn to:
2.1 Describe the key elements of classical argument.
2.2 Explain the rhetorical appeals of logos, ethos, and pathos.
2.3 Distinguish between issue and information questions and
between genuine and pseudo-arguments.
2.4 Describe the basic frame of an argument.
In Chapter 1 we explained that argument is best viewed not as a
quarrel or as a
pro-con debate, but rather as a conversation of reasonable
stakeholders seeking
the best solution to a shared problem or issue. As a conversation
of stakehold-
ers, argument is both a process and a product. The rest of Part
One provides an
overview of the parts of an argument along with the general
principles that make
arguments effective. This chapter focuses on the core of an
argument, which is
a structure of claim, reasons, and evidence. The remaining
chapters of Part One
cover the same territory with more elaboration and detail.

The Classical Structure of Argument
The core of an argument can best be understood by connecting
it to the ancient
pattern of classical argument revealed in the persuasive
speeches of ancient Greek
and Roman orators. Formalized by the Roman rhetoricians
Cicero and Quintilian,
the parts of the argument speech even had special names: the
exordium, in which
the speaker gets the audience's attention; the narratio, which
provides needed
background; the propositio, which is the speaker's claim or
thesis; the partitio,
17
18 Chapter 2
which forecasts the main parts of the speech; the confirmatio,
which presents the
speaker's arguments supporting the claim; the confutatio, which
summarizes and
rebuts opposing views; and the peroratio, which concludes the
speech by summing
up the argument, calling for action, and leaving a strong, lasting
impression. (Of
course, you don't need to remember these tongue-twisting Latin
terms. We cite
them only to assure you that in writing a classical argument,
you are joining a
time-honored tradition that links back to the origins of

democracy.)
Let's go over the same territory again using more contemporary
terms.
Figure 2.1 provides an organization plan showing the structure
of a classical argu-
ment, which typically includes these sections:
• The introduction. Writers of classical argument typically
begin by connecting
the audience to the issue by showing how it arises out of a
current event or
by using an illustrative story, memorable scene, or startling
statistic some-
thing that grabs the audience's attention. They continue the
introduction by
focusing the issue often by stating it directly as a question or by
briefly
Figure 2.1 Organ ization p lan for an argument with c lassical
structure
Organization Plan for an Argument with a Classical Structure
• Exordium
• Narratio
• Propositio
• Partitio
• Confirmatio
• Confutatio
• Peroratio

Introduction
(one to
several paragraphs)
Presentation of writer· s
position
Summary of opposing
• VIews
Response to opposing
• VIews
Conclusion
• Attention grabber (often a memorable scene)
• Explanation o f issue and needed backgroun d
• Writer's t hesis (claim)
• Forecasting passage
• Main body of essay
• Presents an d supports each reason in turn
• Each reason is tied to a value or belief h eld
by the audience
• Summary of views differing from writer's
(sh ould be fair and complete)

• Refutes or concedes to opposing views
• Shows weaknesses in opposing views
• May concede to some strength s
• Brings essay to closure
• Often sums up argument
• Leaves strong last impression
• Often calls for action or relates topic
to a larger context of issues
The Core of an Argument 19
summarizing opposing views and providing needed background
and con-
text. They conclude the introduction by p resenting their claim
(thesis state-
ment) and forecasting the argument's structure.
• The presentation of the writer's position. The presentation of
the writer's own
position is usually the longest part of a classical argument. Here
writers
present the reasons and evidence supporting their claims,
typically choosing
reasons that tie into their audience's values, beliefs, and
assumptions. Usually
each reason is developed in its own paragraph or sequence of
paragraphs.

When a paragraph introduces a new reason, writers state the
reason directly
and then support it with evidence or a chain of ideas. Along the
way, writers
guide their readers with appropriate transitions.
• The summary and critique of alternative views. When
summarizing and
responding to opposing views, writers have several options. If
there are
several opposing arguments, writers may summarize all of them
together
and then compose a single response, or they may summarize and
respond
to each argument in turn. As we explain in Chapter 6, writers
may respond
to opposing views either by refuting them or by conceding to
their strengths
and shifting to a different field of values.
• The conclusion. Finally, in their conclusion, writers sum up
their argument,
often restating the stakes in the argument and calling for some
kind of action,
thereby creating a sense of closure and leaving a strong final
impression.
In this organization, the body of a classical argument has two
major
sections one presenting the writer's own position and the other
summarizing
and responding to alternative views. The organization plan in
Figure 2.1, and
the discussion that fo llows, have the writer's own position
coming first, but it is
possible to reverse that order.

For all its strengths, an argument with a classical structure may
not always be
your most persuasive strategy. In some cases, you may be more
effective by delay-
ing your thesis, by ignoring alternative views altogether, or by
showing great sym-
pathy for opposing views (see Chapter 6). In some cases, in
fact, it may be better to
abandon argument altogether and simply enter into a empathic
conversation w ith
others to bridge the gaps between opposing points of view (see
Chapter 10 on col-
laborative rhetoric as an alternative to classical argument). In
most cases, however,
the classical structure is a useful p lanning tool. By calling for a
thesis statement
and a forecasting statement in the introduction, it helps you see
the whole of your
argument in miniature. And by requiring you to summarize and
consider oppos-
ing views, the classical structure alerts you to the limits of your
position and to
the need for further reasons and evidence. As we w ill show, the
classical structure
is particularly persuasive when you address a neutral or
undecided audience.
Classical Appeals and
the etorical Triangle
Besides developing a template or structure for an argument,
classical rhetori-
cians analyzed the ways that effective speeches persuaded their
audiences. They

identified three kinds of persuasive appeals, which they called
logos, ethos, and
20 Chapter 2
Figure 2.2 The rhetorical triangle
Message
LOGOS: How can I make the argument
internally consistent and logical?
How can I find the best reasons and
support them with the best evidence?
Audience
PATHOS: How can I make the reader
open to my message? How can I best
appeal to my reader's values and
interests? How can I engage my
reader emotionally and imaginatively?
Writer or Speaker
ETHOS: How can I present myself
effectively? How can I enhance my
credibility and trustworthiness?
pathos. These appeals can be understood within a rhetorical
context illustrated by
a triangle with points labeled message, writer or speaker, and
audience (Figure 2.2).
Effective arguments pay attention to all three points on this
rhetorical triangle.
As Figure 2.2 shows, each point on the triangle corresponds to
one of the

three persuasive appeals:
• Logos (Greek for "word") focuses attention on the quality of
the message-
that is, on the internal consistency and clarity of the argument
itself and on
the logic of its reasons and support. The impact of logos on an
audience is
referred to as its logical appeal.
• Ethos (Greek for "character") focuses attention on the writer's
(or speaker's)
character as it is projected in the message. It refers to the
writer's credibility.
Ethos is often conveyed through the writer's investment in his
or her claim;
through the fairness with which the writer considers alternative
views;
through the tone and style of the message; and even through the
message's
professional appearance on paper or screen, including correct
grammar, flaw-
less proofreading, and appropriate formats for citations and
bibliography. In
some cases, ethos is also a function of the writer's reputation for
honesty and
expertise independent of the message. The impact of ethos on an
audience is
referred to as the ethical appeal or appeal from credibility.
• Pathos (Greek for "suffering" or "experience") focuses
attention on the val-
ues and beliefs of the intended audience. It is often associated
with emotional
appeal. But pathos appeals more specifically to an audience's
imaginative

sympathies their capacity to feel and see what the writer feels
and sees.
Thus, when we turn the abstractions of logical discourse into a
tangible and
immediate story, we are making a pathetic appeal. Whereas
appeals to logos
and ethos can further an audience's intellectual assent to our
claim, appeals to
pathos engage the imagination and feelings, moving th e
audience to a deeper
ap preciation of the argument's significance.
A related rhetorical concept, connected to the appeals of logos,
ethos, and
pathos, is that of kairos, from the Greek word for "right time,"
"season," or "opp or-
tunity." This concept suggests that for an argument to be
persuasive, its timing
must be effectively chosen and its tone and structure in right
proportion or mea-
sure. You may have had the experience of composing a
contentious e-mail and
then hesitating before clicking the "send" button. Is this the
right moment to send
this message? Is my audience ready to hear what I'm saying?
Would my views be
better received if I waited for a couple of days? If I send this
message now, should
I change its tone and content? Kairos refers to this attentiveness
to the unfolding
of time. We will return to this concept in Chapter 5, when we

consider ethos and
pathos in more depth.
Given this background on the classical appeals, let's turn now to
logos the
logic and structure of arguments.
Issue uestions as
the Origins of Argument
between
genuine and pseudo-arguments.
At the heart of any argument is an issue, which we can define as
a controver-
sial topic area (such as legalizing marijuana or building a wall
between Mexico
and the United States) that gives r ise to differing points of
view and conflict-
ing claims. A writer can usually focus an issue by asking an
issue question that
invites alternative answers. Within any complex issue for
example, the issue of
abortion there are usually a number of separate issue questions:
What govern-
mental restrictions should be placed on abortion? Should the
federal government
authorize Medicaid payments for abortions? When does a fetus
become a human
person? (At conception? At three months? At birth?) What
would be the conse-
quences of expanding or limiting a woman's right to an
abortion? (One person
might stress that legalized abortion leads to greater freedom for
women. Another

person might respond that it lessens a society's respect for
human life.)
Difference between an Issue Question
and an Infortnation Question
Of course, not all questions are issue questions that can be
answered reasonably
in differing ways. Some questions ask for information rather
than for arguments.
Rhetoricians have traditionally distinguished between
explication, which is writing
that sets out to inform or explain, and argumentation, which sets
out to change a
reader's mind. The fo llowing example illustrates the difference
between an issue
question and an information question:
Issue question: Should health insurance policies be required to
cover contra-
ceptives? (Reasonable persons can disagree.)
22 Chapter 2
Information question: How does the teenage pregnancy rate in
the United
States compare with the rate in Sweden? (Reasonable persons
assume that a
"right answer" to this question is available.)
Although the difference between the two kinds of questions may
seem simple,
the distinction can become blurry. Suppose we asked "Why is
the teenage preg-
nancy rate in Sweden lower than in the United States?"

Although this might seem
to be an informative question with a right answer, we can also
imagine disagree-
ment. One writer might emphasize Sweden's practical, secular
sex-education
courses, leading to more consistent use of contraceptives among
Swedish teenagers.
Another writer might point to the higher use of birth-control
pills among teenage
girls in Sweden (partly a result of Sweden's generous national
health program) and
to less reliance on condoms for preventing unwanted pregnancy.
Another might
argue that moral decay in the United States or a breakdown of
the traditional fam-
ily is responsible for the higher teenage pregnancy rate in the
United States. Thus,
what initially looks like a simple information question becomes
an issue question.
How to Identify an Issue Question
You can generally tell whether a question is an information
question or an issue
question by determining whether your purpose is (1) to explain
or teach some-
thing to your audience or (2) to change their minds about
something. Often the
same question can be an information question in one context
and an issue ques-
tion in another. Let's look at the following examples:
• How does a diesel engine work? (This is an information
question because rea-
sonable people who know about diesel engines will agree on
how they work.
This question would be posed by an audience of new learners

asking experts
for an explanation.)
• Why is a diesel engine more fuel efficient than a gasoline
engine? (This also seems
to be an information question because experts will probably
agree on the
answer. Once again, the audience seems to be new learners,
perhaps students
in an automotive class.)
• What is the most cost-effective way to produce diesel fuel
from crude oil? (This
could be an information question if experts agree and you are
addressing new
learners. But if you are addressing engineers and one engineer
says process
X is the most cost-effective and another engineer argues for
process Y, then
the question is an issue question.)
• Should the present highway tax on diesel fuel be increased?
(This is certainly an issue
question. One person says yes; another says no; another offers a
compromise.)
For Writing and Discussion
Information Questions Versus Issue Questions
Working as a class or in small groups, decide wh ich of the fo
llowing questions are information questions
and wh ich are issue questions. Many of them could be either,
depending on the rhetorical context. For those
questions, create hypothetical contexts to show your reasoning.

1. What percentage of public schools in the United States are
failing?
2. Which causes more t raff ic accidents, d runk driving or
texting w hile driving?
3. What is the effect on chi ld ren of playing first-person-
shooter video games?
4. What effect w ill the advent of self-d riving cars have on
truck drivers?
5. Shou ld people get rid of t heir land lines and have only cell
phones?
Difference between a Genuine Argum.ent
and a Fseudo-Argum.ent
Although every argument is sparked by an issue question w ith
alternative
answers, not every disp ute over answers constitutes a rati onal
argument. Ratio-
nal arguments require three additional factors: (1) reasonable
participants who
operate within the conventions of reasonable behavior; (2)
potentially sharable
assumptions that can serve as a starting place or foundation for
the argument;
(3) confidence that evidence used in an argument is verifiable.
Lacking these con-
ditions, disagreements remain stalled at the level of pseudo-
arguments. Let's look
at each of these conditions in turn.
PSEUDO-ARGUMENTS CAUSED BY UNREASONABLE
BEHAVIOR Reasonable
behavior in argument assumes the possibility of growth and
change; disputants
may modify their views as they acknowledge strengths in an

alternative view
or weaknesses in their own. Such growth becomes impossible
and argument
degenerates to pseudo-argument when disputants are so rigid ly
committed to
their positions that they can't imagine alternative views.
Consider the case of the
true believer and the fanatical skeptic.
From one perspective, true believers are admirable persons,
guided by
unwavering values and beliefs. True believers stand on solid
rock, unwilling to
compromise their principles or bend to the prevailing w inds.
But from another
perspective, true believers can seem rigidly fixed, incapable of
growth or change.
In Chapter 1, we mentioned that arguers can cling to sacred
values either reli-
gious or secular princip les that they consider absolute,
inviolable, indisputable.
When true believers from two clashing belief systems each with
its own set
of sacred values try to engage in dialogue with each other, a
truth-seeking
exchange of views becomes difficult. They talk past each other;
dialogue is
replaced by monologue from within isolated silos. Once true
believers push
each other's buttons on global warming, guns, health care,
taxes, political cor-
rectness, or some other issue, each disputant resorts to an
endless replaying
of the same prepackaged arguments based on absolute
principles. Disagreeing
with a true believer is like ordering the surf to quiet dow n. The

only response is
another crashing wave.
In contrast to the true believer, the fanatical skeptic d ismisses
the possibility
of ever believing anything. Skeptics often demand proof where
no proof is pos-
sible. So what if the sun has risen every day of recorded
history? That's no proof
that it will rise tomorrow. Short of absolute proof, which never
exists, fanatical
skeptics accept nothing. In a world where the most we can hope
for is increased
audience adherence to our ideas, the skeptic demands an
ironclad, logical dem-
onstration of our claim's rightness.
24 Chapter 2
PSEUDO-ARGUMENTS CAUSED BY LACK OF SHARED
ASSUMPTIONS As
we have seen, reasonable argument degenerates to pseudo-
argument when there
is no possibility for listening, learning, growth, or change. In
this section, we
look more closely at a cause of unreasonableness in argument:
lack of shared
assumptions.
A lack of shared assumptions necessarily dooms arguments
about purely
personal opinions for example, someone's claim that opera is
boring or that
pizza tastes better than nachos. Of course, a pizza-versus-

nachos argument
might be possible if the disputants assume a shared criterion
about nutrition. For
example, a nutritionist could argue that a vegetable-laden pizza
is better than
nachos because pizza provides more balanced nutrients per
calorie than nachos
do. But if one of the disputants responds, "Nah, nachos are
better than pizza
because nachos taste better," then he makes a different
assumption "My sense
of taste is better than your sense of taste." This is a wholly
personal standard, an
assumption that others are unable to share.
Lack of shared assumptions can also doom arguments when the
disputants
have different ideologies, as we saw in the discussion of true
believers. Ideology is
an academic word for belief systems or world views. We all
have our own ideolo-
gies. We all look at the world through a lens shaped by our
life's experiences. Our
beliefs and values are shaped by our family background, our
friends, our culture,
our particular time in history, our race or ethnicity, our gender
or sexual orienta-
tion, our social class, our religion, our education, and so forth.
Because we tend
to think that our particular lens for looking at the world is
natural and universal
rather than specific to ourselves, we must be aware that persons
who disagree
with us may not share our deepest assumptions and beliefs.
This lack of shared assumptions is evident in many disputes

concerning poli-
tics or religion. For example, consider differences over how to
interpret the Bible
within communities identifying as Christian. Some Christian
groups choose a
straightforward, literal interpretation of the Bible as God's
inerrant word, some-
times quoting Biblical passages as "proof texts" to support their
stand on civic
issues. Others believe the Bible is divinely inspired, meant to
lead humans to a
relationship with God, but transmitted through human authors.
Other groups
tend to read the Bible metaphorically or mythically, focusing on
the paradoxes,
historical contexts, and interpretive complexities of the Bible.
Still other Christian
groups read it as an ethical call for social justice. Members of
these different
Christian groups may not be able to argue rationally about, say,
evolution or
gay marriage because they have very different ways of reading
Biblical passages
and invoking the Bible's authority. Similarly, within other
religious traditions,
believers may also differ about the meaning and applicability of
their sacred texts
to scientific issues and social problems.
Similar disagreements about assumptions occur in the political
arena as well.
Our point is that certain religious or political beliefs or texts
cannot be evoked for
evidence or authority when an audience does not assume the
belief's truth or does
not agree on the way that a given text should be read or

interpreted.
PSEUDO-ARGUMENTS CAUSED BY LACK OF
CONFIDENCE IN EVIDENCE
Finally, pseudo-arguments arise when disputants can't agree
about the trustwor-
thiness of particular evidence or about the possibility of
trustworthy evidence
existing at all, as if all facts are relative an especially
troublesome problem in
an era where many have raised concern s about "fake news" and
"alternative
facts." Reasonable arguments must be grounded in evidence that
can be verified
and trusted. Sometimes unethical writers invent facts and data
to create propa-
ganda, advance a conspiracy theory, or make money from the
sale of fake stories.
Scientific fraud has also occasionally occurred wherein
scientists have fudged
their data or even made up data to support a claim. Tabloids and
fringe news
sites are notorious for spreading fake news, often in their
attention-grabbing but
bizarre headlines ("Farmer shoots 23-pound grasshopper").
For disputants with different ideologies, pseudo-arguments may
even occur
w ith issues grounded in science. Liberals may distrust
scientific data about the
safety of genetically modified organisms, whereas conservatives

may distrust the
scientific data about climate change. Genuine argument can
emerge only when all
sides of the dispute agree that any given evidence derives from
verifiable facts or
data. We don't mean that reasonable disputants must use the
same facts: Arguers
necessarily and always select and frame their evidence to
support their points
(see the discussion of angle of vision in Chapter 4). But no
matter what evidence is
chosen, disputants must agree that the evidence is verifiable
that it is real news
or evidence, not fake news or evidence.
Reasonable Arguments Versus Pseudo-Arguments
Individual task:
Which of the following questions wil l lead to reasonable
arguments, and which wil l lead only to pseudo-
arguments? Explain your reasoning.
1. Are the Star Wars films good science fiction?
2. Is it ethically justifiable to capture dolphins or orca whales
and train them for human entertainment?
3. Should cities subsidize professional sports venues?
4. Is this abstract oil painting created by a monkey smearing
paint on a canvas a true work of art?
5. Are nose rings and tongue studs attractive?
Group task:
Working in pairs, small groups, or as a class, share your
reasoning about these questions with classmates.
Frame of an Argument:

A Claim Supported by Reasons
We said earlier that an argument originates in an issue question,
which by defini-
tion is any question that provokes disagreement about the best
answer. When you
w rite an argument, your task is to take a position on the issue
and to support it
w ith reasons and evidence. The claim of your essay is the
position you want your
26 Chapter 2
audience to accept. To put it another way, your claim is your
essay's thesis state-
ment, a one-sentence summary answer to your issue question.
Your task, then, is
to make a claim and support it with reasons.
What Is a Reason?
A reason (also called a premise) is a claim used to support
another claim. In speaking
or writing, a reason is usually linked to the claim with a
connecting word such as
because, since, for, so, thus, consequently, or therefore,
indicating that the claim follows
logically from the reason.
Let us take an example of a controversial issue that frequently
gets reported
in the news the public debate over keeping large sea mammals
such as dol-
phins, porpoises, and orcas (killer whales) in captivity in

marine parks where
they entertain large crowds with their performances. This issue
has many dimen-
sions, including safety concerns for both the animals and their
human trainers,
as well as moral, scientific, legal, and economic concerns.
Popular documentary
films have heightened the public's awareness of the dangers of
captivity to both
the animals and the humans who work with them. For example,
The Cove (2009)
exposes the gory dolphin hunts in Japan in which fishermen kill
dolphins en
masse, capturing some for display in shows around the world.
Blackfish (2013) tells
the history of the orca Tilikum, who in 2010 killed his trainer,
Dawn Blancheau,
at Sea World in Orlando, Florida. The death of Tilikum in 2017
resparked public
debates about treatment of marine animals in captivity. Recently
a flurry of legal
efforts to release the captive orca Lolita back into the wild has
also contributed
to the larger battle among advocacy, governmental, scientific,
and commercial
groups over the value of marine parks.
In one of our recent classes, students heatedly debated the
ethics of capturing
wild dolphins and training them to perform in marine parks.
One student cited
his sister's internship at Sea World San Diego, where she
worked on sea mammal
rescue and rehabilitation, one of the marine park's worthy
projects. In response,
another student mentioned the millions of dollars these marine

parks make on
their dolphin and orca shows as well as on the stuffed animals,
toys, magnets,
T-shirts, and hundreds of other lucrative marine park souvenirs.
Here are the
frameworks the class developed for two alternative positions on
this public issue:
One View
CLAIM: The public should not support marine parks.
REASON 1: Marine parks inhumanely separate dolphins and
orcas from
their natural habitats.
REASON 2: The education these parks claim to offer about
marine mammals
is just a series of artificial, exploitive tricks taught through
behavior
modification.
REASON 3: These parks are operated by big business with the
goal of mak-
ing large profits.
REASON 4: Marine parks encourage artificial breeding
programs and cruel
hunts and captures.
REASON 5: Marine parks promote an attitude of human
dominance over
animals.

Alternative View
CLAIM: The public should continue to enjoy marine parks.
REASON 1: These parks observe accreditation standards for
animal welfare,
h ealth, and nutrition.
REASON 2: These marine p arks enable scientists and
veterinarians to study
animal behavior in ways not possible w ith field studies in the
wild.
REASON 3: These marine parks provide environmental
education and
memorable entertainment.
REASON 4: Marine parks use some of their profits to support
research,
conservation, and rescue and rehabilitation programs.
REASON 5: In their training of dolphins and orcas, these
marine parks
reinforce natural behaviors, exercise the animals' intelligence,
and promote
beneficial bonding with humans.
Formulating a list of reasons in this way breaks your
argumentative task
into a series of subtasks. It gives you a frame for building your
argument in
parts. In this example, the frame for the argument opposing
commercial use of
sea mammals suggests five different lines of reasoning a writer

might pursue.
You might use all five reasons or select only two or three,
depending on which
reasons would most persuade the intended audience. Each line
of reasoning
would be developed in its own separate section of the argument.
For example,
you m ight begin one section of your argument w ith the follow
ing sentence:
"The public should not support marine parks because they teach
dolphins and
orcas clownish tricks and artificial behaviors, which they pass
off as 'education'
about these animals." You would then provide examples of the
tricks that dol-
phins and orcas are taught, explain how these stunts contrast
with their natu-
ral behaviors, and offer examples of erroneous facts or
information provided
by commercial marine parks. You might also need to support
the underlying
assumption that it is good to acquire real knowledge about sea
mammals in the
wild. You would then proceed in the same manner for each
separate section of
your argument.
To summarize: The frame of an argument consists of the claim
(the essay's
thesis statement), which is supported by one or more reasons,
which are in turn
supported by evidence or sequences of further reasons.
Using Images to Support an Argument
In Chapter 1, we discussed the way that images and photographs

can make implicit arguments. This
exercise asks you to consider how images can shape or enhance
an argument. Imag ine that your task is
to argue why a nonprofit group in your city should (or should
not) offer as a fund- raising prize a trip to Sea-
World in Orlando, Florida; San Antonio, Texas; or San Diego,
Cal ifornia. Examine the photographs of orcas in
Figures 2.3 and 2.4 and describe the implicit argument that each
photo seems to make about these whales.
How might one or both of these photos be used to support an
argument fo r or against the prize t rip to Sea-
World? What reasons for going (or not going) to SeaWorld are
implied by each photo? Briefly sketch out you r
argument and explain your choice of t he photograph(s) that
support your position.
28 Chapter 2
Figure 2.3 Orca performance at a marine park
Figure 2.4 Orcas breaching
Expressing Reasons in Because Clauses
Chances are that when you were a child, the word because
contained magical
explanatory powers. (I don't want that kind of butter on my
toast! Why? Because.
Because why? Just because.) Somehow because seemed
decisive. It persuaded people
to accept your view of the world; it changed people's minds.

Later, as you got
older, you discovered that because only introduced your
arguments and that it was
the reasons following because that made the difference. Still,
because introduced
you to the powers potentially residing in the adult world of
logic.
This childhood power of because perhaps explains why because
clauses are the
most common way of linking reasons to a claim. For example:
The public should not support marine parks because these parks
inhumanely
separate dolphins and orcas from their natural habitats.
Of course, there are also many other ways to express the logical
connection
between a reason and a claim. Our language is rich in ways of
stating because
relationships:
• Marine parks inhumanely separate dolphins and orcas from
their natural
habitats. Therefore, the public should not support marine parks.
their natural
habitats, so the public should not support these parks.
• One reason that the public should not support marine animal
parks is that these
parks inhumanely separate dolphins and orcas from their natural
habitats.
• My argument that the public should not support marine animal

parks is
grounded on evidence that these parks inhumanely separate
dolphins and
orcas from their natural habitats.
Even though logical relationships can be stated in various ways,
writing out
one or more because clauses seems to be the most succinct and
manageable way
to clarify an argument for yourself. We therefore suggest that at
some time in the
writing process, you create a working thesis statement that
summarizes your main
reasons as because clauses attached to your claim.*
When you compose your own working thesis statement depends
largely on
your writing process. Some writers like to p lan their whole
argument from the
start and compose their working thesis statements with because
clauses before
they write their rough drafts. Others discover their arguments as
they write. Some
writers use a combination of both techniques. For these writers,
an extended
working thesis statement is something they might write halfway
through the
composing process as a way of ordering their argument when
various branches
seem to be growing out of control. Or they might compose a
working thesis
* A working thesis statement opposing the commercial use of
captured dolphins and orcas
might look like this: The public should not support marine parks
because marine parks inhu-

manely separate dolphins and orcas from their natural habitats;
because marine parks are
mainly big businesses driven by profit; because marine parks
create inaccurate and incom-
plete educational information about dolphins and orcas; because
marine parks encourage
inhumane breeding programs, hunts, and captures; and because
marine parks promote an
attitude of human dominance over animals. You probably would
not put a bulky thesis
statement like this into your essay; rather, a working thesis
statement is a behind-the-scenes
way of summarizing your argument so that you can see it fully
and clearly.
30 Chapter 2
statement after they've written a complete first draft as a way of
checking the
essay's unity.
The act of writing your extended thesis statement can be
simultaneously
frustrating and thought provoking. Composing because clauses
can be a power-
ful discovery tool, causing you to think of many different kinds
of arguments to
support your claim. But it is often difficult to wrestle your ideas
into the because
clause shape, which may seem overly tidy for the complex
network of ideas you
are working with. Nevertheless, trying to summarize your
argument as a single
claim with reasons should help you see more clearly the

emerging shape of your
argument.
Developing Claims and Reasons
Try this group exercise to help you see how writing because
clauses can be a discovery procedure. Divide
into smal l groups. Each group member should contribute an
issue with potentially opposing c laims. Whi le
thinking of your issue, imagine a person who might disagree w
ith you about it. This person w ill become your
audience. Discussing each group member's issue in turn, help
each member develop a claim supported
by several reasons that might appeal to the imagined aud ience.
Express each reason as a because clause.
Then write out the working thesis statement for each person's
argument by attaching the because c lauses to
the claim. Finally, try to create because clauses in support of an
alternative claim for each issue. Each group
should select two or three working thesis statements to present
to the c lass.
Conclusion
This chapter introduced you to the structure of classical
argument, to the rhetorical
triangle (message, writer or speaker, and audience), and to the
classical appeals
of logos, ethos, and pathos. It also showed how arguments
originate in issue ques-
tions, how issue questions differ from information questions,
and how reasonable
arguments differ from pseudo-arguments. The frame of an
argument is a claim
supported by reasons. As you generate reasons to support your
own arguments,
it is often helpful to articulate them as because clauses attached

to the claim.
In the next chapter we will see how to support a reason by
examining its logical
structure, uncovering its unstated assumptions, and planning a
strategy of
development.
Writing Assignment
An Issue Question and Working Thesis Statements
Decide on an issue and a claim for a classical argument that you
wou ld like to write. Also imagine a reader
who might be skeptical of your claim. Write a one-sentence
question that summarizes the controversial is-
sue that your c laim addresses. Then draft a working thesis
statement for your proposed argument. Organize
the thesis as a claim w ith bulleted because clauses for reasons.
You should have at least two reasons, but
it is okay to have three or four. Also include an opposing thesis
statement-that is, a claim with because
clauses for an alternative position on your issue. Think of this
opposing argument as your imagined reader's
starting position.
Unless you have previously done research on an issue, it is
probably best to choose an issue based on
your personal experiences and observations. For example, you
might consider issues related to your college
or high school life, your work life, your experiences in clubs or
family life, your prospective career, and so
forth. (Part Two of this text introduces you to research-based

argument.) As you think about your claim and
because clauses for this assignment, take comfort in the fact
that you are in a very early stage of the writing
process: the brainstorming stage. Writers almost always
discover new ideas when they write a first draft.
As they take their writing project through multiple drafts and
share their drafts with readers, their views may
change substantially. In fact, honest writers can change
positions on an issue by discovering that a counter-
argument is stronger than their own. Thus the working thesis
statement that you submit for this assignment
may evolve when you begin to draft your essay.
Below, as well as in Chapters 3 and 4, we follow the process of
student writer Carmen Tieu as she
constructs an argument on violent video games. During a class
discussion, Carmen mentioned a psychol-
ogy professor who described playing violent video games as
gendered behavior (overwhelmingly male). The
professor ind icated his dislike for such games, pointing to their
antisocial, dehumanizing values. In class,
Carmen described her own enjoyment of violent video games-
particularly first-person-shooter games-
and reported the pleasure that she derived from beating boys at
Halo 2 and 3. Her classmates were inter-
ested in her ideas. She knew that she wanted to write an
argument on this issue. The following is Carmen's
submission for this assignment.
Carmen's Issue Question and Working Thesis Statements
Issue Question: Should girls be encouraged to play f irst-
person-shooter video games?
My claim: First-person-shooter (FPS) video games are great
activities for girls,
• because they empower girls when they beat guys at their own

game.
• because they equip girls with skills that free them from
feminine stereotypes.
• because they give girls a different way of bonding with males.
• because they give girls new insights into a male subculture.
Opposing claim: First-person-shooter games are a bad activity
for anyone, especially girls,
• because they promote antisocial values such as indiscriminate
kil ling.
• because they amplify t he bad, macho side of male stereotypes.
• because they waste valuable time that could be spent on
something constructive.
• because FPS games could encourage women to see themselves
as objects.
32
Chapter 3
•
Learning Objectives
3.1 Explain the logical structure of argument in terms of claim,
reason, and assumption granted by the audience.
3.2 Use the Toulmin system to describe an argument's logical
structure.
3.3 Use the Toulmin system to generate ideas for your argument
and test it for completeness.

In Chapter 2 you learned that the core of an argument is a claim
supported by
reasons and that these reasons can often be stated as because
clauses attached to a
claim. In this chapter, we examine the logical structure of
arguments in more depth.
An Overview of Logos: hat Do e
Mean by the "Logical Structure" of an
Argument?
reason,
and assumption granted by the audience.
As you will recall from our discussion of the rhetorical triangle,
logos refers to the
strength of an argument's support and its internal consistency.
Logos is the argu-
ment's logical structure. But what do we mean by "logical
structure"?
The Logical Structure of Arguments 33
Forinal Logic Versus Real-World Logic
First of all, what we don't mean by logical structure is the kind
of precise certainty
you get in a philosophy class in formal logic. Logic classes deal
with symbolic
assertions that are universal and unchanging, such as "If all ps
are qs and if r is a
p, then r is a q." This statement is logically certain so long asp,
q, and rare pure
abstractions. But in the real world, p, q, and r turn into actual

things, and the rela-
tionships among them suddenly become fuzzy. For example, p
might be a class
of actions called "Sexual Harassment," while q could be the
class called" Actions
That Justify Getting Fired from One's Job." If r is the class
"Telling Off-Color Sto-
ries," then the logic of our p-q-r statement suggests that telling
off-color stories
(r) is an instance of sexual harassment (p), which in turn is an
action justifying
getting fired from one's job (q).
Now, most of us would agree that sexual harassment is a serious
offense
that might well justify getting fired. In turn, we might agree
that telling off-color
stories, if the jokes are sufficiently raunchy and are inflicted on
an unwilling audi-
ence, constitutes sexual harassment. But few of us would want
to say categorically
that all people who tell off-color stories are harassing their
listeners and ought to
be fired. Most of us would want to know the particulars of the
case before making
a final judgment.
In the real world, then, it is difficult to say that rs are always ps
or that every
instance of a p results in q. That is why we discourage students
from using the
word prove in claims they write for arguments (as in "This
paper will prove that
euthanasia is wrong"). Real-world arguments seldom prove
anything. They can
only make a good case for something, a case that is more or less

strong, more or
less probable. Often the best you can hope for is to strengthen
the resolve of those
who agree with you or weaken the resistance of those who
oppose you.
The Role of Assuinptions
A key difference, then, between formal logic and real-world
argument is that real-
world arguments are not grounded in abstract, universal
statements. Rather, as
we shall see, they must be grounded in beliefs, assumptions, or
values granted
by the audience. A second important difference is that in real -
world arguments,
these beliefs, assumptions, or values are often unstated. So long
as writer and
audience share the same assumptions, it's fine to leave them
unstated. But if these
underlying assumptions aren't shared, the writer has a problem.
To illustrate the nature of this problem, suppose that you are an
environmen-
talist opposed to the use of plastic bags in grocery stores. You
have several reasons
for opposing these bags, one of which is their role in polluting
the oceans. You
express this reason in a because clause as follows:
States should ban plastic bags from grocery stores because
banning bags
will reduce plastic pollution in the ocean.
On the face of it, this is a plausible argument, but it depends on
the audience's
accepting the writer's assumption that it is good to reduce

plastic pollution in the
ocean. In other words, you might agree that plastics are
polluting the ocean, but
unless you also believe that this pollution is significantly
harming the oceans, you
might not automatically agree that plastic bags should be
banned from grocery
stores. What if you believe that pollution-caused damage to the
ocean is not as
34 Chapter 3
severe as proponents claim? What if you believe that p lastic
bags account for only
a small percentage of plastic pollution in the oceans? What if
you believe that the
harm to the oceans is outweighed by the environmental benefits
of plastic bags,
which are reusable, recyclable, and more ecofriendly to produce
and transport
than paper bags? What if you believe that harm to the oceans
might soon be
reduced by scientific advances in creating biodegradable p
lastics or in developing
microorganisms that "eat" plastics? If these were your beliefs,
the argument
wouldn't work for you because you would reject its underlying
assumption that
plastic pollution is significantly harmful. To make this line of
reasoning persua-
sive, the writer would have to provide evidence not only that
plastic bags are
polluting the ocean but also that this pollution is harmful
enough to justify a ban.

The Core of an Argu111ent: The Enthy111e111e
The previous core argument ("States should ban plastic bags
from grocery stores
because banning bags will reduce p lastic pollu tion in the
ocean") is an incom-
p lete logical structure called an enthymeme. Its persuasiveness
depends on an
underlying assumption or belief that the audience must accept.
To complete the
enthymeme and make it effective, the audience must willingly
supply a missing
premise in this case, that plastic pollution of the oceans is
significantly harmful.
The Greek philosopher Aristotle showed how successful
enthymemes root the
speaker's argument in assumptions, beliefs, or values held by
the audience. The
word enthymeme comes from the Greek en (meaning "in") and
thumos (meaning
"mind"). Listeners or readers must have in mind an assumption,
belief, or value
that lets them willingly supply the missing premise. If the
audience is unwilling
to supply the missing premise, then the argument fails. Our
point is that success-
ful arguments depend both on what the arguer says and on what
the audience
already has "in mind."
To clarify the concept of enthymeme, let's go over this same
territory again,
this time more slowly, examining what we mean by "incomplete
logical struc-
ture." The sentence "States should ban plastic bags from grocery
stores because

banning bags will reduce p lastic pollution in the ocean" is an
enthymeme. It
combines a claim (States should ban p lastic bags from grocery
stores) with a rea-
son expressed as a because clause (because banning bags will
reduce plastic pol-
lution in the ocean). To render this enthymeme logically
complete, the audience
must willingly supply a missing assumption that plastic
pollution is harmful
enough to the oceans to justify a ban on plastic bags. If your
audience accepts this
assumption, then you have a starting p lace on which to build an
effective argu-
ment. If your audience doesn't accept this assumption, then you
must supply
another argument to support it, and so on until you find common
ground with
your audience.
To sum up:
1. Claims are supported with reasons. You can usually state a
reason as a because
clause attached to a claim.
2. A because clause attached to a claim is an incomplete logical
structure called
an enthymeme. To create a complete logical structure from an
enthymeme,
the underlying assumption (or assumptions) must be articulated.
3. To serve as an effective starting point for the argument, this
underlying
assumption should be a belief, value, or principle that the
audience grants.

Let's illustrate this structure by putting the previous example
into schematic
form.
Audience must supply this assumption
ENTHYMEME
CLAIM: States should ban p lastic bags from grocery stores
REASON: because banning p lastic bags will reduce plastic
pollution in the ocean.
UNDERLYING ASSUMPTION
Plastic pollution in the ocean is harmful enough to justify
a ban.
The Power of Audience-Based Reasons
Aristotle's concept of the enthymeme focuses on the writer's
need to create what
we can now call"audience-based reasons" as opposed to "writer-
based reasons."
A reason that is persuasive to you as a writer might not be
persuasive to your
audience. Finding audience-based reasons means finding
arguments effectively
anchored within your audience's beliefs and values.
To illustrate the difference between an audience-based reason
and a writer-
based reason, suppose that you are a vegetarian persuaded

mainly by ethical
arguments against causing needless suffering to animals.
Suppose further that
you want to persuade others to become vegetarians or at least to
reduce their
consumption of meat. Your "writer-based reason" for
vegetarianism could be
stated as follows:
You should become a vegetarian because doing so will help
reduce the need-
less suffering of animals.
The underlying assumption here is that it is wrong to cause the
suffering of ani-
mals. This writer-based reason might also be an audience-based
reason for per-
sons who are wrestling with the moral dimension of animal
suffering. But this
assumption might not resonate with people who have made their
own peace with
eating meat. How might you use audience-based reasons to
appeal to these meat-
eaters? Here are two more possible enthymemes:
You should become a vegetarian because doing so may help you
lower your
cholesterol.
You should become a vegetarian because doing so will
significantly lower
your carbon footprint.
These arguments hook into the assumption that it is good to
lower one's choles-
terol (health values) or that it is good to lower one's carbon

footprint (environ-
mental values). All three of the arguments whether based on
ethics, health, or
the environment might further the practice of vegetarianism or
at least reduce
the amount of meat consumed, but they won't appeal equally to
all audiences.
From the perspective of logic alone, all three arguments are
equally sound. But
they will affect different audiences differently.
36 Chapter 3
Identifying Underlying Assumptions and Choosing
Audience-Based Reasons
Part 1 Working individually or in small groups, identify the
unstated assumption that the aud ience must
supply in order to make the fo llowing enthymemes persuasive.
Example
Enthymeme: Rabbits make good pets because they are gentle.
Underlying assumption: Gentle animals make good pets.
1. We shouldn't elect Joe as committee chair because he is too
bossy.
2. The federal government shou ld institute a carbon tax because
doing so w ill reduce U.S. production
of greenhouse gases.
3. The federal government should not institute a carbon tax
because doing so will damage the economy.
4. We should strengthen the Endangered Species Act because

doing so will preserve genetic d iversity
on the planet.
5. The Endangered Species Act is too stringent because it
severely restricts the rights of property owners.
Part 2 For each of the following items, decide which of the two
reasons offered would be more persuasive
to the specified audience. How might the reason not chosen be
effective fo r a different kind of aud ience?
Explain your reason ing.
1. Aud ience: people who advocate a pass/fail grad ing system
on the grounds that the present grad ing
system is too competitive
a. We should keep the present grading system because it
prepares people fo r the dog-eat-dog pres-
sures of the business world.
b. We should keep the present grading system because it tells
students that certain standards of
excel lence must be met if individuals are to reach their ful l
potential.
2. Aud ience: environmentalists
a. We shou ld support tracking for natural gas because doing so
wi ll help reduce our dependence on
foreign sources of oi l.
b. We should support tracking fo r natural gas because doing so
will provide a g reener "bridge fuel"
that will give us t ime to develop better renewable technolog
ies.
3. Audience: proponents of preventing illegal immigration into

the United States by building a wall between
the United States and Mexico
a. U.S. citizens shou ld oppose building the wall because doing
so promotes a racist image of America.
b. U.S. cit izens should oppose building the wall because doing
so may end up giving control of the
Rio Grande river to Mexico.
Adopting a Language for Describing
Arguments: The Toulmin System
structure.
Understanding a new fie ld usually requires you to learn a new
vocabulary. For
example, if you were taking biology for the first time, you'd
have to learn hun-
dreds and hundreds of new terms. Luckily, the field of argument
requires us to
learn a mere handful of new terms. A particularly useful set of
argument terms,
one we'll be using occasionally throughout this text, comes from
philosopher
Stephen Toulmin. In the 1950s, Toulmin rejected the prevailing
models of argu-
ment based on formal logic in favor of a very audience-based
courtroom model.
Toulmin's courtroom model differs from formal logic in that it
assumes that

(1) all assertions and assumptions are contestable by "opposing
counsel" and
that (2) all final"verdicts" about the persuasiveness of the
opposing arguments
will be rendered by a neutral third party, a judge, or a jury. As
writers, keeping
in mind the "opposing counsel" forces us to anticipate
counterarguments and
to question our assumptions. Keeping in mind the judge and
jury reminds us to
answer opposing arguments fully and without rancor, and to
present positive
reasons for supporting our case as well as negative reasons for
disbelieving the
opposing case. Above all else, Toulmin' s model reminds us not
to construct an
argument that appeals only to those who already agree with us.
In short, it helps
arguers tailor arguments to their audiences.
The system we use for analyzing arguments combines Toulmin's
language
with Aristotle's concept of the enthymeme. It builds on the
system you have already
been practicing. We simply need to add a few key terms from
Toulmin. The first
term is Toulmin's warrant, the name we will now use for the
underlying assump-
tion that turns an enthymeme into a complete, logical structure
as shown below.
Toulmin derives his term warrant from the concept of
"warranty" or "guar-
antee." The warrant is the value, belief, or principle that the
audience has to hold
if the soundness of the argument is to be guaranteed or

warranted. We some-
times make similar use of this word in ordinary language when
we say "That is
an unwarranted conclusion," meaning one has leaped from
information about
a situation to a conclusion about that situation without any sort
of general prin-
ciple to justify or "warrant" that move. Thus the warrant once
accepted by the
audience "guarantees" the soundness of the argument.
ENTHYMEME
CLAIM: States should ban plastic bags from grocery stores
REASON: because banning plastic bags will reduce plastic
Audience must supply this warrant --------..t
WARRANT
a ban.
But arguments need more than claims, reasons, and warrants.
These are sim-
ply one-sentence statements the frame of an argument, not a
developed argu-
ment. To give body and weight to our arguments and make them
convincing, we
need what Toulmin calls grounds and backing. Let's start with
grounds. Grounds
are the supporting evidence that causes an audience to accept
your reason.
Grounds are facts, data, statistics, causal links, testimony,
examples, anecdotes-
the blood and muscle that flesh out the skeletal frame of your

enthymeme. Toul-
min suggests that grounds are "what you have to go on" in an
argument the
stuff you can point to and present before a jury. Here is how
grounds fit into our
emerging argument schema:
38 Chapter 3
ENTHYMEME
/~REASON: because banning plastic bags will reduce plastic
Grounds support .L----
thereason
GROUNDS
Evidence that a substantial percentage of thrown-away plastic
bags end up as ocean pollution
and could be reduced with bans:
• According to the Earth Policy Institute, I 00 billion plastic
bags pass through the hands of
U.S. consumers each year.
• Plastic bags that don't end up in landfills often float into the
oceans from river and stream
pollution.
• According to Ocean Crusaders, plastic bags are the most

prevalent man-made thing that
sailors see in the ocean.
• A scientific study in 2014 estimated that there are 269,000
metric tons of plastic and 5.25
trillion plastic particles on the ocean's surface.
• Plastics float on the surface, where they are concentrated by
ocean currents. National
Geographic has documented the uPacific trash vortex" -a
floating garbage patch the size of
Texas.
• Bans, which are becoming acceptable to consumers as shown
by states and cities that have
recently instituted bans on plastic grocery bags, have cut down
on plastic bags in landfills
and coastal areas.
In many cases, successful arguments require just these three
components:
a claim, a reason, and grounds. If the audience already accepts
the unstated
assumption behind the reason (the warrant), then the warrant
can safely remain
in the background, unstated and unexamined. But if there is a
chance that the
audience will question or doubt the warrant, then the writer
needs to back it up by
providing an argument in its support. Backing is the argument
that supports the
warrant. It may require as little as one or two sentences or as
much as a major sec-
tion in your argument. Its goal is to persuade the audience to
accept the warrant.
Here is how backing is added to our schema:

WARRANT
Backing supports BACKING
the warrant Arguments that plastics, especially plastic bags, are
significantly harmful to the oceans:
• Plastics cause great harm to marine life (sea turtles eat plastic
bags, which look like
jellyfish; birds and surface-feeding fish ingest small pieces of
plastic, which often
results in death or starvation).
• Toxins absorbed from digesting plastic work their way up the
food chain, including
into the fish we eat, jeopardizing food safety.
• Plastic particles unbalance the ecosystem; for example, some
ocean insect species
breed more quickly where plastics are floating.
• National Geographic News reports a study showing that
udegrading plastics are
leaching potentially toxic chemicals such as bisphenol A into
the seas, possibly
threatening ocean animals, and us."
Toulmin' s system next asks us to imagine how a resistant
audience would try
to refute our argument. Specifically, an adversarial audience
might challenge our
reason and grounds by arguing that plastic bags are not

polluting the oceans or
that the pollution is not extensive. The adversary might also
attack our warrant
Writer must an tid pate these attacks from skeptics
ENTHYMEME t
_J
..-7 POSSIBLE CONDITIONS OF REBUTTAL
REASON: because banning plastic bags will reduce plastic -
pollution in the ocean. V
/
A skeptic can attack the reason and grounds:
• Arguments that plastic bags from grocery
stores comprise only a small proportion of
plastic pollution in the ocean (far greater
damage comes from plastic bottles, Styrofoam
pellets, and floating fish nets)
GROUNDS
Evidence that a substantial percentage of thrown-away
plastic bags end up as ocean pollution:
• According to the Earth Policy Institute, 1 00 billion plastic
bags pass through the hands of U.S. consumers each year.
• Plastic bags that don't end up in landfills often float into
the oceans from river and stream pollu-tion.

prevalent man-made thing that sailors see in the ocean.
metric tons of plastic and 5.25 trillion plastic particles on
the ocean's surface.
• Plastics float on the surface, where they are con-centrated
by ocean currents. National Geographic has documented
the llPacific trash vortex" -a floating garbage patch the
size ofT exas.
• Bans, which are becoming acceptable to consumers as
shown by states and cities that have recently instituted
bans on plastic grocery bags, have cut down on plastic
bags in landfills and coastal areas.
• Arguments that the pollution is not extensive
• Arguments that banning plastic bags would
eliminate all the ecological and consumer
benefits of plastic bags
• Arguments that plastic bags are more
eco-friendly to produce than paper bags and
are completely recyclable
• Arguments that plastic bags are reusable, are
better than paper for storing moist products,
and save on use of plastic wrapping
• Arguments that bans don't work and that other
polices would be more effective at tackling this
problem, such as placing higher fees on plastic
bags or implementing intensive recycling
•

campaigns
WARRANT ~-----+--~POSSIBLE CONDITIONS OF
REBUTTAL
V A skeptic could attack the warrant and backing: Plastic
pollution in the ocean is harmful enough to justify
a ban.
BACKING
Arguments that plastics, especially plastic bags, are
• Plastics cause great harm to marine life (sea turtles eat
plastic bags, which look like jellyfish; birds and
surface-feeding fish ingest small pieces of plastic, which
often results in death or starvation).
• Toxins absorbed from digesting plastic work their way up
the food chain, including into the fish we eat,
jeopardizing food safety.
• Plastic particles unbalance the ecosystem; for example,
some ocean insect species breed more quickly where
plastics are floating.
II degrading plastics are leaching potentially toxic
chemicals such as bisphenol A into the seas, possibly
• Arguments that data about harm to sea life are
primarily anecdotal and amplified by
photographs appealing to pathos
• Argument conceding that some harm is done to

the ocean, but research has not yet
documented the extent of the danger to
marine life
• Arguments that ocean damage is not severe
enough to justify a ban, especially when
balanced against the ecological benefits of
plastic bags
• Arguments that the problem of ocean pollution
might soon be solved by science, which is on
track to devise biological methods to ll eat
plastic" or to make plastic more biodegradable
40 Chapter 3
and backing by arguing that the harm caused by plastic
pollution is not significant
enough to justify a ban on plastic bags. These rebuttal strategies
are outlined in
the right-hand column of our schema:
As this example shows, adversarial readers can question an
argument's reasons
and grounds, or its warrant and backing, or sometimes both.
Conditions of rebuttal
remind writers to look at their arguments from the perspective
of skeptics.
The use of a Toulmin schema to plan an argument strategy can
also be illus-
trated in the issue we examined in the last chapter whether the
public should
support marine parks that use trained captive orcas and dolphins

for public enter-
tainment. In the following example, the writer argues that the
public should not
support these parks because they inhumanely separate dolphins
and orcas from
their natural habitat.
ENTHYMEME
CLAIM: The public should not support marine parks
REASON: because marine parks inhumanely separate
dolphins and orcas from their natural habitat.
GROUNDS
Evidence and arguments showing the inhumane difference
between the wild environment of dolphins and orcas and
their environment in captivity:
• In the wild, dolphins swim in pods in the open oceans,
dolphins around forty miles a day, and orcas around sixty
miles a day, whereas marine park tanks provide only a
fraction of that space.
• Evidence that the echoes from concrete pools, music of
dolphin shows, and the applause and noise of audiences
are stressful and harmful
• Statistics about the excessive number of performances or
about the levels of stress hormones produced in dolphins
Writer must anticipate these attacks from skeptics
t
J-----:/IIPOSSIBLE CONDITIONS OF REBUTTAL

A skeptic can attack the reason and grounds":
• Argument that these programs must observe
strict accreditation standards for animal welfare,
health, and education
• Marine parks exercise dophins' and orcas'
intelligence and abilities and build on their
natural behaviors.
• Many dolphins and orcas have been bred in
captivity, so they aren't #wild."
• The education and entertainment provided by
marine parks promote public concern for
dolphins and orcas.
WARRANT "-------------,. 11POSSIBLE CONDITIONS OF
REBUTTAL
It is wrong to separate wild animals from their natural
habitats.
BACKING
Arguments showing why it is unwise, unethical, or
otherwise wrong to separate wild animals from their
natural environments:
• Examples of wild animals (those in aquariums and zoos)
that do not thrive in artificially constructed environments,
that don't live long, or that suffer psychological stress
from confinement
• An ecological argument about the beauty of animals in
the wild and the complexity of the natural webs of
which animals are a part

• A philosophical argument that humans shouldn't treat
animals as instruments for their own enjoyment or profit
A skeptic can attack the warrant and backing.
• The natural habitat is not always the best
environment for wild animals.
• Captivity may actually preserve some species.
• Scientists have been able to conduct valuable
studies of dolphins and learn more about orcas
in captivity, which would have been impossible
in the wild.
Toulmin's final term, used to limit the force of a claim and
indicate the degree
of its probable truth, is qualifier. The qualifier reminds us that
real-world argu-
ments almost never prove a claim. We may say things such as
very likely, probably,
or maybe to indicate the strength of the claim we are willing to
draw from our
grounds and warrant. Thus, if there are exceptions to your
warrant or if your
grounds are not very strong, you may have to qualify your
claim. For example,
you might say, "States should ban plastic bags from grocery
stores because ban-
ning plastic bags would be a small first step toward reducing
plastic pollution of
the oceans" or "Except for limited cases of scientific research,

dolphins and orcas
should not be held in captivity." In our future displays of the
Toulmin scheme
we will omit the qualifiers, but you should always remember
that no argument
is 100 percent conclusive.
Developing Enthymemes with the Toulmin Schema
Working individually or in small groups, imagine that you have
to write arguments developing the five
enthymemes listed in the first For Class Discussion exercise in
this chapter. Use the Toulmin schema to help
you determine what you need to consider when developing each
enthymeme. We suggest that you try a
four-box diagram structure as a way of visualizing the schema.
We have applied the Toulmin schema to the
first enthymeme: "We shouldn't elect Joe as committee chair
because he is too bossy."
ENTHYMEME
CLAIM We shouldn't e lect Joe as committee chair
REASON because he is too bossy.
GROUNDS
Evidence of Joe's bossiness:
• Examples of the way he dominates meetings-doesn't
call on people, talks too much
• Testimony about his bossiness from people who have
served with him on committees

• Anecdotes about his abrasive style
WARRANT
Bossy people make bad committee chairs.
BACKING
Problems caused by bossy committee chairs:
• Bossy people don't inspire cooperation and enthusiam.
• Bossy people make others angry.
• Bossy people tend to make bad decisions because
they don't incorporate advice from others.
CONDITIONS OF REBUTTAL
Attacking the reason and grounds:
Evidence that Joe is not bossy or is only
occasionally bossy:
• Counterevidence showing his collaborative style
• Testimony from people who have liked Joe as a
leader and claim he isn't bossy; testimony about his
cooperativeness and kindness
• Testimony that anecdotes about Joe's bossiness
aren't typical
Attacking the warrant and backing:
• Arguments that bossiness can be a good trait
o Sometimes bossy people make good chairpersons.

o This committee needs a bossy person who can
make decisions and get things done.
• Argument that Joe has other traits of good
leadership that outweigh his bossiness
42 Chapter 3
Using Toulmin' s Schema to Plan
and Test Your Argument
and test it
for completeness.
So far we have seen that a claim, a reason, and a warrant form
the frame for a line
of reasoning in an argument. Most of the words in an argument,
however, are
devoted to grounds and backing.
Hypothetical Example: Cheerleaders as Athletes
For an illustration of how a writer can use the Toulmin schema
to generate ideas
for an argument, consider the following case. In April2005, the
Texas House of
Representatives passed a bill banning "sexually suggestive"
cheer leading. Across
the nation, evening TV comedians poked fun at the bill, while
newspaper edito-
rialists debated its wisdom and constitutionality. In one of our
classes, however,
several students, including one who had earned a high school

varsity letter in
competitive cheer leading, defended the bill by contending that
provocative dance
moves hurt the athletic image of cheerleading. In the following
example, which
draws on ideas developed in class discussion, we create a
hypothetical student
writer (we'll call her Chandale) who argues in defense of the
Texas bill. Chan-
dale's argument is based on the following enthymeme:
The bill banning suggestive dancing for high school
cheerleaders is a good law
because it promotes a view of female cheerleaders as athletes.
Chandale used the Toulmin schema to brainstorm ideas for
developing her argu-
ment. Here are her notes:
Chandale's Planning Notes Using the Toulmin Schema
Enthymeme: The bill banning suggestive dancing for high
school cheerleaders
is a good law because it promotes a view of female cheerleaders
as athletes.
Grounds: First, I've got to use evidence to show that
cheerleaders are athletes.
• Cheerleaders at my high school are carefully chosen for their
stamina and
skill after exhausting two-week tryouts.
• We begin all practices with a mile run and an hour of warm-up
exercises-
we are also expected to work out on our own for at least an hour

on week-
ends and on days without practice.
• We learned competitive routines and stunts consisting of lifts,
tosses, flips,
catches, and gymnastic moves. This requires athletic ability!
We'd practice
these stunts for hours each week.
• Throughout the year cheerleaders have to attend practices,
camps, and
workshops to learn new routines and stunts.
• Our squad competed in competitions around the state.
• Competitive cheerleading is a growing movement across the
country the
University of Maryland has made it a varsity sport for women.
• Skimpy uniforms and suggestive dance moves destroy the
image of cheer-
leaders as athletes by making women eye candy (for example,
the Dallas
Cowboys cheerleaders).
Warrant: It is a good thing to view female cheerleaders as
athletes.
Backing: Now I need to make the case that it is good to see
cheerleaders as
athletes rather than as eye candy.

• Athletic competition builds self-esteem, independence, and a
powerful sense
of achievement. It also contributes to health, strength, and
conditioning.
• Competitive cheer leading is one of the few sports where
teams are made
up of both men and women. (Why is this good? Should I use
this?)
• The suggestive dance moves turn women into sex objects
whose function
is to be gazed at by men, which suggests that women's value is
based on
their beauty and sex appeal.
• We are talking about HIGH SCHOOL cheerleading it is a very
bad early
influence on girls to model themselves on Dallas Cowboys
cheerleaders
or sexy videos of rock stars.
• Junior-high girls want to do what senior-high girls do
suggestive dance
moves promote sexuality way too early.
Conditions of Rebuttal: Would anybody try to rebut my reasons
and grounds
that cheerleading is an athletic activity?
• No. I think it is obvious that cheerleading is an athletic
activity once they
see my evidence.
• However, they might not think of cheerleading as a sport.
They might say

that the University of Maryland just declared it a sport as a
cheap way to
meet Title IX federal rules to have more women's sports. I'll
have to make
sure that I show that cheerleading is really a sport.
• They also might say that competitive cheerleading shouldn't
be encour-
aged because it is too dangerous lots of serious injuries,
including paral-
ysis, have been caused by mistakes in doing flips, lifts, and
tosses. If I
include this, maybe I could say that other sports are dangerous
also, and
it is in fact danger that makes this sport so exciting.
Would anyone doubt my warrant and backing that it is good to
see female
cheerleaders as athletes?
• Yes, all those people who laughed at the Texas legislature
think that
people are being too prudish and that banning suggestive dance
moves
violates free expression. I'll need to make my case that it is bad
for young
girls to see themselves as sex objects too early.
The information that Chandale lists under "grounds" is what she
sees as the facts
of the case the hard data she will use as evidence to support her
contention that
cheer leading is an athletic activity. The following paragraph
shows how this argu-
ment might look in a more formally written format.

First Part of Chandale's Argument
Although evening TV comedians have made fun of the Texas
legislature's
desire to ban "suggestive" dance moves from cheerleading
routines, I
applaud this bill because it promotes a healthy view of female
cheerleaders
as athletes rather than showgirls. I was lucky enough to attend a
high school
(continued)
Summarizes oppos-
• •
1ngv1ew
States her claim
44 Chapter 3
For grounds, uses
personal experience
details to show that
cheer leading is an
athletic activity
Provides more
grounds by show-
• • •
Ing emerging views
of cheer leading as a
competitive sport

Supplies warrant: It
is good to see cheer-
leaders as athletic
and bad to see them
as sex objects
Supplies backing:
Shows benefits that
come from see-
ing cheerleaders as
athletes
Anticipates an
objection
where cheer leading is a sport, and I earned a varsity letter as a
cheerleader.
To get on my high school's cheer leading squad, students have
to go through
an exhausting two-week tryout of workouts and instruction in
the basic
routines; then they are chosen based on their stamina and skill.
Once on
the squad, cheerleaders begin all practices with a mile run and
an hour of
grueling warm-up exercises, and they are expected to exercise
on their own
on weekends. As a result of this regimen, cheerleaders achieve
and maintain
a top level of physical fitness. In addition, to get on the squad,
students
must be able to do handstands, cartwheels, handsprings, high
jumps, and
splits. Each year the squad builds up to its complex routines and
stunts con-
sisting of lifts, tosses, flips, catches, and gymnastic moves that

only trained
athletes can do. In tough competitions at the regional and state
levels, the
cheerleading squad demonstrates its athletic talent. This view of
cheer-
leading as a competitive sport is also spreading to colleges. As
reported
recently in a number of newspapers, the University of Maryland
has made
cheer leading a varsity sport, and many other universities are
following suit.
Athletic performance of this caliber is a far cry from the sexy
dancing that
many high school girls often associate with cheer leading. By
banning sug-
gestive dancing in cheerleading routines, the Texas legislature
creates an
opportunity for schools to emphasize the athleticism of cheer
leading.
As you can see, Chandale has plenty of evidence for arguing
that competi-
tive cheerleading is an athletic activity quite different from
sexy dancing. But
how effective is this argument as it stands? Is Chandale's
argument complete?
The Toulmin schema encourages writers to include if needed for
the intended
audience explicit support for their warrants as well as attention
to conditions for
rebuttal. Because the overwhelming national response to the
Texas law was ridi-
cule at the perceived prudishness of the legislators, Chandale
decided to expand
her argument as follows:

Continuation of Chandale's Argument
This emphasis on cheerleaders as athletes rather than sexy
dancers is good
for girls. The erotic dance moves that many high school
cheerleaders now
incorporate into their routines show that they are emulating the
Dallas Cow-
boys cheerleaders or pop stars in music videos. Our already
sexually satu-
rated culture (think of the suggestive clothing marketed to little
girls) pushes
girls and women to measure their value by their beauty and sex
appeal. It
would be far healthier, both physically and psychologically, if
high school
cheerleaders were identified as athletes. For women and men
both, competi-
tive cheerleading can build self-esteem, pride in teamwork, and
a powerful
sense of achievement, as well as promote health, strength, and
fitness.
Some people might object to competitive cheerleading by saying
that
cheer leading isn't really a sport. Some have accused the
University of Mary-
land of making cheer leading a varsity sport only as a cheap
way of meeting
Title IX requirements. But anyone who has watched competitive
cheer lead-
ing, and imagined what it would be like to be thrown high into
the air, knows

instinctively that this is a sport indeed. In fact, other persons
might object to
competitive cheerleading because it is too dangerous, with
potential for very
severe injuries, including paralysis. Obviously the sport is
dangerous but
so are many sports, including football, gymnastics, diving, and
trampoline.
The danger and difficulty of the sport are part of its appeal. Part
of what can
make cheerleaders as athletes better role models for girls than
cheerleaders as
erotic dancers is the courage and training needed for success. Of
course, the
Texas legislators might not have had athleticism in mind when
they banned
suggestive dancing. They might only have been promoting their
vision of
morality. But at stake are the role models we set for young
girls. I'll pick an
athlete over a Dallas Cowboys cheerleader every time.
Our example suggests how a writer can use the Toulmin schema
to generate
ideas for an argument. For evidence, Chandale draws primarily
on her personal
experiences as a cheerleader I athlete and on her knowledge of
popular culture.
She also draws on her reading of several newspaper articles
about the University
of Maryland making cheerleading a varsity sport. (In an
academic paper rather
than a newspaper editorial, she would need to document these
sources through

formal citations.) Although many arguments depend on
research, many can be
supported wholly or in part by your own personal experiences,
so don't neglect
the wealth of evidence from your own life when searching for
data. (Chapter 4
provides a more detailed discussion of evidence in arguments.)
Extend=ed Student Exa:mple:
Girls and Violent Video Ga:mes
Let's look at one more example of how the Toulmin system can
help you generate
ideas for your argument. In this case, we will look at a complete
example from
student writer Carmen Tieu, whose evolving argument about
girls and violent
video games was introduced in the last chapter. Carmen's
assignment was to
write a "supporting reasons" argument, which is a shortened
form of the classi-
cal argument described at the beginning of Chapter 2. It has all
the features of a
classical argument except for the requirement to summarize and
rebut opposing
views. In planning her argument, Carmen decided to use four
lines of reasoning,
as shown in her because clauses listed at the end of Chapter 2.
She began by creat-
ing a basic Toulmin frame for each reason:
Carmen's Toulmin Frames
My claim: Playing first-person-shooter (FPS) video games is
good for girls
1. Reason: because playing FPS games empowers girls when

they beat
guys at their own game. Warrant: It is good for girls to feel
empowered.
2. Reason: because playing FPS games equips girls with skills
that free
them from feminine stereotypes. Warrant: It is good for girls to
be
freed from feminine stereotypes.
3. Reason: because playing FPS games gives girls a different
way of
bonding with males. Warrant: It is good for girls to find a
different
way of bonding with males.
Responds to objection
by supplying more
evidence that ch eer-
leading is a sport; in
fact , it is a dangerous
sport
Sums up by returning
to claim
46 Chapter 3
4. Reason: because playing FPS games gives girls new insi ghts
into a
male subculture. Warrant: It is good for girls to get new insights
into
a male subculture.

As Carmen began drafting her essay, she was confident she
could support her first
three lines of reasoning. For reason 1 she could use evidence
(grounds) from per-
sonal experience to show how she learned to beat guys at video
games. She could
also support her warrant by showing how beating guys made her
feel empow-
ered. For reason 2, she decided that she primarily needed to
support her warrant
(backing). It is obvious that playing FPS games breaks feminine
stereotypes. What
she had to show was why it was good or valuable to be freed
from feminine ste-
reotypes. Reason 3, she felt, needed support for both the reason
and the warrant.
She had to show how these games gave her a different way of
bonding with males
(grounds) and then why this different way was a good thing
(backing). Carmen
felt that her reason 4 was the most complex. Here are her more
detailed planning
notes for reason 4:
Carmen's Planning Notes for Reason 4
Enthymeme: First-person-shooter (FPS) video games are great
activities for
girls because playing these games gives girls new insights into
male subculture.
Grounds: I've got to show the insights into male subculture I
gained.
• The guys who play these video games are intensely
competitive.

0 They can play for hours without stopping intense
concentration.
0 They don't multitask no small talk during the games; total
focus on
playing.
0 They take delight in winning at all costs they boast with every
kill;
they call each other losers.
• They often seem homophobic or misogynist.
0 They put each other down by calling opponents "faggot" and
"wussy,"
or other similar names that are totally obscene.
o They associate victory with being macho.
Warrant: It is beneficial for a girl to get these insights into male
subculture.
Backing: How can I show these benefits?
• It was a good learning experience to see how girls' way of
bonding is very
different from that of guys; girls tend to be nicer to one another
rather than
insulting one another. Although I enjoy winning at FPS games,
as a girl I
feel alienated from this male subculture.
• The game atmosphere tends to bring out these homophobic
traits; guys
don't talk this way as much when they are doing other things.

• This experience helped me see why men may progress faster
than women
in a competitive business environment men seem programmed to
crush
one another, and they devote enormous energy to the process.
• What else can I say? I need to think about this further.
Based on these planning notes, Carmen's composed argument
went through sev-
eral drafts. Here is her final version.
Student Essay
Why Violent Video Games Are Good for Girls
Carmen Tieu
It is ten o'clock P.M., game time. My entire family knows by
now that
when I am horne on Saturday nights, ten P.M. is my gaming
night when
I play my favorite first-person-shooter (FPS) games, usually
Halo 3, on
Xbox Live. Seated in my mobile chair in front of my family's
42-inch flat
screen HDTV, I log onto Xbox Live. A small message in the
bottom of the
screen appears with the words "KrlpL3r is online," alerting me
that one of
my male friends is online and already playing. As the game
loads, I send

KrlpL3r a game invite, and he joins me in the pre-game room
lobby.
In the game room lobby, all the players who will be
participating in the
match are chatting aggressively with each other: "Oh man, we're
gonna
own you guys so bad." When a member of the opposing team
notices my
garner tag, "ernbracingapathy," he begins to insult me by
calling me various
degrading, gay-associated names: "Embracing apa-what? Man, it
sounds so
erno. Are you some fag? I bet you want me so bad. You're
gonna get owned!"
Players always assume from my garner tag that I am a gay male,
never a
female. The possibility that I am a girl is the last thing on their
minds. Of
course, they are right that girls seldom play first-person-shooter
games.
Girls are socialized into activities that promote togetherness and
talk, not
high-intensity competition involving fantasized shooting and
killing. The
violent nature of the games tends to repulse girls. Opponents of
violent
video games typically hold that these games are so graphically
violent that
they will influence players to become amoral and sadistic.
Feminists also
argue that violent video games often objectify women by
portraying them
as sexualized toys for men's gratification. Although I
understand these
objections, I argue that playing first-person-shooter games can

actually be
good for girls.
First, playing FPS games gives girls the chance to beat guys at
their
own game. When I first began playing Halo 2, I was horrible.
My male
friends constantly put me down for my lack of skills, constantly
telling
me that I was awful, "but for a girl, you're good." But it didn't
take much
practice until I learned to operate the two joysticks with
precision and with
quick instinctual reactions. While guys and girls can play many
physical
games together, such as basketball or touch football, guys will
always have
the advantage because on average they are taller, faster, and
stronger than
females. However, when it comes to video games, girls can
compete equally
because physical strength isn't required, just quick reaction time
and man-
ual dexterity skills that women possess in abundance. The
adrenaline rush
that I receive from beating a bunch of testosterone-driven guys
at something
they supposedly excel at is empowering and exciting; I
especially savor the
look of horror on their faces when I completely destroy them.
(continued)
Title makes persua-
sive claim

Attention -grabbing
scene
Continues scene
and provides more
background
Sums up opposing
-· v1ews
States claim
States first reason
For grounds, uses
:personal narrative to
show how she can
beat guys
Briefly backs
warrant by showing
the good feeling of
empowerment
48 Chapter 3
States second reason
Details focus on back-
ing for warrant: It is
good for girls -t-o be
freed from feminine
stereotypes

Provides third reason
Uses a narrative
example for grounds;
shows how FPS
games give her a dif-
ferent way of bonding
with males
Backing for warrant:
This new kind of
bonding is good
Provides final reason
Provides grounds:
gives examples of
what she learned
about male
subculture
Provides backing for
warrant: Shows value
of learning about
male subcultu-re
while keeping sepa-
rate from it
Because female video garners are so rare, playing shooter games
allows
girls to be freed from feminine stereotypes and increases their
confidence.
Our culture generally portrays females as caring, nonviolent,
and motherly
beings who are not supposed to enjoy FPS games with their war
themes

and violent killings. I am in no way rejecting these traditional
female values
because I myself am a compassionate, tree-hugging vegan. But I
also like to
break these stereotypes. Playing video games offers a great way
for females
to break the social mold of only doing "girly" things and
introduces them
to something that males commonly enjoy. Playing video games
with sexist
males has also helped me become more outspoken.
Psychologically, I can
stand up to aggressive males because I know that I can beat
them at their
own game. The confidence I've gotten from excelling at shooter
games may
have even carried over into the academic arena because I am
majoring in
chemical engineering and have no fear whatsoever of intruding
into the
male-dominated territory of math and science. Knowing that I
can beat all
the guys in my engineering classes at Halo gives me that little
extra confi-
dence boost during exams and labs.
Another reason for girls to play FPS games is that it gives us a
different
way of bonding with guys. Once when I was discussing my
latest Halo 3
matches with one of my regular male friends, a guy whom I
didn't know
turned around and said, "You play Halo? Wow, you just earned
my respect."
Although I was annoyed that this guy apparently didn't respect
women in

general, it is apparent that guys will talk to me differently now
that I can
play video games. From a guy's perspective I can also
appreciate why males
find video games so addicting. You get joy from perfecting your
skills so
that your high-angle grenade kills become a thing of beauty.
While all of
these skills may seem trivial to some, the acknowledgment of
my skills from
other players leaves me with a perverse sense of pride in
knowing that I
played the game better than everyone else. Since I have started
playing, I
have also noticed that it is much easier to talk to males about
lots of differ-
ent subjects. Talking video games with guys is a great ice-
breaker that leads
to different kinds of friendships outside the realm of romance
and dating.
Finally, playing violent video games can be valuable for girls
because
it gives them insights into a disturbing part of male subculture.
When the
testosterone starts kicking in, guys become blatantly
homophobic and
misogynistic. Any player, regardless of gender, who cannot play
well (as
measured by having a high number of kills and a low number of
deaths)
is made fun of by being called gay, a girl, or worse. Even when
some guys
finally meet a female player, they will also insult her by calling
her ales-
bian or an ugly fat chick who has no life. Their insults towards

the girl will
dramatically increase if she beats them because they feel so
humiliated. In
their eyes, playing worse than a girl is embarrassing because
girls are sup-
posed to be inept at FPS games. Whenever I play Halo better
than my male
friends, they often comment on how "it makes no sense that
we're getting
owned by Carmen."
When males act like such sexist jerks it causes one to question
if they are
always like this. My answer is no because I know, firsthand,
that when guys
like that are having one-on-one conversations with a female,
they show a
softer side, and the macho side goes away. They don't talk about
how girls
should stay in the kitchen and make them dinner, but rather how
they think
it is cool that they share a fun, common interest with a girl. But
when they
are in a group of males their fake, offensive macho side comes
out. I find
this phenomenon troubling because it shows a real problem in
the way
boys are socialized. To be a real"man" around other guys, they
have to put
down women and gays in activities involving aggressive
behavior where

men are supposed to excel. But they don't become macho and
aggressive
in activities like reading and writing, which they think of as
feminine. I've
always known that guys are more physically aggressive than
women, but
until I started playing violent video games I had never realized
how this
aggression is related to misogyny and homophobia. Perhaps
these traits
aren't deeply ingrained in men but come out primarily in a
competitive
male environment. Whatever the cause, it is an ugly
phenomenon, and I'm
glad that I learned more about it. Beating guys at FPS games
has made me
a more confident woman while being more aware of gender
differences in
the way men and women are socialized. I joined the guys in
playing Halo,
but I didn't join their subculture of ridiculing women and gays.
The Th-esis-Governed "Self-Announcing" Structure
of Classical Argument
Like the complete classical argument explained at the beginning
of Chapter 2,
Carmen's supporting-reasons argument has a thesis-governed
structure in which
she states her claim near the end of the introduction, begins
body paragraphs
with clearly stated reasons, and uses effective transitions
throughout to keep her
reader on track. This kind of tightly organized structure is
sometimes called a
self-announcing or closed-form structure because the writer
states his or her claim

before beginning the body of the argument and forecasts the
structure that is to
follow. In contrast, an unfolding or open-form structure often
doesn't give away the
writer's position until late in the essay. (We discuss delayed-
thesis arguments in
Chapter 6.) A general rule of thumb for arguments using more
than one line of
reasoning is to place your most important or most interesting
reason last, where
it will have the greatest impact on your readers.
In writing a self-announcing argument, students often ask how
much of the
argument to summarize in the thesis statement. Consider
Carmen's options:
• She might announce only her claim:
Playing first-person-shooter games can be good for girls.
• She might forecast a series of parallel reasons:
There are several reasons that playing first-person-shooter
games can be
good for girls.
• She might forecast the actual number of reasons:
I will present four reasons that playing first-person-shooter
games can be
good for girls.
• Or she might forecast the whole argument by including her
because clauses
with her claim:

Su ms up why her
playing FPS games is
valuable
50 Chapter 3
Playing first-person-shooter games can be good for girls
because it lets girls
feel empowered by beating guys at their own game, because it
frees girls
from feminine stereotypes, because it gives girls a different way
of bonding
with guys, and because it gives girls new insights into a male
subculture.
This last thesis statement forecasts not only the claim, but also
the supporting
reasons that will serve as topic sentences for key paragraphs
throughout the body
of the paper.
No formula can tell you precisely how much of your argument
to forecast
in the introduction. However, these suggestions can guide you:
In writing a self-
announcing argument, forecast only what is needed for clarity.
In short arguments,
readers often need only your claim. In longer arguments,
however, or in especially
complex arguments, readers appreciate your forecasting the
complete structure of
the argument (claim with reasons). Also, as we explain in later
chapters, the direct-

ness of classical argument is not always the best way to reach
all audiences. On
many occasions more open-form or delayed-thesis approaches
are more effective.
Reasons, Warrants, and Conditions of Rebuttal
Individual task:
1. Choose one of the following reasons. Then write a passage
that provides grounds to support the
reason. Use details from personal experience or imagine
plausible, hypothetical details.
a. Web surfing or checking social media can be harmful to
college students because it wastes study time.
b. Getting one's news from social media undermines informed
citizenship because social media tend
to sensationalize news events.
c. The university's decision to raise parking fees for solo drivers
is a good environmental plan because
it encourages students to use public transportation.
2. Now create an argument to support the warrant for the reason
you chose in task 1. The warrants for
each of the arguments are stated below.
a. Support this warrant: Wasting study time is harmful for
college students.
b. Support this warrant: Sensationalizin g of the news is harmful
to citizens' understanding.
c. Support this warrant: It is good for the environment to
encourage students to use public
transportation.

Group task:
strategies for supporting your chosen reason and
warrant.
Conclusion
Chapters 2 and 3 have provided an anatomy of argument. They
have shown that
the core of an argument is a claim with reasons that usually can
be summarized in
one or more because clauses attached to the claim. Often, it is
as important to articu-
late and support the underlying assumptions in your argument
(warrants) as it is
to support the stated reasons because a successful argument
should be rooted in
your audience's beliefs and values. To plan an audience-based
argument strategy,
arguers can use the Toulmin schema to help them discover
grounds, warrants, and
backing for their arguments and test them through conditions of
rebuttal.
A Note on the Informal Fallacies
The Toulmin system explained in this chapter is a response to
the problem of
uncertainty or inconclusiveness in real-world arguments, where
we have to deal
with probability as opposed to the certainty of formal logic. In
the real world, we

seldom encounter arguments that are absolutely conclusive. We
can say that an
argument is more or less "persuasive" or "non-persuasive" to
certain audiences
but not that it proves its case conclusively.
Another response to the problem of conclusiveness is the class
of reasoning prob-
lems known as the informal fallacies. (You have probably heard
of at least some of
them with their exotic, Latinate, or sometimes funny names
hasty generalization,
post hoc ergo propter hoc, slippery slope, or poisoning the
well.) They are called
"informal" because, like the Toulmin system, they don't focus
on the form of the
syllogism.* Although the fallacies are not useful for helping
writers plan and test
their own arguments, they can often help us name what is
uncertain or illogically
seductive in someone else's argument. They function as a
compendium of the ways
that flawed arguments can nevertheless seem persuasive on the
surface. To provide
flexibility in the way that informal fallacies can be integrated
into a course, we have
placed them all together in a convenient appendix at the end of
the text.
Writing Assignment
Plan of an Argument's Details
This assignment asks you to return to the working thesis
statement that you created for the brief writing
assignment in Chapter 2. From that thesis statement extract one
of your enthymemes (your claim with one
of your because clauses). Write out the warrant for your

enthymeme. Then use the Toulmin schema to brain-
storm the detai ls you might use (grounds, backing, conditions
of rebuttal) to convert your enthymeme into
a fleshed-out argument. Use as your model Chandale's planning
notes or Carmen's planning notes earl ier
in this chapter. Note that this is a process-oriented
brainstorming task aimed at helping you generate ideas
for an argument in progress. You may end up changing your
ideas substantially as you compose the actual
argument. (An assignment to write a complete "supporting
reasons" argument like Carmen's comes at the
end of the next chapter, which explains the uses of evidence.)
*A syllogism is a three-part logical structure containing a major
premise, a minor p remise,
and a conclusion. If the syllogism is worded in a valid, correct
way and if the premises are
both true, then the conclusion must necessarily be true.
Major premise: All men are mortal.
Minor premise: Socrates is a man.
Conclusion: Socrates is mortal.
Chapter 5
Ethos, Pathos, and Kairos
Learning Objectives
5.1 Explain how the classical appeals of logos, ethos, and
pathos
work together to move your audience.

5.2 Create effective appeals to ethos.
5.3 Create effective appeals to pathos.
5.4 Be mindful of kairos or the "timeliness" of your argument.
5.5 Explain how images make visual appeals to logos, ethos,
pathos,
and kairos.
5.6 Explain how audience-based reasons appeal to logos, ethos,
pathos, and kairos.
In Chapters 3 and 4 we focused on logos the logical structure of
reasons and
evidence in argument. Even though we have treated logos in its
own chapters, an
effective arguer's concern for logos is always connected to
ethos and pathos (see
the rhetorical triangle in Figure 2.2) and always considers the
kairos, or timeliness
of the argument. This chapter explains how arguers can create
effective appeals
from ethos, pathos, and kairos. It also explains the crucial role
played by concrete
language, examples, narrative stories, and use of images in
enhancing ethical
and emotional appeals. We conclude by showing how audience-
based reasons
enhance logos while also appealing to ethos and pathos.
67
68 Chapter 5

Logos, Ethos, and Pathos as Persuasive
Appeals: An Overview
pathos work
together to move your audience.
At first, one may be tempted to think of logos, ethos, and pathos
as "ingredients"
in an essay, like spices you add to a casserole. But a more
appropriate meta-
phor might be that of different lamps and filters used on theater
spotlights to
vary lighting effects on a stage. Thus, if you switch on a pathos
lamp (possibly
through using more concrete language or vivid examples), the
resulting image
will engage the audience's sympathy and emotions more deeply.
If you overlay
an ethos filter (perhaps by adopting a different tone toward your
audience), the
projected image of the writer as a person will be subtly altered.
If you switch on
a logos lamp (by adding, say, more data for evidence), you will
draw the reader's
attention to the logical appeal of the argument. Depending on
how you modulate
the lamps and filters, you shape and color your readers'
perception of you and
your argument.
Our metaphor is imperfect, of course, but our point is that
logos, ethos, and
pathos work together to create an impact on the reader.
Consider, for example,

the different impacts of the following arguments, all having
roughly the same
logical appeal.
1. People should adopt a vegetarian diet because doing so will
help prevent the
cruelty to animals caused by factory farming.
2. If you are planning to eat chicken tonight, please consider
how much that
chicken suffered so that you could have a tender and juicy meal.
Commer-
cial growers cram the chickens so tightly together into cages
that they never
walk on their own legs, see sunshine, or flap their wings. In
fact, their beaks
must be cut off to keep them from pecking each other's eyes out.
One way to
prevent such suffering is for more people to become
vegetarians.
3. People who eat meat are no better than sadists who torture
other sentient
creatures to enhance their own pleasure. Unless you enjoy
sadistic tyranny
over others, you have only one choice: Become a vegetarian.
4. People committed to justice might consider the extent to
which our love of
eating meat requires the agony of animals. A visit to a modern
chicken fac-
tory where chickens live their entire lives in tiny, darkened
coops without
room to spread their wings might raise doubts about our right to
inflict such
suffering on sentient creatures. Indeed, such a visit might

persuade us that
vegetarianism is a more just alternative.
Each argument has roughly the same logical core:
But the impact of each argument varies. The difference between
arguments
1 and 2, most of our students report, is the greater emotional
power of argument
2. Whereas argument 1 refers only to the abstraction "cruelty to
animals," argu-
ment 2 paints a vivid picture of chickens with their beaks cut
off to prevent their
pecking each other blind. Argument 2 makes a stronger appeal
to pathos (not
necessarily a stronger argument), stirring feelings by appealing
simultaneously
to the heart and to the head.
ENTHYMEME
CLAIM: People should adopt a vegetarian diet
REASON: because doing so will help prevent
the cruelty to animals caused by factory farming.
GROUNDS
• Evidence of suffering in commercial chicken
farms, where chickens are crammed together
and lash out at one another

• Evidence that only widespread adoption of
vegetarianism will end factory farming
WARRANT
If we have an alternative to making animals
suffer, we should use it.
Moving Your Audience 69
The difference between arguments 1 and 3 concerns both ethos
and pathos.
Argument 3 appeals to the emotions through highly charged
words such as tor-
ture, sadists, and tyranny. But argument 3 also draws attention
to its writer, and
most of our students report not liking that writer very much. His
stance is self-
righteous and insulting. In contrast, argument 4's author
establishes a more posi-
tive ethos. He establishes rapport by assuming his audience is
committed to justice
and by qualifying his argument with the conditional term might.
He also invites
sympathy for the chickens' plight an appeal to pathos by
offering a specific
description of chickens crammed into tiny coops.
Which of these arguments is best? The answer depends on the
intended audi-
ence. Arguments 1 and 4 seem aimed at receptive audiences
reasonably open to
exploration of the issue, whereas arguments 2 and 3 seem
designed to shock com-

placent audiences or to rally a group of true believers. Even
argument 3, which is
too abusive to be effective in most instances, might work as a
rallying speech at a
convention of animal liberation activists.
Our point thus far is that logos, ethos, and pathos are different
aspects of the same
whole, different lenses for intensifying or softening the light
beam you project onto
the screen. Every choice you make as a writer affects in some
way each of the three
appeals. The rest of this chapter examines these choices in more
detail.
How to Create an Effective Ethos:
The Appeal to Credibility
The ancient Greek and Roman rhetoricians recognized that an
argument would be
more persuasive if the audience trusted the speaker. Aristotle
argued that such trust
resides within the speech itself, not in the speaker's prior
reputation. Speakers proj-
ect their credibility through their manner and delivery, their
tone, their word choice,
70 Chapter 5
their use of trustworthy evidence, and the sympathy and fairness
with which they
treat alternative views. Aristotle called the impact of the
speaker's credibility the

appeal from ethos. How does a writer create credibility? We
suggest four ways:
• Be knowledgeable about your issue. The first way to gain
credibility is to
be credible that is, to argue from a strong base of knowledge, to
have at
hand the examples, personal experiences, statistics, and other
empirical data
needed to make a sound case. If you have done your homework,
you will
command the attention of most audiences.
• Be fair. Besides being knowledgeable about your issue, you
need to demon-
strate fairness and courtesy to alternative views. Because true
argument can
occur only where people may reasonably disagree with one
another, your
ethos will be strengthened if you demonstrate that you
understand and empa-
thize with other points of view. There are times when you may
appropriately
scorn an opposing view. But these times are rare, and they
mostly occur when
you address audiences predisposed to your view. Demonstrating
empathy to
alternative views is generally the best strategy.
• Build a bridge to your audience. A third means of establishing
credibility-
building a bridge to your audience has been treated at length in
our ear-
lier discussions of audience-based reasons. By grounding your
argument in
shared values and assumptions, you demonstrate your goodwill

and enhance
your image as a trustworthy person respectful of your audience's
views. We
mention audience-based reasons here to show how this aspect of
logos-
finding the reasons that are most rooted in the audience's values
also affects
your ethos as a person respectful of your readers' views.
• Demonstrate professionalism. Finally, you can enhance your
ethos by the
professionalism revealed in your manuscript itself. Appropriate
style, care-
ful editing and proofreading, accurate documentation, and
adherence to the
genre conventions expected by your audience all contribute to
the image of
the person behind the writing. If your manuscript is sloppy,
marred by spell-
ing or grammatical errors, or inattentive to the tone and style of
the expected
genre, your credibility will be damaged.
How to Create Pathos: The Appeal
to Beliefs and Emotions
Before the federal government outlawed unsolicited telephone
marketing, news-
papers published flurries of articles complaining about annoying
telemarketers.
Within this context, a United Parcel Service worker, Bobbi
Buchanan, wanted
to create sympathy for telemarketers. She wrote a New York
Times op-ed piece
entitled "Don't Hang Up, That's My Mom Calling," which

begins as follows:
To those Americans who have signed up for the new national
do-not-call list, my
mother [a telemarketer] is a pest .... To others, she's just
another anonymous voice
on the other end of the line. But to those who know her, she's
someone struggling
to make a buck, to feed herself and pay her utilities.
The op-ed continues with a heartwarming description of
Buchanan's mother,
La Verne. Buchanan's rhetorical aim is to transform the reader's
anonymous,
depersonalized image of telemarketers into the concrete image
of her mother:
a "hardworking, first generation American; the daughter of a
Pittsburgh steel-
worker; survivor of the Great Depression; the widow of a World
War II veteran;
a mother of seven, grandmother of eight, great-grandmother of
three .... "The
intended effect is to alter our view of telemarketers through the
positive emotions
triggered by our identification with La Verne.
By urging readers to think of "my mother, La Verne" instead of
an anonymous
telemarketer, Buchanan illustrates the power of pathos, an
appeal to the reader's
emotions. Arguers create pathetic appeals whenever they
connect their claims

to readers' values, thus triggering positive or negative emotions
depending on
whether these values are affirmed or transgressed. Pro-life
proponents appeal to
pathos when they graphically describe the dismemberment of a
fetus during an
abortion. Proponents of improved women's health and status in
Africa appeal to
pathos when they describe the helplessness of wives forced to
have unprotected
sex with husbands likely infected with HIV. Opponents of oil
exploration in the
Arctic National Wildlife Refuge (ANWR) appeal to pathos when
they lovingly
describe the calving grounds of caribou.
Are such appeals legitimate? Our answer is yes, if they intensify
and deepen
our response to an issue rather than divert our attention from it.
Because under-
standing is a matter of feeling as well as perceiving, pathos can
give access to
nonlogical, but not necessarily nonrational, ways of knowi ng.
Pathos helps us see
what is deeply at stake in an issue, what matters to the whole
person. Appeals to
pathos help readers walk in the writer's shoes. That is why
arguments are often
improved through the use of stories that make issues come alive
or sensory details
that allow us to see, feel, and taste the reality of a problem.
Appeals to pathos become illegitimate, we believe, when they
confuse an issue
rather than clarify it. Consider the case of a student who argues
that Professor

Jones ought to raise his grade from aD to a C, lest he lose his
scholarship and
be forced to leave college, shattering the dreams of his dear old
grandmother. To
the extent that students' grades should be based on performance
or effort, the
student's image of the dear old grandmother is an illegitimate
appeal to pathos
because it diverts the reader from rational criteria to irrational
criteria. The weep-
ing grandmother may provide a legitimate motive for the
student to study harder
but not for the professor to change a grade.
Although it is difficult to classify all the ways that writers can
create appeals
from pathos, we will focus on four strategies: concrete
language; specific exam-
ples and illustrations; narratives; and connotations of words,
metaphors, and
analogies. Each of these strategies lends presence to an
argument by creating
immediacy and emotional impact.
Use Concrete Language
Concrete language one of the chief ways that writers achieve
voice can
increase the liveliness, interest level, and personality of a
writer's prose. When
used in argument, concrete language typically heightens pathos.
For example,
consider the differences between the first and second drafts of
the following
student argument:

72 Chapter 5
FIRST DRAFT
People who prefer driving a car to taking a bus think that taking
the bus will
increase the stress of the daily commute. Just the opposite is
true. Not being able
to find a parking spot when in a hurry to be at work or school
can cause a person
stress. Taking the bus gives a person time to read or sleep, etc.
It could be used as
a mental break.
SECOND DRAFT (CONCRETE LANGUAGE ADDED)
Taking the bus can be more relaxing than driving a car. Having
someone else
behind the wheel gives people time to chat with friends or study
for an exam. They
can check Instagram and Twitter, send text messages, doze off,
read their favorite
news website, or get lost in a novel rather than foam at the
mouth looking for a
parking space.
In this revision, specific details enliven the prose by creating
images that
evoke positive feelings. Who wouldn't want some free time to
doze off or to get
lost in a novel?
Use Specific Examples and Illustrations
Specific examples and illustrations serve two purposes in an
argument: They pro-

vide evidence that supports your reasons; simultaneously, they
give your argu-
ment presence and emotional resonance. Note the flatness of the
following draft
arguing for the value of multicultural studies in a university
core curriculum:
FIRST DRAFT
Another advantage of a multicultural education is that it will
help us see our
own culture in a broader perspective. If all we know is our own
heritage, we might
not be inclined to see anything bad about this heritage because
we won' t know
anything else. But if we study other heritages, we can see the
costs and benefits of
our own heritage.
Now note the increase in presence and emotional resonance
when the writer adds
a specific example:
SECOND DRAFT (EXAMPLE ADDED)
Another advantage of multicultural education is that it raises
questions about
traditional Western values. For example, owning private
property (such as buying
your own home) is part of the American dream. However, in
studying the beliefs
of American Indians, students are confronted with a very
different view of private
property. When the U.S. government sought to buy land in the
Pacific Northwest
from Chief Sealth, he is alleged to have replied:

The president in Washington sends words that he wishes to buy
our land.
But h ow can you buy or sell the sky? The land? The idea is
strange to us.
If we do not own the freshness of the air and the sparkle of the
water, how
can you buy them? [ ... ] We are part of the earth and it is part
of us. [ ... ]
This we know: The earth d oes not belong to man, man belongs
to the earth.
Our class was shocked by the contrast between traditional
Western views of
property and Chief Sealth's views. One of our b est class
discussions was initi-
ated by th is quotation from Chief Sealth. Had we not been
exposed to a view
from anoth er culture, we would have never been led to question
the "rightness"
of Western values.
Th e writer begins his revision by evoking a traditional Western
v iew of p ri-
vate proper ty, which h e then questions by shifting to Chief
Sealth ' s vision of
land as op en, endless, and unob tainable as the sk y. Th rough
the use of a specific
example, the writer brings to life his previously abstract point
about the benefit
of multicultural education.

Use Narratives
A par ticularly powerful way to evoke pathos is to tell a st ory
tha t either leads
into your claim or emb odies it implicitly and that appeals to
your readers'
feelin gs and imagination. Brief narratives wheth er true or
hypothetical are
particularly effective as opening attention grabber s for an
argument. To illus-
trate h ow an introductory narrative (either a story or a brief
scene) can create
appeals to pathos, consider the following fi rst paragraph to an
argumen t oppos-
ing jet skis:
I d ove off the dock into the lake, and as I approached the
surface I could see the
sun shining through the water. As my head popped out, I located
my cousin a few
feet away in a rowboat waiting to escort me as I, a twelve-year-
old girl, attemp ted
to swim across the mile-wide, pristine lake and back to our
dock. I made it, and that
glorious summer day is one of my most precious memories.
Today, however, no
one would dare attempt that swim. Jet skis have taken over this
small lake where
I sp ent many summers with my grand parents. Dozens of
whining jet skis criss-
cross the lake, ruining it for swimming, fishing, canoeing,
rowboating, and even
water-skiing. More stringent state laws are needed to control jet
skiing because it
interferes with other uses of lakes and is currently very d
angerous.

This narrative makes a case for a particular point of view
toward jet skis by win-
ning our identification w ith the writer's experience. She invites
us to relive that
experience with her while she also taps into our own treasured
memories of sum-
mer experien ces th at have been destroyed by change.
Op ening n arratives to evoke pathos can be p owerfully
effective, but they are
also risky. If they are too private, too self-indulgent, too
sentimental, or even too
dramatic and fo rceful, they can backfire. If you have doubts
about an op ening
narrative, read it to a sample audience before using it in your
fina l draft.
74 Chapter 5
Use Words, Metaphors, and Analogies
with Appropriate Connotations
Another way of appealing to pathos is to select words,
metaphors, or analo-
gies with connotations that match your aim. We have already
described this
strategy in our discussion of the "framing" of evidence in
Chapter 4. By using
words with particular connotations, a writer guides readers to
see th e issue
through the writer's angle of vision. Thus, if you want to create
positive feelings
about a recent city council decision, you can call it "bold and
decisive"; if you
want to create negative feelings, you can call it "short-sighted

and autocratic."
Similarly, writers can use favorable or unfavorable metaphors
and analogies to
evoke different imaginative or emotional responses. A tax bill
m ight be viewed
as a "potentially fatal poison pill" or as "unpleasant but
necessary economic
medicine." In each of these cases, the words create an emotional
as well as intel-
lectual response.
Incorporating Appeals to Pathos
Outside class, rew rite the introd uct ion to one of you r
previous papers (or a current draft) to include more
appeals to pathos. Use any of t he strateg ies for g iving your
argument presence: concrete language, specific
examples, narrat ives, metaphors, analog ies, and connotative
wo rds. Bring both you r orig inal and your
rewritten introduct ions to c lass. In pairs or in groups, d iscuss
the comparat ive effectiveness of these int ro-
d uctions in trying to reac h your intended audience.
Kairos: The Timeliness and Fitness
of Arguments
5.4 Be mindful of kairos or the ''timeliness" of your argument.
To increase your argument's effectiveness, you need to consider
not only its
appeals to logos, ethos, and pathos, but also its kairos that is,
its timing, its appro-
priateness for the occasion. Kairos is one of those wonderful
words adopted from
another language (in this case, ancient Greek) that is impossible
to define, yet
powerful in w hat it represents. In Greek, kairos means "right

time," "season," or
"opportunity." It differs subtly from the ordinary Greek word
for time, chronos,
the root of our words "chronology" and "chronometer." You can
measure chronos
by looking at your watch, but you measure kairos by sensing the
opportune time
through psychological attentiveness to situation and meaning.
To think kairoti-
cally is to be attuned to the total context of a situation in order
to act in the right
way at the right moment. By analogy, consider a skilled base
runner who senses
the right moment to steal second, a wise teacher who senses the
right moment to
praise or critique a student's performance, or a successful
psychotherapist who
senses the right moment to talk rather than listen in a
counseling session. Kairos
reminds us that a rhetorical situation is not stable and fi xed, but
evolves as events
unfold or as audiences experience the psychological ebbs and
flows of attention
and care. Here are some examples that illustrate the range of
insights contained
by the term kairos:
• If you write a letter to the editor of a newspaper or post a
response to a blog,
you usually have a one- or two-day window before a current
event becomes

"old news" and is no longer interesting. An out-of-date response
will go
unread, not because it is poorly written or argued but because it
misses its
kairotic moment. (Similar instances of lost timeliness occur in
class discus-
sions: On how many occasions have you wanted to contribute an
idea to class
discussion, but the professor doesn't acknowledge your raised
hand? When
you finally are called on, the kairotic moment has passed.)
• Bobbi Buchanan's "Don't Hang Up, That's My Mom Calling,"
which we used
earlier in this chapter to illustrate pathos, could have been
written only dur-
ing a brief historical period when telemarketing was being
publicly debated.
Moreover, it could have been written only late in that period,
after numerous
writers had attacked telemarketers. The piece was published in
The New York
Times because the editor received it at the right kairotic
moment.
• A sociology major is writing a senior capstone paper as a
graduation require-
ment. The due date for the paper is fixed, so the timing of the
paper isn't
at issue. But kairos is still relevant. It urges the student to
consider what is
appropriate for such a paper. What is the "right way" to produce
a sociology
paper at this moment in the history of the discipline? Currently,
what are
leading-edge versus trailing-edge questions in sociology? What

theorists are
now in vogue? What research methods would most impress a
judging com-
mittee? How would a good capstone paper written in 2019 differ
from one
written a decade earlier?
As you can see from these examples, kairos concerns a whole
range of questions
connected to the timing, fitness, appropriateness, and
proportions of a message
within an evolving rhetorical context. There are no rules to help
you determine
the kairotic moment for your argument, but being attuned to
kairos will help you
"read" your audience and rhetorical situation in a dynamic way.
Often you can establish the kairos of your argument in the
opening sentences
of your introduction. An introduction might mention a recent
news event, politi-
cal speech, legislative bill, or current societal problem that the
audience may have
experienced, thereby using awareness of kairos to connect with
the audience's
interests, knowledge, and experience. Elsewhere in your
argument, attention to
kairos can infuse currency and immediacy by establishing the
stakes in the argu-
ment and enlisting the audience's concern. For example, if you
are going to argue
that your university's policy on laptops in the classroom is too
restrictive, you
might enhance your argument by mentioning several recent
editorials in your
campus newspaper on this subject. If you are going to argue for

increased urban
gardening in your city, you might cite a recent TED talk on
successful experi-
ments with urban gardening. If you are creating a text that
includes images,
you might also establish kairos through a photograph or cartoon
that signals
appropriate currency. Thinking about kairos helps you focus on
the public con-
versation your argument is joining and on your audience's
interests, knowledge,
and values.
76 Chapter 5
Analyzing an Argument from the Perspectives of Logos, Ethos,
Pathos,
and Kairos
Your instructor w ill select an argument for analysis. Working
in small groups or as a class, analyze the assigned
argument first from the perspective of kairos and then from the
perspectives of logos, ethos, and pathos.
1. As you analyze the argument from the perspective of kairos,
consider the fol lowing questions:
a. What is the motivating occasion for this argument? That is,
what causes this writer to put pen to
paper or fingers to keyboard?
b. What conversation is the writer joining? Who are the other
voices in this conversation? What are
these voices saying that compels the writer to add his or her

own voice? How was the stage set to
create the kairotic moment for this argument?
c. Who is the writer's intended aud ience and why?
d. What is the writer's purpose? Toward what view or action is
the writer trying to persuade his or
her audience?
e. To what extent can various features of the argument be
explained by your understanding of its
kairotic moment?
2. Now analyze the same argument for its appeals to logos,
ethos, and pathos. How successful is this
argument in achieving its writer's purpose?
Using Images to Appeal to Logos,
pathos,
and kairos.
One of the most powerful ways to move your audience is to use
photos or other
images that can appeal to logos, ethos, pathos, and kairos in one
glance. (Chapter 9
focuses exclusively on visual rhetoric the persuasive power of
images.) Although
many written arguments do not lend themselves to visual
illustrations, we suggest
that when you construct arguments you consider the potential of
visual support.
Imagine that your argument is to be delivered as a PowerPoint
presentation or

appear in a newspaper, in a magazine, or on a website where
space will be pro-
vided for one or two visuals. What photographs or drawings
might help persuade
your audience toward your perspective?
When images work well, they make particularly powerful
appeals to pathos
analogous to the verbal strategies of concrete language, specific
illustrations, nar-
ratives, and connotative words. The challenge in using visuals is
to find material
that is straightforward enough to be understood without
elaborate explanations,
that is timely and relevant, and that clearly adds impact to a
specific part of your
argument. As an example, suppose you are writing an argument
supporting fund-
raising efforts to help a developing country that has recently
experienced a natural
catastrophe. To add a powerful appeal to pathos, you might
consider incorporating
into your argument the photograph shown in Figure 5.1 of the
devastation and
personal loss caused by Typhoon Haiyan in the Philippines in
2013. A photograph
such as this one can evoke a strong emotional and imaginative
response as well
as make viewers think.
Analyzing Images as Appeals to Pathos
Individual task:

Use the following questions to analyze the photo in Figure 5.1.
1. How would you describe the emotional/ imag inative impact
of Figure 5.1? What specific detai ls of the
photo create its appeal to pathos?
2. Many disaster-rel ief photos seek to convey the magn itude of
the destruction and suffering, sometimes
shockingly, by depicting destroyed buildings, mangled bod ies,
and images of human misery. How is
your response to Figure 5.1 similar to or d ifferent from your
response to commonly encountered close-
up photographs of grief-stricken victims or to d istance shots of
widespread destruction? To what extent
is Figure 5.1 's story-told from the perspective of a child -
different from the more typical photographs
of destroyed build ings or angu ished faces?
3. After searching the web for other photos taken after Typhoon
Haiyan, write a rationale for why you
wou ld, or would not, choose this photo to accompany a
proposal argument appealing for support for
people in this region of the Ph ilippines.
Group task:
Share your individual analysis and rationale with others in your
class.
Figure 5.1 Photo after Typhoon Haiyan in the Ph ilippines
78 Chapter 5

Examining Visual Arguments
Logos, Ethos, Pathos, and Kairos
Efforts to combat sexual assault and date rape on college
campuses have figured prominently in public con-
versation recently, with discussions booming on the websites of
newly formed organizations and stories of
ral lies on university campuses appearing on news sites. As this
advocacy poster shows, the need to bolster
bystander intervention is a critical piece in addressing this
problem.
How does this advocacy poster attempt to move its audience?
Analyze the poster's visual and verbal
appeals to logos, ethos, pathos, and kairos.
How Audience-Based Reasons
Appeal to Logos, Ethos, Pathos,
and Kairos
pathos, and kairos.
We conclude this ch apter b y returning to the con cept of
audience-based reason s
that we introduced in Chapter 3. Audience-based reasons
enhance logos becau se
they build on underlying assumptions (warrants) that the audien
ce is likely to
accept. But they also enhan ce ethos, pathos, and kairos b y
helping the audien ce
identify w ith the w riter, by appealing to shared beliefs and

valu es, and by con vey-
ing a shared sense of an issue's timeliness. To consider the need
s of your audience,
you can ask yourself the questions in Table 5.1.
To see h ow a con cern for audien ce-based reason s can enhan
ce ethos and
pathos, we ask you to role p lay a student in the following h yp
othetical scenario.
Interested in a career in public h ealth, you are a nursing m ajor
w h o h as d on e
Table 5.1 Questions for Analyzing Your Aud ience
1. Who is your audience?
2 . How much does your
audience know or care
about your issue?
3 . What is your audience 's
current attitude toward
your issue?
4 . What will be your
audience's likely objections
to your argument?
5 . What values, beliefs, or
assumptions about the
world do you and your
audience share?
Your answer wil l help you thin k about audience-based reasons.
• Are you writing to a single person , a committee, or the

general readership of a newspaper,
magazine, blog, and so forth?
• Are your readers academics, professionals, other students,
general citizens, or people with
specialized background and interests?
• Can you expect your audience to be politically and culturally
liberal , middle of the road ,
conservative, or a mixture of these groups?
• What are the rel igious views of your audience?
• How do you picture your audience in terms of social class,
ethnicity, gender, sexual
orientation, gender identity, age, and cultural identity?
• To what extent does your audience share your own interests
and cultural position? Are you
writing to insiders or to outsiders with regard to you r own
values and beliefs?
Your answer can especially affect your introduction and
conclusion.
• Do your readers need background on your issue, or are they
already in the conversation?
• If you are writing to specific decision makers, are they
currently aware of the problem you are
addressing? If not , how can you get their attention?
• Does your audience care about your issue? If not , how can
you get them to care?
Your answer wil l help you decide the structure and tone of
your argument.

• Are your readers already supportive of your position?
Undecided? Skeptical? Strongly opposed?
• What points of view other than your own will your audience
be weighi ng?
Your answer wil l help determine the content of your argument
and wi ll alert you to extra research
you may need to conduct.
• What weaknesses will audience members find in your
argument?
• What aspects of your position will be most threatening to your
audience and why?
Your answer wil l help you find common ground with you r
audience.
• How are your basic assumptions, values, or beliefs different
from your audience's?
• Despite different points of view on th is issue, where can you
find common ground with
you r audience?
• How might you use common ground to build bridges to your
audience?
80 Chapter 5
research on the obesity crisis in the United States. You have
also researched the
role of sugary soda and energy drinks in promoting heart
disease and diabetes.
Recently health advocates in your city have teamed with

preschool education
advocates to persuade the city council to propose a soda tax.
Revenue from the tax
would be used to improve the city's preschool programs. Your
city council points
to nationwide precedents for soda taxes, citing Philadelphia;
Berkeley, California;
and Cook County, Illinois, which includes Chicago. Other
cities, such as Seattle,
are on the verge of creating such a tax. The tax being proposed
in your city would
raise the price of a twelve-pack of soda by four dollars; the p
rice of a large foun-
tain soda at a fast-food restaurant would go up 35 cents.
As you can expect, the proposed tax is controversial. Opponents
include the
beverage industry, grocery store owners, fast-food restaurants,
truck drivers (who
deliver soda to the stores), and citizens who oppose the
government's telling
private citizens what they should or should not buy. Proponents
include health
advocates and education advocates. Medical and nursing
associations point to the
long-range health benefits of reducing consumption of sugary
drinks. Meanwhile,
education advocates point to the value of improved and
extended preschool pro-
grams made possible by revenue from the soda tax.
Your school 's student nurse association is scheduling a meeting
next week
to produce an advocacy piece in favor of the soda tax. Here is
your dilemma:
You are opposed to the soda tax, not from the perspective of

business owners but
from the perspective of d isproportionate costs to lower -income
city residents.
What bothers you is the fact that the soda tax is regressive,
meaning that it will hit
low-income consumers harder than wealthier consumers. Will
you have enough
courage to sp eak out at the nursing association meeting? After
all, your anti-tax
stance will be unpopular among other nursing students, even
though it m igh t be
applauded by business owners, truck drivers, and the beverage
industry.
As you think about your upcoming speech, you formulate your
audience-
based problem like this:
Problem: How can I create an argument rooted in shared values
with my fel-
low nursing students? How can I reduce my audience's fear that
I am becom-
ing an advocate for the beverage industry? How can I make the
case th at I
share my audience's goals of reducing sugar consumption and
improving
preschool education? How can I show that these goals might be
accomplished
in a fairer way?
Possible bridge-building strategies:
• Show th at I support the health goals of our nursing
association to figh t
obesity-related d iseases by reducing consump tion of sugary
drinks.

• Show that I support the educational goals made reachable by
revenue from
the tax. This revenue w ill make improved preschool education
available for
all children in the city.
• Stress that both my audience and I share a concern for the
welfare of the poor-
est citizens, who will be hit hardest by the tax.
• Make the case th at the tax will eat up a higher proportion of
poor people's
income than wealthier people's income. Research shows that
poorer people
buy more soda than wealthy people. Paying an extra four dollars
for a 12-pack
of soda p uts a substantial strain on a p oor family's budget.
(Wealth y p eople
often choose diet soda or get their sugar fix from syrups in their
espresso
coffee drinks). The cost of improving the city's preschools will
thus be borne
disproportionately by the poor.
• Show that the values underlying the tax are incoherent: If the
tax truly reduces
consumption of soda (the goal of health advocates), then it will
not generate
enough revenue to achieve the goals of the education advocates.
In sum, the

goals of one set of tax proponents are in conflict with the goals
of the other
set of proponents.
• Show that the goal of reducing sugar consumption might be
better achieved
through an aggressive educational campaign. Putting a "sin tax"
on soda
won't be as effective in the long run as raising public awareness
about healthy
diets and the danger of wasted calories.
• Show that the goal of improving preschool education can be
achieved by
establishing a fairer tax that puts a higher burden on wealthier
people who
can afford it.
These thinking notes allow you to develop the following p lan
for your argument:
Our nursing association should take a courageous stand against
the
soda tax
• because a soda tax places a disproportionate burden on low-
income
consumers. (WARRANT: Taxes that primarily burden low-
income consumers are
unfair.)
• because preschool revenue can be raised by a more equitable
tax that burdens
the wealthy more than the poor. (WARRANT: It is fair for
wealthier people to pay
a greater proportion of their income on taxes than the poor.)

• because an educational campaign may be more effective than a
soda tax in
changing long-range diet behaviors. (WARRANT: If alternative
solutions can be
applied to a problem, the one promoting long-range change is
better.)
As this p lan shows, your strategy is to seek reasons whose
warrants your audi-
ence will accept. Even though you oppose the soda tax, your
argument differs
significantly from the pro-business arguments mounted by the
beverage industry.
Whereas their arguments are aimed at undecided voters, your
argument is aimed
specifically at supporters of the tax. You can hope to persuade
them only if you can
build bridges to them with audience-based reasons and appeals
to shared values.
Planning an Audience-Based Argumentative Strategy
Individual task:
1. Choose one of the following cases and plan an audience-
based argumentative strategy. Follow the t hink-
ing process used by the writer of the anti-soda tax argument: (1)
state several problems t hat the writer
must solve to reach t he audience, and (2) develop possible
solutions to those problems.
a. An argument for the right of software companies t o continue
making and sell ing v iolent v ideo
games: Aim the argument at parent s who oppose their ch ildren

playing these games.
(continued)
82 Chapter 5
b. An argument to reverse grade inflation by limiting the
number of As and Bs a professor can give in
a course: A im the argument at students who fear getting lower
grades.
c. An argument supporting the legalization of cocaine: Aim the
argument at readers of Reader's Digest,
a conservative magazine that supports the current war on drugs.
Group task:
Share your plann ing notes with other members of your c lass,
and d iscuss how your sketched argument
would make appeals to ethos and pathos as well as to logos.
Conclusion
In this chapter, we explored ways that writers can strengthen the
persuasiveness of
their arguments by creating appeals to ethos and pathos, by
being attentive to kairos,
by thinking visually, and by building bridges to their readers
through audience-
based reasons. Arguments are more persuasive if readers trust
the writer's cred-
ibility and if the argument appeals to readers' hearts and
imaginations as well as to
their intellects. Attentiveness to kairos keeps the writer attuned
to the dynamics of a
rhetorical situation in order to create the right message at the

right time. Sometimes
images such as drawings or photographs may reinforce the
argument by evoking
strong emotional responses, thus enhancing pathos. Finally, all
these appeals come
together when the writer explicitly focuses on finding audience-
based reasons.
Writing Assignment
Revising a Draft for Ethos, Pathos, and Audience-Based
Reasons
Part 1:
Choose an argument that you have previously written or that
you are currently drafting. Revise the argument
with explicit focus on increasing its appeals to logos, ethos,
pathos, and kairos via audience-based reasons
and other strategies. Consider especially how you might
improve ethos by building bridges to the audience
or improve pathos through concrete language, specific
examples, metaphors, or connotations of words.
Finally, consider the extent to which your reasons are audience-
based.
Or
Create a multimodal argument by adding effective photographs
or images to an argument that you have pre-
v iously written or are currently drafting that could be enhanced
with effective photographs or images. Revise
your argument to include these images, perhaps creating a
desktop-publ ished document that wraps text
around visuals chosen to enhance pathos. Other multimodal
possibilities include transforming your argu-
ment into a speech supported by PowerPoint images (see
Chapter 15, into a poster argument (see Chapter

9), or even into a podcast that includes music.
Part 2:
Attach to your revision or transformed project a reflective letter
explain ing the choices you made in revising
your original argument or in transform ing it using a mu
ltimodal approach. Describe for your instructor the
changes or transformations you made, and explain how or why
your new version enhances your argument's
effectiveness at moving its audience.
Part One Principles of Argument 2 The Core of an Argument:A
Claim with Reasons 3 The Logical Structure of
Arguments:logos 5 Moving Your Audience:Ethos,Pathos,and
Kairos
424
425
426
427
428

429
430
431
Page-212Page-213Page-214Page-215
Chapter 2
A Claim with Reasons
Learning Objectives
between genuine and pseudo-arguments.
In Chapter 1 we explained that argument is best viewed not as a
quarrel or as a
pro-con debate, but rather as a conversation of reasonable
stakeholders seeking
the best solution to a shared problem or issue. As a conversation

of stakehold-
ers, argument is both a process and a product. The rest of Part
One provides an
overview of the parts of an argument along with the general
principles that make
arguments effective. This chapter focuses on the core of an
argument, which is
a structure of claim, reasons, and evidence. The remaining
chapters of Part One
cover the same territory with more elaboration and detail.
The Classical Structure of Argument
The core of an argument can best be understood by connecting
it to the ancient
pattern of classical argument revealed in the persuasive
speeches of ancient Greek
and Roman orators. Formalized by the Roman rhetoricians
Cicero and Quintilian,
the parts of the argument speech even had special names: the
exordium, in which
the speaker gets the audience's attention; the narratio, which
provides needed
background; the propositio, which is the speaker's claim or
thesis; the partitio,
17
18 Chapter 2
which forecasts the main parts of the speech; the confirmatio,
which presents the
speaker's arguments supporting the claim; the confutatio, which

summarizes and
rebuts opposing views; and the peroratio, which concludes the
speech by summing
up the argument, calling for action, and leaving a strong, lasting
impression. (Of
course, you don't need to remember these tongue-twisting Latin
terms. We cite
them only to assure you that in writing a classical argument,
you are joining a
time-honored tradition that links back to the origins of
democracy.)
Let's go over the same territory again using more contemporary
terms.
Figure 2.1 provides an organization plan showing the structure
of a classical argu-
ment, which typically includes these sections:
• The introduction. Writers of classical argument typically
begin by connecting
the audience to the issue by showing how it arises out of a
current event or
by using an illustrative story, memorable scene, or startling
statistic some-
thing that grabs the audience's attention. They continue the
introduction by
focusing the issue often by stating it directly as a question or by
briefly
Figure 2.1 Organ ization p lan for an argument with c lassical
structure
Organization Plan for an Argument with a Classical Structure
• Exordium
• Narratio

• Propositio
• Partitio
• Confirmatio
• Confutatio
• Peroratio
Introduction
(one to
several paragraphs)
Presentation of writer· s
position
Summary of opposing
• VIews
Response to opposing
• VIews
Conclusion
• Attention grabber (often a memorable scene)
• Explanation o f issue and needed backgroun d
• Writer's t hesis (claim)
• Forecasting passage
• Main body of essay

• Presents an d supports each reason in turn
• Each reason is tied to a value or belief h eld
by the audience
• Summary of views differing from writer's
(sh ould be fair and complete)
• Refutes or concedes to opposing views
• Shows weaknesses in opposing views
• May concede to some strength s
• Brings essay to closure
• Often sums up argument
• Leaves strong last impression
• Often calls for action or relates topic
to a larger context of issues
summarizing opposing views and providing needed background
and con-
text. They conclude the introduction by p resenting their claim
(thesis state-
ment) and forecasting the argument's structure.

• The presentation of the writer's position. The presentation of
the writer's own
position is usually the longest part of a classical argument. Here
writers
present the reasons and evidence supporting their claims,
typically choosing
reasons that tie into their audience's values, beliefs, and
assumptions. Usually
each reason is developed in its own paragraph or sequence of
paragraphs.
When a paragraph introduces a new reason, writers state the
reason directly
and then support it with evidence or a chain of ideas. Along the
way, writers
guide their readers with appropriate transitions.
• The summary and critique of alternative views. When
summarizing and
responding to opposing views, writers have several options. If
there are
several opposing arguments, writers may summarize all of them
together
and then compose a single response, or they may summarize and
respond
to each argument in turn. As we explain in Chapter 6, writers
may respond
to opposing views either by refuting them or by conceding to
their strengths
and shifting to a different field of values.
• The conclusion. Finally, in their conclusion, writers sum up
their argument,
often restating the stakes in the argument and calling for some
kind of action,
thereby creating a sense of closure and leaving a strong final
impression.

In this organization, the body of a classical argument has two
major
sections one presenting the writer's own position and the other
summarizing
and responding to alternative views. The organization plan in
Figure 2.1, and
the discussion that fo llows, have the writer's own position
coming first, but it is
possible to reverse that order.
For all its strengths, an argument with a classical structure may
not always be
your most persuasive strategy. In some cases, you may be more
effective by delay-
ing your thesis, by ignoring alternative views altogether, or by
showing great sym-
pathy for opposing views (see Chapter 6). In some cases, in
fact, it may be better to
abandon argument altogether and simply enter into a empathic
conversation w ith
others to bridge the gaps between opposing points of view (see
Chapter 10 on col-
laborative rhetoric as an alternative to classical argument). In
most cases, however,
the classical structure is a useful p lanning tool. By calling for a
thesis statement
and a forecasting statement in the introduction, it helps you see
the whole of your
argument in miniature. And by requiring you to summarize and
consider oppos-
ing views, the classical structure alerts you to the limits of your
position and to
the need for further reasons and evidence. As we w ill show, the
classical structure
is particularly persuasive when you address a neutral or

undecided audience.
Classical Appeals and
the etorical Triangle
Besides developing a template or structure for an argument,
classical rhetori-
cians analyzed the ways that effective speeches persuaded their
audiences. They
identified three kinds of persuasive appeals, which they called
logos, ethos, and
20 Chapter 2
Figure 2.2 The rhetorical triangle
Message
LOGOS: How can I make the argument
internally consistent and logical?
How can I find the best reasons and
support them with the best evidence?
Audience
PATHOS: How can I make the reader
open to my message? How can I best
appeal to my reader's values and
interests? How can I engage my
reader emotionally and imaginatively?
Writer or Speaker
ETHOS: How can I present myself
effectively? How can I enhance my
credibility and trustworthiness?

pathos. These appeals can be understood within a rhetorical
context illustrated by
a triangle with points labeled message, writer or speaker, and
audience (Figure 2.2).
Effective arguments pay attention to all three points on this
rhetorical triangle.
As Figure 2.2 shows, each point on the triangle corresponds to
one of the
three persuasive appeals:
• Logos (Greek for "word") focuses attention on the quality of
the message-
that is, on the internal consistency and clarity of the argument
itself and on
the logic of its reasons and support. The impact of logos on an
audience is
referred to as its logical appeal.
• Ethos (Greek for "character") focuses attention on the writer's
(or speaker's)
character as it is projected in the message. It refers to the
writer's credibility.
Ethos is often conveyed through the writer's investment in his
or her claim;
through the fairness with which the writer considers alternative
views;
through the tone and style of the message; and even through the
message's
professional appearance on paper or screen, including correct
grammar, flaw-
less proofreading, and appropriate formats for citations and
bibliography. In
some cases, ethos is also a function of the writer's reputation for
honesty and

expertise independent of the message. The impact of ethos on an
audience is
referred to as the ethical appeal or appeal from credibility.
• Pathos (Greek for "suffering" or "experience") focuses
attention on the val-
ues and beliefs of the intended audience. It is often associated
with emotional
appeal. But pathos appeals more specifically to an audience's
imaginative
sympathies their capacity to feel and see what the writer feels
and sees.
Thus, when we turn the abstractions of logical discourse into a
tangible and
immediate story, we are making a pathetic appeal. Whereas
appeals to logos
and ethos can further an audience's intellectual assent to our
claim, appeals to
pathos engage the imagination and feelings, moving th e
audience to a deeper
ap preciation of the argument's significance.
A related rhetorical concept, connected to the appeals of logos,
ethos, and
pathos, is that of kairos, from the Greek word for "right time,"
"season," or "opp or-
tunity." This concept suggests that for an argument to be
persuasive, its timing
must be effectively chosen and its tone and structure in right
proportion or mea-
sure. You may have had the experience of composing a

contentious e-mail and
then hesitating before clicking the "send" button. Is this the
right moment to send
this message? Is my audience ready to hear what I'm saying?
Would my views be
better received if I waited for a couple of days? If I send this
message now, should
I change its tone and content? Kairos refers to this attentiveness
to the unfolding
of time. We will return to this concept in Chapter 5, when we
consider ethos and
pathos in more depth.
Given this background on the classical appeals, let's turn now to
logos the
logic and structure of arguments.
Issue uestions as
the Origins of Argument
between
genuine and pseudo-arguments.
At the heart of any argument is an issue, which we can define as
a controver-
sial topic area (such as legalizing marijuana or building a wall
between Mexico
and the United States) that gives r ise to differing points of
view and conflict-
ing claims. A writer can usually focus an issue by asking an
issue question that
invites alternative answers. Within any complex issue for
example, the issue of
abortion there are usually a number of separate issue questions:
What govern-

mental restrictions should be placed on abortion? Should the
federal government
authorize Medicaid payments for abortions? When does a fetus
become a human
person? (At conception? At three months? At birth?) What
would be the conse-
quences of expanding or limiting a woman's right to an
abortion? (One person
might stress that legalized abortion leads to greater freedom for
women. Another
person might respond that it lessens a society's respect for
human life.)
Difference between an Issue Question
and an Infortnation Question
Of course, not all questions are issue questions that can be
answered reasonably
in differing ways. Some questions ask for information rather
than for arguments.
Rhetoricians have traditionally distinguished between
explication, which is writing
that sets out to inform or explain, and argumentation, which sets
out to change a
reader's mind. The fo llowing example illustrates the difference
between an issue
question and an information question:
Issue question: Should health insurance policies be required to
cover contra-
ceptives? (Reasonable persons can disagree.)
22 Chapter 2
Information question: How does the teenage pregnancy rate in

the United
States compare with the rate in Sweden? (Reasonable persons
assume that a
"right answer" to this question is available.)
Although the difference between the two kinds of questions may
seem simple,
the distinction can become blurry. Suppose we asked "Why is
the teenage preg-
nancy rate in Sweden lower than in the United States?"
Although this might seem
to be an informative question with a right answer, we can also
imagine disagree-
ment. One writer might emphasize Sweden's practical, secular
sex-education
courses, leading to more consistent use of contraceptives among
Swedish teenagers.
Another writer might point to the higher use of birth-control
pills among teenage
girls in Sweden (partly a result of Sweden's generous national
health program) and
to less reliance on condoms for preventing unwanted pregnancy.
Another might
argue that moral decay in the United States or a breakdown of
the traditional fam-
ily is responsible for the higher teenage pregnancy rate in the
United States. Thus,
what initially looks like a simple information question becomes
an issue question.
How to Identify an Issue Question
You can generally tell whether a question is an information
question or an issue
question by determining whether your purpose is (1) to explain
or teach some-
thing to your audience or (2) to change their minds about

something. Often the
same question can be an information question in one context
and an issue ques-
tion in another. Let's look at the following examples:
• How does a diesel engine work? (This is an information
question because rea-
sonable people who know about diesel engines will agree on
how they work.
This question would be posed by an audience of new learners
asking experts
for an explanation.)
• Why is a diesel engine more fuel efficient than a gasoline
engine? (This also seems
to be an information question because experts will probably
agree on the
answer. Once again, the audience seems to be new learners,
perhaps students
in an automotive class.)
• What is the most cost-effective way to produce diesel fuel
from crude oil? (This
could be an information question if experts agree and you are
addressing new
learners. But if you are addressing engineers and one engineer
says process
X is the most cost-effective and another engineer argues for
process Y, then
the question is an issue question.)
• Should the present highway tax on diesel fuel be increased?
(This is certainly an issue
question. One person says yes; another says no; another offers a
compromise.)

Information Questions Versus Issue Questions
Working as a class or in small groups, decide wh ich of the fo
llowing questions are information questions
and wh ich are issue questions. Many of them could be either,
depending on the rhetorical context. For those
questions, create hypothetical contexts to show your reasoning.
1. What percentage of public schools in the United States are
failing?
2. Which causes more t raff ic accidents, d runk driving or
texting w hile driving?
3. What is the effect on chi ld ren of playing first-person-
shooter video games?
4. What effect w ill the advent of self-d riving cars have on
truck drivers?
5. Shou ld people get rid of t heir land lines and have only cell
phones?
Difference between a Genuine Argum.ent
and a Fseudo-Argum.ent
Although every argument is sparked by an issue question w ith
alternative
answers, not every disp ute over answers constitutes a rational
argument. Ratio-
nal arguments require three additional factors: (1) reasonable
participants who
operate within the conventions of reasonable behavior; (2)
potentially sharable
assumptions that can serve as a starting place or foundation for
the argument;
(3) confidence that evidence used in an argument is verifiable.

Lacking these con-
ditions, disagreements remain stalled at the level of pseudo-
arguments. Let's look
at each of these conditions in turn.
PSEUDO-ARGUMENTS CAUSED BY UNREASONABLE
BEHAVIOR Reasonable
behavior in argument assumes the possibility of growth and
change; disputants
may modify their views as they acknowledge strengths in an
alternative view
or weaknesses in their own. Such growth becomes impossible
and argument
degenerates to pseudo-argument when disputants are so rigid ly
committed to
their positions that they can't imagine alternative views.
Consider the case of the
true believer and the fanatical skeptic.
From one perspective, true believers are admirable persons,
guided by
unwavering values and beliefs. True believers stand on solid
rock, unwilling to
compromise their principles or bend to the prevailing w inds.
But from another
perspective, true believers can seem rigidly fixed, incapable of
growth or change.
In Chapter 1, we mentioned that arguers can cling to sacred
values either reli-
gious or secular princip les that they consider absolute,
inviolable, indisputable.
When true believers from two clashing belief systems each with
its own set
of sacred values try to engage in dialogue with each other, a
truth-seeking
exchange of views becomes difficult. They talk past each other;

dialogue is
replaced by monologue from within isolated silos. Once true
believers push
each other's buttons on global warming, guns, health care,
taxes, political cor-
rectness, or some other issue, each disputant resorts to an
endless replaying
of the same prepackaged arguments based on absolute
principles. Disagreeing
with a true believer is like ordering the surf to quiet down. The
only response is
another crashing wave.
In contrast to the true believer, the fanatical skeptic d ismisses
the possibility
of ever believing anything. Skeptics often demand proof where
no proof is pos-
sible. So what if the sun has risen every day of recorded
history? That's no proof
that it will rise tomorrow. Short of absolute proof, which never
exists, fanatical
skeptics accept nothing. In a world where the most we can hope
for is increased
audience adherence to our ideas, the skeptic demands an
ironclad, logical dem-
onstration of our claim's rightness.
24 Chapter 2
PSEUDO-ARGUMENTS CAUSED BY LACK OF SHARED
ASSUMPTIONS As
we have seen, reasonable argument degenerates to pseudo-
argument when there
is no possibility for listening, learning, growth, or change. In

this section, we
look more closely at a cause of unreasonableness in argument:
lack of shared
assumptions.
A lack of shared assumptions necessarily dooms arguments
about purely
personal opinions for example, someone's claim that opera is
boring or that
pizza tastes better than nachos. Of course, a pizza-versus-
nachos argument
might be possible if the disputants assume a shared criterion
about nutrition. For
example, a nutritionist could argue that a vegetable-laden pizza
is better than
nachos because pizza provides more balanced nutrients per
calorie than nachos
do. But if one of the disputants responds, "Nah, nachos are
better than pizza
because nachos taste better," then he makes a different
assumption "My sense
of taste is better than your sense of taste." This is a wholly
personal standard, an
assumption that others are unable to share.
Lack of shared assumptions can also doom arguments when the
disputants
have different ideologies, as we saw in the discussion of true
believers. Ideology is
an academic word for belief systems or world views. We all
have our own ideolo-
gies. We all look at the world through a lens shaped by our
life's experiences. Our
beliefs and values are shaped by our family background, our
friends, our culture,
our particular time in history, our race or ethnicity, our gender

or sexual orienta-
tion, our social class, our religion, our education, and so forth.
Because we tend
to think that our particular lens for looking at the world is
natural and universal
rather than specific to ourselves, we must be aware that persons
who disagree
with us may not share our deepest assumptions and beliefs.
This lack of shared assumptions is evident in many disputes
concerning poli-
tics or religion. For example, consider differences over how to
interpret the Bible
within communities identifying as Christian. Some Christian
groups choose a
straightforward, literal interpretation of the Bible as God's
inerrant word, some-
times quoting Biblical passages as "proof texts" to support their
stand on civic
issues. Others believe the Bible is divinely inspired, meant to
lead humans to a
relationship with God, but transmitted through human authors.
Other groups
tend to read the Bible metaphorically or mythically, focusing on
the paradoxes,
historical contexts, and interpretive complexities of the Bible.
Still other Christian
groups read it as an ethical call for social justice. Members of
these different
Christian groups may not be able to argue rationally about, say,
evolution or
gay marriage because they have very different ways of reading
Biblical passages
and invoking the Bible's authority. Similarly, within other
religious traditions,
believers may also differ about the meaning and applicability of

their sacred texts
to scientific issues and social problems.
Similar disagreements about assumptions occur in the political
arena as well.
Our point is that certain religious or political beliefs or texts
cannot be evoked for
evidence or authority when an audience does not assume the
belief's truth or does
not agree on the way that a given text should be read or
interpreted.
PSEUDO-ARGUMENTS CAUSED BY LACK OF
CONFIDENCE IN EVIDENCE
Finally, pseudo-arguments arise when disputants can't agree
about the trustwor-
thiness of particular evidence or about the possibility of
trustworthy evidence
existing at all, as if all facts are relative an especially
troublesome problem in
an era where many have raised concern s about "fake news" and
"alternative
facts." Reasonable arguments must be grounded in evidence that
can be verified
and trusted. Sometimes unethical writers invent facts and data
to create propa-
ganda, advance a conspiracy theory, or make money from the
sale of fake stories.
Scientific fraud has also occasionally occurred wherein
scientists have fudged
their data or even made up data to support a claim. Tabloids and

fringe news
sites are notorious for spreading fake news, often in their
attention-grabbing but
bizarre headlines ("Farmer shoots 23-pound grasshopper").
For disputants with different ideologies, pseudo-arguments may
even occur
w ith issues grounded in science. Liberals may distrust
scientific data about the
safety of genetically modified organisms, whereas conservatives
may distrust the
scientific data about climate change. Genuine argument can
emerge only when all
sides of the dispute agree that any given evidence derives from
verifiable facts or
data. We don't mean that reasonable disputants must use the
same facts: Arguers
necessarily and always select and frame their evidence to
support their points
(see the discussion of angle of vision in Chapter 4). But no
matter what evidence is
chosen, disputants must agree that the evidence is verifiable
that it is real news
or evidence, not fake news or evidence.
Reasonable Arguments Versus Pseudo-Arguments
Individual task:
Which of the following questions wil l lead to reasonable
arguments, and which wil l lead only to pseudo-
arguments? Explain your reasoning.
1. Are the Star Wars films good science fiction?
2. Is it ethically justifiable to capture dolphins or orca whales
and train them for human entertainment?

3. Should cities subsidize professional sports venues?
4. Is this abstract oil painting created by a monkey smearing
paint on a canvas a true work of art?
5. Are nose rings and tongue studs attractive?
Group task:
reasoning about these questions with classmates.
Frame of an Argument:
A Claim Supported by Reasons
We said earlier that an argument originates in an issue question,
which by defini-
tion is any question that provokes disagreement about the best
answer. When you
w rite an argument, your task is to take a position on the issue
and to support it
w ith reasons and evidence. The claim of your essay is the
position you want your
26 Chapter 2
audience to accept. To put it another way, your claim is your
essay's thesis state-
ment, a one-sentence summary answer to your issue question.
Your task, then, is
to make a claim and support it with reasons.
What Is a Reason?
A reason (also called a premise) is a claim used to support
another claim. In speaking
or writing, a reason is usually linked to the claim with a

connecting word such as
because, since, for, so, thus, consequently, or therefore,
indicating that the claim follows
logically from the reason.
Let us take an example of a controversial issue that frequentl y
gets reported
in the news the public debate over keeping large sea mammals
such as dol-
phins, porpoises, and orcas (killer whales) in captivity in
marine parks where
they entertain large crowds with their performances. This issue
has many dimen-
sions, including safety concerns for both the animals and their
human trainers,
as well as moral, scientific, legal, and economic concerns.
Popular documentary
films have heightened the public's awareness of the dangers of
captivity to both
the animals and the humans who work with them. For example,
The Cove (2009)
exposes the gory dolphin hunts in Japan in which fishermen kill
dolphins en
masse, capturing some for display in shows around the world.
Blackfish (2013) tells
the history of the orca Tilikum, who in 2010 killed his trainer,
Dawn Blancheau,
at Sea World in Orlando, Florida. The death of Tilikum in 2017
resparked public
debates about treatment of marine animals in captivity. Recently
a flurry of legal
efforts to release the captive orca Lolita back into the wild has
also contributed
to the larger battle among advocacy, governmental, scientific,
and commercial
groups over the value of marine parks.

In one of our recent classes, students heatedly debated the
ethics of capturing
wild dolphins and training them to perform in marine parks.
One student cited
his sister's internship at Sea World San Diego, where she
worked on sea mammal
rescue and rehabilitation, one of the marine park's worthy
projects. In response,
another student mentioned the millions of dollars these marine
parks make on
their dolphin and orca shows as well as on the stuffed animals,
toys, magnets,
T-shirts, and hundreds of other lucrative marine park souvenirs.
Here are the
frameworks the class developed for two alternative positions on
this public issue:
One View
CLAIM: The public should not support marine parks.
REASON 1: Marine parks inhumanely separate dolphins and
orcas from
their natural habitats.
REASON 2: The education these parks claim to offer about
marine mammals
is just a series of artificial, exploitive tricks taught through
behavior
modification.
REASON 3: These parks are operated by big business with the
goal of mak-
ing large profits.

REASON 4: Marine parks encourage artificial breeding
programs and cruel
hunts and captures.
REASON 5: Marine parks promote an attitude of human
dominance over
animals.
Alternative View
CLAIM: The public should continue to enjoy marine parks.
REASON 1: These parks observe accreditation standards for
animal welfare,
h ealth, and nutrition.
REASON 2: These marine p arks enable scientists and
veterinarians to study
animal behavior in ways not possible w ith field studies in the
wild.
REASON 3: These marine parks provide environmental
education and
memorable entertainment.
REASON 4: Marine parks use some of their profits to support
research,
conservation, and rescue and rehabilitation programs.
REASON 5: In their training of dolphins and orcas, these
marine parks
reinforce natural behaviors, exercise the animals' intelligence,

and promote
beneficial bonding with humans.
Formulating a list of reasons in this way breaks your
argumentative task
into a series of subtasks. It gives you a frame for building your
argument in
parts. In this example, the frame for the argument opposing
commercial use of
sea mammals suggests five different lines of reasoning a writer
might pursue.
You might use all five reasons or select only two or three,
depending on which
reasons would most persuade the intended audience. Each line
of reasoning
would be developed in its own separate section of the argument.
For example,
you m ight begin one section of your argument w ith the follow
ing sentence:
"The public should not support marine parks because they teach
dolphins and
orcas clownish tricks and artificial behaviors, which they pass
off as 'education'
about these animals." You would then provide examples of the
tricks that dol-
phins and orcas are taught, explain how these stunts contrast
with their natu-
ral behaviors, and offer examples of erroneous facts or
information provided
by commercial marine parks. You might also need to support
the underlying
assumption that it is good to acquire real knowledge about sea
mammals in the
wild. You would then proceed in the same manner for each
separate section of
your argument.

To summarize: The frame of an argument consists of the claim
(the essay's
thesis statement), which is supported by one or more reasons,
which are in turn
supported by evidence or sequences of further reasons.
Using Images to Support an Argument
In Chapter 1, we discussed the way that images and photographs
can make implicit arguments. This
exercise asks you to consider how images can shape or enhance
an argument. Imag ine that your task is
to argue why a nonprofit group in your city should (or should
not) offer as a fund- raising prize a trip to Sea-
World in Orlando, Florida; San Antonio, Texas; or San Diego,
Cal ifornia. Examine the photographs of orcas in
Figures 2.3 and 2.4 and describe the implicit argument that each
photo seems to make about these whales.
How might one or both of these photos be used to support an
argument fo r or against the prize t rip to Sea-
World? What reasons for going (or not going) to SeaWorld are
implied by each photo? Briefly sketch out you r
argument and explain your choice of t he photograph(s) that
support your position.
28 Chapter 2
Figure 2.3 Orca performance at a marine park
Figure 2.4 Orcas breaching

Expressing Reasons in Because Clauses
Chances are that when you were a child, the word because
contained magical
explanatory powers. (I don't want that kind of butter on my
toast! Why? Because.
Because why? Just because.) Somehow because seemed
decisive. It persuaded people
to accept your view of the world; it changed people's minds.
Later, as you got
older, you discovered that because only introduced your
arguments and that it was
the reasons following because that made the difference. Still,
because introduced
you to the powers potentially residing in the adult world of
logic.
This childhood power of because perhaps explains why because
clauses are the
most common way of linking reasons to a claim. For example:
The public should not support marine parks because these parks
inhumanely
separate dolphins and orcas from their natural habitats.
Of course, there are also many other ways to express the logical
connection
between a reason and a claim. Our language is rich in ways of
stating because
relationships:
their natural
habitats. Therefore, the public should not support marine parks.

their natural
habitats, so the public should not support these parks.
• One reason that the public should not support marine animal
parks is that these
parks inhumanely separate dolphins and orcas from their natural
habitats.
• My argument that the public should not support marine animal
parks is
grounded on evidence that these parks inhumanely separate
dolphins and
orcas from their natural habitats.
Even though logical relationships can be stated in various ways,
writing out
one or more because clauses seems to be the most succinct and
manageable way
to clarify an argument for yourself. We therefore suggest that at
some time in the
writing process, you create a working thesis statement that
summarizes your main
reasons as because clauses attached to your claim.*
When you compose your own working thesis statement depends
largely on
your writing process. Some writers like to p lan their whole
argument from the
start and compose their working thesis statements with because
clauses before
they write their rough drafts. Others discover their arguments as
they write. Some
writers use a combination of both techniques. For these writers,
an extended
working thesis statement is something they might write halfway

through the
composing process as a way of ordering their argument when
various branches
seem to be growing out of control. Or they might compose a
working thesis
* A working thesis statement opposing the commercial use of
captured dolphins and orcas
might look like this: The public should not support marine parks
because marine parks inhu-
manely separate dolphins and orcas from their natural habitats;
because marine parks are
mainly big businesses driven by profit; because marine parks
create inaccurate and incom-
plete educational information about dolphins and orcas; because
marine parks encourage
inhumane breeding programs, hunts, and captures; and because
marine parks promote an
attitude of human dominance over animals. You probably would
not put a bulky thesis
statement like this into your essay; rather, a working thesis
statement is a behind-the-scenes
way of summarizing your argument so that you can see it fully
and clearly.
30 Chapter 2
statement after they've written a complete first draft as a way of
checking the
essay's unity.
The act of writing your extended thesis statement can be
simultaneously
frustrating and thought provoking. Composing because clauses

can be a power-
ful discovery tool, causing you to think of many different kinds
of arguments to
support your claim. But it is often difficult to wrestle your ideas
into the because
clause shape, which may seem overly tidy for the complex
network of ideas you
are working with. Nevertheless, trying to summarize your
argument as a single
claim with reasons should help you see more clearly the
emerging shape of your
argument.
Developing Claims and Reasons
Try this group exercise to help you see how writing because
clauses can be a discovery procedure. Divide
into smal l groups. Each group member should contribute an
issue with potentially opposing c laims. Whi le
thinking of your issue, imagine a person who might disagree w
ith you about it. This person w ill become your
audience. Discussing each group member's issue in turn, help
each member develop a claim supported
by several reasons that might appeal to the imagined aud ience.
Express each reason as a because clause.
Then write out the working thesis statement for each person's
argument by attaching the because c lauses to
the claim. Finally, try to create because clauses in support of an
alternative claim for each issue. Each group
should select two or three working thesis statements to present
to the c lass.
Conclusion
This chapter introduced you to the structure of classical
argument, to the rhetorical
triangle (message, writer or speaker, and audience), and to the

classical appeals
of logos, ethos, and pathos. It also showed how arguments
originate in issue ques-
tions, how issue questions differ from information questions,
and how reasonable
arguments differ from pseudo-arguments. The frame of an
argument is a claim
supported by reasons. As you generate reasons to support your
own arguments,
it is often helpful to articulate them as because clauses attached
to the claim.
In the next chapter we will see how to support a reason by
examining its logical
structure, uncovering its unstated assumptions, and planning a
strategy of
development.
Writing Assignment
An Issue Question and Working Thesis Statements
Decide on an issue and a claim for a classical argument that you
wou ld like to write. Also imagine a reader
who might be skeptical of your claim. Write a one-sentence
question that summarizes the controversial is-
sue that your c laim addresses. Then draft a working thesis
statement for your proposed argument. Organize
the thesis as a claim w ith bulleted because clauses for reasons.
You should have at least two reasons, but
it is okay to have three or four. Also include an opposing thesis
statement-that is, a claim with because
clauses for an alternative position on your issue. Think of this

opposing argument as your imagined reader's
starting position.
Unless you have previously done research on an issue, it is
probably best to choose an issue based on
your personal experiences and observations. For example, you
might consider issues related to your college
or high school life, your work life, your experiences in clubs or
family life, your prospective career, and so
forth. (Part Two of this text introduces you to research-based
argument.) As you think about your claim and
because clauses for this assignment, take comfort in the fact
that you are in a very early stage of the writing
process: the brainstorming stage. Writers almost always
discover new ideas when they write a first draft.
As they take their writing project through multiple drafts and
share their drafts with readers, their views may
change substantially. In fact, honest writers can change
positions on an issue by discovering that a counter-
argument is stronger than their own. Thus the working thesis
statement that you submit for this assignment
may evolve when you begin to draft your essay.
Below, as well as in Chapters 3 and 4, we follow the process of
student writer Carmen Tieu as she
constructs an argument on violent video games. During a class
discussion, Carmen mentioned a psychol-
ogy professor who described playing violent video games as
gendered behavior (overwhelmingly male). The
professor ind icated his dislike for such games, pointing to their
antisocial, dehumanizing values. In class,
Carmen described her own enjoyment of violent video games-
particularly first-person-shooter games-
and reported the pleasure that she derived from beating boys at
Halo 2 and 3. Her classmates were inter-
ested in her ideas. She knew that she wanted to write an

argument on this issue. The following is Carmen's
submission for this assignment.
Carmen's Issue Question and Working Thesis Statements
Issue Question: Should girls be encouraged to play f irst-
person-shooter video games?
My claim: First-person-shooter (FPS) video games are great
activities for girls,
• because they empower girls when they beat guys at their own
game.
• because they equip girls with skills that free them from
feminine stereotypes.
• because they give girls a different way of bonding with males.
• because they give girls new insights into a male subculture.
Opposing claim: First-person-shooter games are a bad activity
for anyone, especially girls,
• because they promote antisocial values such as indiscriminate
kil ling.
• because they amplify t he bad, macho side of male stereotypes.
• because they waste valuable time that could be spent on
something constructive.
• because FPS games could encourage women to see themselves
as objects.
32
Chapter 3
•
Learning Objectives

reason, and assumption granted by the audience.
structure.
and test it for completeness.
In Chapter 2 you learned that the core of an argument is a claim
supported by
reasons and that these reasons can often be stated as because
clauses attached to a
claim. In this chapter, we examine the logical structure of
arguments in more depth.
An Overview of Logos: hat Do e
Mean by the "Logical Structure" of an
Argument?
reason,
and assumption granted by the audience.
As you will recall from our discussion of the rhetorical triangle,
logos refers to the
strength of an argument's support and its internal consistency.
Logos is the argu-
ment's logical structure. But what do we mean by "logical
structure"?

Forinal Logic Versus Real-World Logic
First of all, what we don't mean by logical structure is the kind
of precise certainty
you get in a philosophy class in formal logic. Logic classes deal
with symbolic
assertions that are universal and unchanging, such as "If all ps
are qs and if r is a
p, then r is a q." This statement is logically certain so long asp,
q, and rare pure
abstractions. But in the real world, p, q, and r turn into actual
things, and the rela-
tionships among them suddenly become fuzzy. For example, p
might be a class
of actions called "Sexual Harassment," while q could be the
class called" Actions
That Justify Getting Fired from One's Job." If r is the class
"Telling Off-Color Sto-
ries," then the logic of our p-q-r statement suggests that telling
off-color stories
(r) is an instance of sexual harassment (p), which in turn is an
action justifying
getting fired from one's job (q).
Now, most of us would agree that sexual harassment is a serious
offense
that might well justify getting fired. In turn, we might agree
that telling off-color
stories, if the jokes are sufficiently raunchy and are inflicted on
an unwilling audi-
ence, constitutes sexual harassment. But few of us would want
to say categorically
that all people who tell off-color stories are harassing their
listeners and ought to
be fired. Most of us would want to know the particulars of the
case before making
a final judgment.

In the real world, then, it is difficult to say that rs are always ps
or that every
instance of a p results in q. That is why we discourage students
from using the
word prove in claims they write for arguments (as in "This
paper will prove that
euthanasia is wrong"). Real-world arguments seldom prove
anything. They can
only make a good case for something, a case that is more or less
strong, more or
less probable. Often the best you can hope for is to strengthen
the resolve of those
who agree with you or weaken the resistance of those who
oppose you.
The Role of Assuinptions
A key difference, then, between formal logic and real-world
argument is that real-
world arguments are not grounded in abstract, universal
statements. Rather, as
we shall see, they must be grounded in beliefs, assumptions, or
values granted
by the audience. A second important difference is that in real -
world arguments,
these beliefs, assumptions, or values are often unstated. So long
as writer and
audience share the same assumptions, it's fine to leave them
unstated. But if these
underlying assumptions aren't shared, the writer has a problem.
To illustrate the nature of this problem, suppose that you are an
environmen-
talist opposed to the use of plastic bags in grocery stores. You
have several reasons
for opposing these bags, one of which is their role in polluting

the oceans. You
express this reason in a because clause as follows:
States should ban plastic bags from grocery stores because
banning bags
will reduce plastic pollution in the ocean.
On the face of it, this is a plausible argument, but it depends on
the audience's
accepting the writer's assumption that it is good to reduce
plastic pollution in the
ocean. In other words, you might agree that plastics are
polluting the ocean, but
unless you also believe that this pollution is significantly
harming the oceans, you
might not automatically agree that plastic bags should be
banned from grocery
stores. What if you believe that pollution-caused damage to the
ocean is not as
34 Chapter 3
severe as proponents claim? What if you believe that p lastic
bags account for only
a small percentage of plastic pollution in the oceans? What if
you believe that the
harm to the oceans is outweighed by the environmental benefits
of plastic bags,
which are reusable, recyclable, and more ecofriendly to produce
and transport
than paper bags? What if you believe that harm to the oceans
might soon be
reduced by scientific advances in creating biodegradable p
lastics or in developing

microorganisms that "eat" plastics? If these were your beliefs,
the argument
wouldn't work for you because you would reject its underlying
assumption that
plastic pollution is significantly harmful. To make this line of
reasoning persua-
sive, the writer would have to provide evidence not only that
plastic bags are
polluting the ocean but also that this pollution is harmful
enough to justify a ban.
The Core of an Argu111ent: The Enthy111e111e
The previous core argument ("States should ban plastic bags
from grocery stores
because banning bags will reduce p lastic pollu tion in the
ocean") is an incom-
p lete logical structure called an enthymeme. Its persuasiveness
depends on an
underlying assumption or belief that the audience must accept.
To complete the
enthymeme and make it effective, the audience must willingly
supply a missing
premise in this case, that plastic pollution of the oceans is
significantly harmful.
The Greek philosopher Aristotle showed how successful
enthymemes root the
speaker's argument in assumptions, beliefs, or values held by
the audience. The
word enthymeme comes from the Greek en (meaning "in") and
thumos (meaning
"mind"). Listeners or readers must have in mind an assumption,
belief, or value
that lets them willingly supply the missing premise. If the
audience is unwilling
to supply the missing premise, then the argument fails. Our
point is that success-

ful arguments depend both on what the arguer says and on what
the audience
already has "in mind."
To clarify the concept of enthymeme, let's go over this same
territory again,
this time more slowly, examining what we mean by "incomplete
logical struc-
ture." The sentence "States should ban plastic bags from grocery
stores because
banning bags will reduce p lastic pollution in the ocean" is an
enthymeme. It
combines a claim (States should ban p lastic bags from grocery
stores) with a rea-
son expressed as a because clause (because banning bags will
reduce plastic pol-
lution in the ocean). To render this enthymeme logically
complete, the audience
must willingly supply a missing assumption that plastic
pollution is harmful
enough to the oceans to justify a ban on plastic bags. If your
audience accepts this
assumption, then you have a starting p lace on which to build an
effective argu-
ment. If your audience doesn't accept this assumption, then you
must supply
another argument to support it, and so on until you find common
ground with
your audience.
To sum up:
1. Claims are supported with reasons. You can usually state a
reason as a because
clause attached to a claim.

2. A because clause attached to a claim is an incomplete logical
structure called
an enthymeme. To create a complete logical structure from an
enthymeme,
the underlying assumption (or assumptions) must be articulated.
3. To serve as an effective starting point for the argument, this
underlying
assumption should be a belief, value, or principle that the
audience grants.
Let's illustrate this structure by putting the previous example
into schematic
form.
Audience must supply this assumption
ENTHYMEME
CLAIM: States should ban p lastic bags from grocery stores
REASON: because banning p lastic bags will reduce plastic
UNDERLYING ASSUMPTION
a ban.
The Power of Audience-Based Reasons
Aristotle's concept of the enthymeme focuses on the writer's
need to create what
we can now call"audience-based reasons" as opposed to "writer-

based reasons."
A reason that is persuasive to you as a writer might not be
persuasive to your
audience. Finding audience-based reasons means finding
arguments effectively
anchored within your audience's beliefs and values.
To illustrate the difference between an audience-based reason
and a writer-
based reason, suppose that you are a vegetarian persuaded
mainly by ethical
arguments against causing needless suffering to animals.
Suppose further that
you want to persuade others to become vegetarians or at least to
reduce their
consumption of meat. Your "writer-based reason" for
vegetarianism could be
stated as follows:
You should become a vegetarian because doing so will help
reduce the need-
less suffering of animals.
The underlying assumption here is that it is wrong to cause the
suffering of ani-
mals. This writer-based reason might also be an audience-based
reason for per-
sons who are wrestling with the moral dimension of animal
suffering. But this
assumption might not resonate with people who have made their
own peace with
eating meat. How might you use audience-based reasons to
appeal to these meat-
eaters? Here are two more possible enthymemes:
You should become a vegetarian because doing so may help you

lower your
cholesterol.
You should become a vegetarian because doing so will
significantly lower
your carbon footprint.
These arguments hook into the assumption that it is good to
lower one's choles-
terol (health values) or that it is good to lower one's carbon
footprint (environ-
mental values). All three of the arguments whether based on
ethics, health, or
the environment might further the practice of vegetarianism or
at least reduce
the amount of meat consumed, but they won't appeal equally to
all audiences.
From the perspective of logic alone, all three arguments are
equally sound. But
they will affect different audiences differently.
36 Chapter 3
Identifying Underlying Assumptions and Choosing
Audience-Based Reasons
Part 1 Working individually or in small groups, identify the
unstated assumption that the aud ience must
supply in order to make the fo llowing enthymemes persuasive.
Example
Enthymeme: Rabbits make good pets because they are gentle.
Underlying assumption: Gentle animals make good pets.

1. We shouldn't elect Joe as committee chair because he is too
bossy.
2. The federal government shou ld institute a carbon tax because
doing so w ill reduce U.S. production
of greenhouse gases.
3. The federal government should not institute a carbon tax
because doing so will damage the economy.
4. We should strengthen the Endangered Species Act because
doing so will preserve genetic d iversity
on the planet.
5. The Endangered Species Act is too stringent because it
severely restricts the rights of property owners.
Part 2 For each of the following items, decide which of the two
reasons offered would be more persuasive
to the specified audience. How might the reason not chosen be
effective fo r a different kind of aud ience?
Explain your reason ing.
1. Aud ience: people who advocate a pass/fail grad ing system
on the grounds that the present grad ing
system is too competitive
a. We should keep the present grading system because it
prepares people fo r the dog-eat-dog pres-
sures of the business world.
b. We should keep the present grading system because it tells
students that certain standards of
excel lence must be met if individuals are to reach their ful l
potential.
2. Aud ience: environmentalists

a. We shou ld support tracking for natural gas because doing so
wi ll help reduce our dependence on
foreign sources of oi l.
b. We should support tracking fo r natural gas because doing so
will provide a g reener "bridge fuel"
that will give us t ime to develop better renewable technolog
ies.
3. Audience: proponents of preventing illegal immigration into
the United States by building a wall between
the United States and Mexico
a. U.S. citizens shou ld oppose building the wall because doing
so promotes a racist image of America.
b. U.S. cit izens should oppose building the wall because doing
so may end up giving control of the
Rio Grande river to Mexico.
Adopting a Language for Describing
Arguments: The Toulmin System
structure.
Understanding a new fie ld usually requires you to learn a new
vocabulary. For
example, if you were taking biology for the first time, you'd
have to learn hun-
dreds and hundreds of new terms. Luckily, the field of argument
requires us to
learn a mere handful of new terms. A particularly useful set of
argument terms,
one we'll be using occasionally throughout this text, comes from
philosopher

Stephen Toulmin. In the 1950s, Toulmin rejected the prevailing
models of argu-
ment based on formal logic in favor of a very audience-based
courtroom model.
Toulmin's courtroom model differs from formal logic in that it
assumes that
(1) all assertions and assumptions are contestable by "opposing
counsel" and
that (2) all final"verdicts" about the persuasiveness of the
opposing arguments
will be rendered by a neutral third party, a judge, or a jury. As
writers, keeping
in mind the "opposing counsel" forces us to anticipate
counterarguments and
to question our assumptions. Keeping in mind the judge and
jury reminds us to
answer opposing arguments fully and without rancor, and to
present positive
reasons for supporting our case as well as negative reasons for
disbelieving the
opposing case. Above all else, Toulmin' s model reminds us not
to construct an
argument that appeals only to those who already agree with us.
In short, it helps
arguers tailor arguments to their audiences.
The system we use for analyzing arguments combines Toulmin's
language
with Aristotle's concept of the enthymeme. It builds on the
system you have already
been practicing. We simply need to add a few key terms from
Toulmin. The first

term is Toulmin's warrant, the name we will now use for the
underlying assump-
tion that turns an enthymeme into a complete, logical structure
as shown below.
Toulmin derives his term warrant from the concept of
"warranty" or "guar-
antee." The warrant is the value, belief, or principle that the
audience has to hold
if the soundness of the argument is to be guaranteed or
warranted. We some-
times make similar use of this word in ordinary language when
we say "That is
an unwarranted conclusion," meaning one has leaped from
information about
a situation to a conclusion about that situation without any sort
of general prin-
ciple to justify or "warrant" that move. Thus the warrant once
accepted by the
audience "guarantees" the soundness of the argument.
ENTHYMEME
REASON: because banning plastic bags will reduce plastic
Audience must supply this warrant --------..t
WARRANT
a ban.
But arguments need more than claims, reasons, and warrants.
These are sim-
ply one-sentence statements the frame of an argument, not a

developed argu-
ment. To give body and weight to our arguments and make them
convincing, we
need what Toulmin calls grounds and backing. Let's start with
grounds. Grounds
are the supporting evidence that causes an audience to accept
your reason.
Grounds are facts, data, statistics, causal links, testimony,
examples, anecdotes-
the blood and muscle that flesh out the skeletal frame of your
enthymeme. Toul-
min suggests that grounds are "what you have to go on" in an
argument the
stuff you can point to and present before a jury. Here is how
grounds fit into our
emerging argument schema:
38 Chapter 3
ENTHYMEME
/~REASON: because banning plastic bags will reduce plastic
Grounds support .L----
thereason
GROUNDS
Evidence that a substantial percentage of thrown-away plastic
bags end up as ocean pollution
and could be reduced with bans:

• According to the Earth Policy Institute, I 00 billion plastic
bags pass through the hands of
U.S. consumers each year.
• Plastic bags that don't end up in landfills often float into the
oceans from river and stream
pollution.
prevalent man-made thing that
sailors see in the ocean.
metric tons of plastic and 5.25
trillion plastic particles on the ocean's surface.
• Plastics float on the surface, where they are concentrated by
ocean currents. National
Geographic has documented the uPacific trash vortex" -a
floating garbage patch the size of
Texas.
• Bans, which are becoming acceptable to consumers as shown
by states and cities that have
recently instituted bans on plastic grocery bags, have cut down
on plastic bags in landfills
and coastal areas.
In many cases, successful arguments require just these three
components:
a claim, a reason, and grounds. If the audience already accepts
the unstated
assumption behind the reason (the warrant), then the warrant
can safely remain
in the background, unstated and unexamined. But if there is a

chance that the
audience will question or doubt the warrant, then the writer
needs to back it up by
providing an argument in its support. Backing is the argument
that supports the
warrant. It may require as little as one or two sentences or as
much as a major sec-
tion in your argument. Its goal is to persuade the audience to
accept the warrant.
Here is how backing is added to our schema:
WARRANT
Backing supports BACKING
the warrant Arguments that plastics, especially plastic bags, are
• Plastics cause great harm to marine life (sea turtles eat plastic
bags, which look like
jellyfish; birds and surface-feeding fish ingest small pieces of
plastic, which often
results in death or starvation).
• Toxins absorbed from digesting plastic work their way up the
food chain, including
into the fish we eat, jeopardizing food safety.
• Plastic particles unbalance the ecosystem; for example, some
ocean insect species
breed more quickly where plastics are floating.
udegrading plastics are
leaching potentially toxic chemicals such as bisphenol A into
the seas, possibly

Toulmin' s system next asks us to imagine how a resistant
audience would try
to refute our argument. Specifically, an adversarial audience
might challenge our
reason and grounds by arguing that plastic bags are not
polluting the oceans or
that the pollution is not extensive. The adversary might also
attack our warrant
Writer must an tid pate these attacks from skeptics
ENTHYMEME t
_J
..-7 POSSIBLE CONDITIONS OF REBUTTAL
REASON: because banning plastic bags will reduce plastic -
pollution in the ocean. V
/
A skeptic can attack the reason and grounds:
• Arguments that plastic bags from grocery
stores comprise only a small proportion of
plastic pollution in the ocean (far greater
damage comes from plastic bottles, Styrofoam
pellets, and floating fish nets)
GROUNDS

Evidence that a substantial percentage of thrown-away
plastic bags end up as ocean pollution:
• According to the Earth Policy Institute, 1 00 billion plastic
bags pass through the hands of U.S. consumers each year.
• Plastic bags that don't end up in landfills often float into
the oceans from river and stream pollu-tion.
prevalent man-made thing that sailors see in the ocean.
metric tons of plastic and 5.25 trillion plastic particles on
the ocean's surface.
• Plastics float on the surface, where they are con-centrated
by ocean currents. National Geographic has documented
the llPacific trash vortex" -a floating garbage patch the
size ofT exas.
• Bans, which are becoming acceptable to consumers as
shown by states and cities that have recently instituted
bans on plastic grocery bags, have cut down on plastic
bags in landfills and coastal areas.
• Arguments that the pollution is not extensive
• Arguments that banning plastic bags would
eliminate all the ecological and consumer
benefits of plastic bags
• Arguments that plastic bags are more
eco-friendly to produce than paper bags and
are completely recyclable

• Arguments that plastic bags are reusable, are
better than paper for storing moist products,
and save on use of plastic wrapping
• Arguments that bans don't work and that other
polices would be more effective at tackling this
problem, such as placing higher fees on plastic
bags or implementing intensive recycling
•
campaigns
WARRANT ~-----+--~POSSIBLE CONDITIONS OF
REBUTTAL
V A skeptic could attack the warrant and backing: Plastic
pollution in the ocean is harmful enough to justify
a ban.
BACKING
Arguments that plastics, especially plastic bags, are
• Plastics cause great harm to marine life (sea turtles eat
plastic bags, which look like jellyfish; birds and
surface-feeding fish ingest small pieces of plastic, which
often results in death or starvation).
• Toxins absorbed from digesting plastic work their way up
the food chain, including into the fish we eat,
jeopardizing food safety.
• Plastic particles unbalance the ecosystem; for example,
some ocean insect species breed more quickly where
plastics are floating.

II degrading plastics are leaching potentially toxic
chemicals such as bisphenol A into the seas, possibly
• Arguments that data about harm to sea life are
primarily anecdotal and amplified by
photographs appealing to pathos
• Argument conceding that some harm is done to
the ocean, but research has not yet
documented the extent of the danger to
marine life
• Arguments that ocean damage is not severe
enough to justify a ban, especially when
balanced against the ecological benefits of
plastic bags
• Arguments that the problem of ocean pollution
might soon be solved by science, which is on
track to devise biological methods to ll eat
plastic" or to make plastic more biodegradable
40 Chapter 3
and backing by arguing that the harm caused by plastic
pollution is not significant
enough to justify a ban on plastic bags. These rebuttal strategies
are outlined in
the right-hand column of our schema:
As this example shows, adversarial readers can question an
argument's reasons

and grounds, or its warrant and backing, or sometimes both.
Conditions of rebuttal
remind writers to look at their arguments from the perspective
of skeptics.
The use of a Toulmin schema to plan an argument strategy can
also be illus-
trated in the issue we examined in the last chapter whether the
public should
support marine parks that use trained captive orcas and dolphins
for public enter-
tainment. In the following example, the writer argues that the
public should not
support these parks because they inhumanely separate dolphins
and orcas from
their natural habitat.
ENTHYMEME
CLAIM: The public should not support marine parks
REASON: because marine parks inhumanely separate
dolphins and orcas from their natural habitat.
GROUNDS
Evidence and arguments showing the inhumane difference
between the wild environment of dolphins and orcas and
their environment in captivity:
• In the wild, dolphins swim in pods in the open oceans,
dolphins around forty miles a day, and orcas around sixty
miles a day, whereas marine park tanks provide only a
fraction of that space.
• Evidence that the echoes from concrete pools, music of
dolphin shows, and the applause and noise of audiences

are stressful and harmful
• Statistics about the excessive number of performances or
about the levels of stress hormones produced in dolphins
Writer must anticipate these attacks from skeptics
t
J-----:/IIPOSSIBLE CONDITIONS OF REBUTTAL
A skeptic can attack the reason and grounds":
• Argument that these programs must observe
strict accreditation standards for animal welfare,
health, and education
• Marine parks exercise dophins' and orcas'
intelligence and abilities and build on their
natural behaviors.
• Many dolphins and orcas have been bred in
captivity, so they aren't #wild."
• The education and entertainment provided by
marine parks promote public concern for
dolphins and orcas.
WARRANT "-------------,. 11POSSIBLE CONDITIONS OF
REBUTTAL
It is wrong to separate wild animals from their natural
habitats.
BACKING
Arguments showing why it is unwise, unethical, or
otherwise wrong to separate wild animals from their
natural environments:

• Examples of wild animals (those in aquariums and zoos)
that do not thrive in artificially constructed environments,
that don't live long, or that suffer psychological stress
from confinement
• An ecological argument about the beauty of animals in
the wild and the complexity of the natural webs of
which animals are a part
• A philosophical argument that humans shouldn't treat
animals as instruments for their own enjoyment or profit
A skeptic can attack the warrant and backing.
• The natural habitat is not always the best
environment for wild animals.
• Captivity may actually preserve some species.
• Scientists have been able to conduct valuable
studies of dolphins and learn more about orcas
in captivity, which would have been impossible
in the wild.
Toulmin's final term, used to limit the force of a claim and
indicate the degree
of its probable truth, is qualifier. The qualifier reminds us that
real-world argu-
ments almost never prove a claim. We may say things such as
very likely, probably,
or maybe to indicate the strength of the claim we are willing to

draw from our
grounds and warrant. Thus, if there are exceptions to your
warrant or if your
grounds are not very strong, you may have to qualify your
claim. For example,
you might say, "States should ban plastic bags from grocery
stores because ban-
ning plastic bags would be a small first step toward reducing
plastic pollution of
the oceans" or "Except for limited cases of scientific research,
dolphins and orcas
should not be held in captivity." In our future displays of the
Toulmin scheme
we will omit the qualifiers, but you should always remember
that no argument
is 100 percent conclusive.
Developing Enthymemes with the Toulmin Schema
Working individually or in small groups, imagine that you have
to write arguments developing the five
enthymemes listed in the first For Class Discussion exercise in
this chapter. Use the Toulmin schema to help
you determine what you need to consider when developing each
enthymeme. We suggest that you try a
four-box diagram structure as a way of visualizing the schema.
We have applied the Toulmin schema to the
first enthymeme: "We shouldn't elect Joe as committee chair
because he is too bossy."
ENTHYMEME
CLAIM We shouldn't e lect Joe as committee chair
REASON because he is too bossy.

GROUNDS
Evidence of Joe's bossiness:
• Examples of the way he dominates meetings-doesn't
call on people, talks too much
• Testimony about his bossiness from people who have
served with him on committees
• Anecdotes about his abrasive style
WARRANT
Bossy people make bad committee chairs.
BACKING
Problems caused by bossy committee chairs:
• Bossy people don't inspire cooperation and enthusiam.
• Bossy people make others angry.
• Bossy people tend to make bad decisions because
they don't incorporate advice from others.
Attacking the reason and grounds:
Evidence that Joe is not bossy or is only
occasionally bossy:
• Counterevidence showing his collaborative style
• Testimony from people who have liked Joe as a
leader and claim he isn't bossy; testimony about his
cooperativeness and kindness

• Testimony that anecdotes about Joe's bossiness
aren't typical
Attacking the warrant and backing:
• Arguments that bossiness can be a good trait
o Sometimes bossy people make good chairpersons.
o This committee needs a bossy person who can
make decisions and get things done.
• Argument that Joe has other traits of good
leadership that outweigh his bossiness
42 Chapter 3
Using Toulmin' s Schema to Plan
and Test Your Argument
and test it
for completeness.
So far we have seen that a claim, a reason, and a warrant form
the frame for a line
of reasoning in an argument. Most of the words in an argument,
however, are
devoted to grounds and backing.
Hypothetical Example: Cheerleaders as Athletes
For an illustration of how a writer can use the Toulmin schema

to generate ideas
for an argument, consider the following case. In April2005, the
Texas House of
Representatives passed a bill banning "sexually suggestive"
cheer leading. Across
the nation, evening TV comedians poked fun at the bill, while
newspaper edito-
rialists debated its wisdom and constituti onality. In one of our
classes, however,
several students, including one who had earned a high school
varsity letter in
competitive cheer leading, defended the bill by contending that
provocative dance
moves hurt the athletic image of cheerleading. In the following
example, which
draws on ideas developed in class discussion, we create a
hypothetical student
writer (we'll call her Chandale) who argues in defense of the
Texas bill. Chan-
dale's argument is based on the following enthymeme:
The bill banning suggestive dancing for high school
cheerleaders is a good law
because it promotes a view of female cheerleaders as athletes.
Chandale used the Toulmin schema to brainstorm ideas for
developing her argu-
ment. Here are her notes:
Chandale's Planning Notes Using the Toulmin Schema
Enthymeme: The bill banning suggestive dancing for high
school cheerleaders
is a good law because it promotes a view of female cheerleaders
as athletes.

Grounds: First, I've got to use evidence to show that
cheerleaders are athletes.
• Cheerleaders at my high school are carefully chosen for their
stamina and
skill after exhausting two-week tryouts.
• We begin all practices with a mile run and an hour of warm-up
exercises-
we are also expected to work out on our own for at least an hour
on week-
ends and on days without practice.
• We learned competitive routines and stunts consisting of lifts,
tosses, flips,
catches, and gymnastic moves. This requires athletic ability!
We'd practice
these stunts for hours each week.
• Throughout the year cheerleaders have to attend practices,
camps, and
workshops to learn new routines and stunts.
• Our squad competed in competitions around the state.
• Competitive cheerleading is a growing movement across the
country the
University of Maryland has made it a varsity sport for women.
• Skimpy uniforms and suggestive dance moves destroy the
image of cheer-
leaders as athletes by making women eye candy (for example,
the Dallas
Cowboys cheerleaders).

Warrant: It is a good thing to view female cheerleaders as
athletes.
Backing: Now I need to make the case that it is good to see
cheerleaders as
athletes rather than as eye candy.
• Athletic competition builds self-esteem, independence, and a
powerful sense
of achievement. It also contributes to health, strength, and
conditioning.
• Competitive cheer leading is one of the few sports where
teams are made
up of both men and women. (Why is this good? Should I use
this?)
• The suggestive dance moves turn women into sex objects
whose function
is to be gazed at by men, which suggests that women's value is
based on
their beauty and sex appeal.
• We are talking about HIGH SCHOOL cheerleading it is a very
bad early
influence on girls to model themselves on Dallas Cowboys
cheerleaders
or sexy videos of rock stars.
• Junior-high girls want to do what senior-high girls do
suggestive dance
moves promote sexuality way too early.

Conditions of Rebuttal: Would anybody try to rebut my reasons
and grounds
that cheerleading is an athletic activity?
• No. I think it is obvious that cheerleading is an athletic
activity once they
see my evidence.
• However, they might not think of cheerleading as a sport.
They might say
that the University of Maryland just declared it a sport as a
cheap way to
meet Title IX federal rules to have more women's sports. I'll
have to make
sure that I show that cheerleading is really a sport.
• They also might say that competitive cheerleading shouldn' t
be encour-
aged because it is too dangerous lots of serious injuries,
including paral-
ysis, have been caused by mistakes in doing flips, lifts, and
tosses. If I
include this, maybe I could say that other sports are dangerous
also, and
it is in fact danger that makes this sport so exciting.
Would anyone doubt my warrant and backing that it is good to
see female
cheerleaders as athletes?
• Yes, all those people who laughed at the Texas legislature
think that
people are being too prudish and that banning suggestive dance
moves
violates free expression. I'll need to make my case that it is bad
for young

girls to see themselves as sex objects too early.
The information that Chandale lists under "grounds" is what she
sees as the facts
of the case the hard data she will use as evidence to support her
contention that
cheer leading is an athletic activity. The following paragraph
shows how this argu-
ment might look in a more formally written format.
First Part of Chandale's Argument
Although evening TV comedians have made fun of the Texas
legislature's
desire to ban "suggestive" dance moves from cheerleading
routines, I
applaud this bill because it promotes a healthy view of female
cheerleaders
as athletes rather than showgirls. I was lucky enough to attend a
high school
(continued)
Summarizes oppos-
• •
1ngv1ew
States her claim
44 Chapter 3
For grounds, uses
personal experience
details to show that

cheer leading is an
athletic activity
Provides more
grounds by show-
• • •
Ing emerging views
of cheer leading as a
competitive sport
Supplies warrant: It
is good to see cheer-
leaders as athletic
and bad to see them
as sex objects
Supplies backing:
Shows benefits that
come from see-
ing cheerleaders as
athletes
Anticipates an
objection
where cheer leading is a sport, and I earned a varsity letter as a
cheerleader.
To get on my high school's cheer leading squad, students have
to go through
an exhausting two-week tryout of workouts and instruction in
the basic
routines; then they are chosen based on their stamina and skill.
Once on
the squad, cheerleaders begin all practices with a mile run and
an hour of
grueling warm-up exercises, and they are expected to exercise

on their own
on weekends. As a result of this regimen, cheerleaders achieve
and maintain
a top level of physical fitness. In addition, to get on the squad,
students
must be able to do handstands, cartwheels, handsprings, high
jumps, and
splits. Each year the squad builds up to its complex routines and
stunts con-
sisting of lifts, tosses, flips, catches, and gymnastic moves that
only trained
athletes can do. In tough competitions at the regional and state
levels, the
cheerleading squad demonstrates its athletic talent. This view of
cheer-
leading as a competitive sport is also spreading to colleges. As
reported
recently in a number of newspapers, the University of Maryland
has made
cheer leading a varsity sport, and many other universities are
following suit.
Athletic performance of this caliber is a far cry from the sexy
dancing that
many high school girls often associate with cheer leading. By
banning sug-
gestive dancing in cheerleading routines, the Texas legislature
creates an
opportunity for schools to emphasize the athleticism of cheer
leading.
As you can see, Chandale has plenty of evidence for arguing
that competi-
tive cheerleading is an athletic activity quite different from
sexy dancing. But
how effective is this argument as it stands? Is Chandale's
argument complete?

The Toulmin schema encourages writers to include if needed for
the intended
audience explicit support for their warrants as well as attention
to conditions for
rebuttal. Because the overwhelming national response to the
Texas law was ridi-
cule at the perceived prudishness of the legislators, Chandale
decided to expand
her argument as follows:
Continuation of Chandale's Argument
This emphasis on cheerleaders as athletes rather than sexy
dancers is good
for girls. The erotic dance moves that many high school
cheerleaders now
incorporate into their routines show that they are emulating the
Dallas Cow-
boys cheerleaders or pop stars in music videos. Our already
sexually satu-
rated culture (think of the suggestive clothing marketed to little
girls) pushes
girls and women to measure their value by their beauty and sex
appeal. It
would be far healthier, both physically and psychologically, if
high school
cheerleaders were identified as athletes. For women and men
both, competi-
tive cheerleading can build self-esteem, pride in teamwork, and
a powerful
sense of achievement, as well as promote health, strength, and
fitness.
Some people might object to competitive cheerleading by saying
that
cheer leading isn't really a sport. Some have accused the

University of Mary-
land of making cheer leading a varsity sport only as a cheap
way of meeting
Title IX requirements. But anyone who has watched competitive
cheer lead-
ing, and imagined what it would be like to be thrown high into
the air, knows
instinctively that this is a sport indeed. In fact, other persons
might object to
competitive cheerleading because it is too dangerous, with
potential for very
severe injuries, including paralysis. Obviously the sport is
dangerous but
so are many sports, including football, gymnastics, diving, and
trampoline.
The danger and difficulty of the sport are part of its appeal. Part
of what can
make cheerleaders as athletes better role models for girls than
cheerleaders as
erotic dancers is the courage and training needed for success. Of
course, the
Texas legislators might not have had athleticism in mind when
they banned
suggestive dancing. They might only have been promoting their
vision of
morality. But at stake are the role models we set for young
girls. I'll pick an
athlete over a Dallas Cowboys cheerleader every time.
Our example suggests how a writer can use the Toulmin schema
to generate

ideas for an argument. For evidence, Chandale draws primarily
on her personal
experiences as a cheerleader I athlete and on her knowledge of
popular culture.
She also draws on her reading of several newspaper articles
about the University
of Maryland making cheerleading a varsity sport. (In an
academic paper rather
than a newspaper editorial, she would need to document these
sources through
formal citations.) Although many arguments depend on
research, many can be
supported wholly or in part by your own personal experiences,
so don't neglect
the wealth of evidence from your own life when searching for
data. (Chapter 4
provides a more detailed discussion of evidence in arguments.)
Extend=ed Student Exa:mple:
Girls and Violent Video Ga:mes
Let's look at one more example of how the Toulmin system can
help you generate
ideas for your argument. In this case, we will look at a complete
example from
student writer Carmen Tieu, whose evolving argument about
girls and violent
video games was introduced in the last chapter. Carmen's
assignment was to
write a "supporting reasons" argument, which is a shortened
form of the classi-
cal argument described at the beginning of Chapter 2. It has all
the features of a
classical argument except for the requirement to summarize and
rebut opposing
views. In planning her argument, Carmen decided to use four
lines of reasoning,

as shown in her because clauses listed at the end of Chapter 2.
She began by creat-
ing a basic Toulmin frame for each reason:
Carmen's Toulmin Frames
My claim: Playing first-person-shooter (FPS) video games is
good for girls
1. Reason: because playing FPS games empowers girls when
they beat
guys at their own game. Warrant: It is good for girls to feel
empowered.
2. Reason: because playing FPS games equips girls with skills
that free
them from feminine stereotypes. Warrant: It is good for girls to
be
freed from feminine stereotypes.
3. Reason: because playing FPS games gives girls a different
way of
bonding with males. Warrant: It is good for girls to find a
different
way of bonding with males.
Responds to objection
by supplying more
evidence that ch eer-
leading is a sport; in
fact , it is a dangerous
sport
Sums up by returning
to claim

46 Chapter 3
4. Reason: because playing FPS games gives girls new insights
into a
male subculture. Warrant: It is good for girls to get new insights
into
a male subculture.
As Carmen began drafting her essay, she was confident she
could support her first
three lines of reasoning. For reason 1 she could use evidence
(grounds) from per-
sonal experience to show how she learned to beat guys at video
games. She could
also support her warrant by showing how beating guys made her
feel empow-
ered. For reason 2, she decided that she primarily needed to
support her warrant
(backing). It is obvious that playing FPS games breaks feminine
stereotypes. What
she had to show was why it was good or valuable to be freed
from feminine ste-
reotypes. Reason 3, she felt, needed support for both the reason
and the warrant.
She had to show how these games gave her a different way of
bonding with males
(grounds) and then why this different way was a good thing
(backing). Carmen
felt that her reason 4 was the most complex. Here are her more
detailed planning
notes for reason 4:
Carmen's Planning Notes for Reason 4

Enthymeme: First-person-shooter (FPS) video games are great
activities for
girls because playing these games gives girls new insights into
male subculture.
Grounds: I've got to show the insights into male subculture I
gained.
• The guys who play these video games are intensely
competitive.
0 They can play for hours without stopping intense
concentration.
0 They don't multitask no small talk during the games; total
focus on
playing.
0 They take delight in winning at all costs they boast with every
kill;
they call each other losers.
• They often seem homophobic or misogynist.
0 They put each other down by calling opponents "faggot" and
"wussy,"
or other similar names that are totally obscene.
o They associate victory with being macho.
Warrant: It is beneficial for a girl to get these insights into male
subculture.
Backing: How can I show these benefits?
• It was a good learning experience to see how girls' way of
bonding is very

different from that of guys; girls tend to be nicer to one another
rather than
insulting one another. Although I enjoy winning at FPS games,
as a girl I
feel alienated from this male subculture.
• The game atmosphere tends to bring out these homophobic
traits; guys
don't talk this way as much when they are doing other things.
• This experience helped me see why men may progress faster
than women
in a competitive business environment men seem programmed to
crush
one another, and they devote enormous energy to the process.
• What else can I say? I need to think about this further.
Based on these planning notes, Carmen's composed argument
went through sev-
eral drafts. Here is her final version.
Student Essay
Why Violent Video Games Are Good for Girls
Carmen Tieu
It is ten o'clock P.M., game time. My entire family knows by
now that
when I am horne on Saturday nights, ten P.M. is my gaming
night when

I play my favorite first-person-shooter (FPS) games, usually
Halo 3, on
Xbox Live. Seated in my mobile chair in front of my family's
42-inch flat
screen HDTV, I log onto Xbox Live. A small message in the
bottom of the
screen appears with the words "KrlpL3r is online," alerting me
that one of
my male friends is online and already playing. As the game
loads, I send
KrlpL3r a game invite, and he joins me in the pre-game room
lobby.
In the game room lobby, all the players who will be
participating in the
match are chatting aggressively with each other: "Oh man, we're
gonna
own you guys so bad." When a member of the opposing team
notices my
garner tag, "ernbracingapathy," he begins to insult me by
calling me various
degrading, gay-associated names: "Embracing apa-what? Man, it
sounds so
erno. Are you some fag? I bet you want me so bad. You're
gonna get owned!"
Players always assume from my garner tag that I am a gay male,
never a
female. The possibility that I am a girl is the last thing on their
minds. Of
course, they are right that girls seldom play first-person-shooter
games.
Girls are socialized into activities that promote togetherness and
talk, not
high-intensity competition involving fantasized shooting and
killing. The
violent nature of the games tends to repulse girls. Opponents of

violent
video games typically hold that these games are so graphically
violent that
they will influence players to become amoral and sadistic.
Feminists also
argue that violent video games often objectify women by
portraying them
as sexualized toys for men's gratification. Although I
understand these
objections, I argue that playing first-person-shooter games can
actually be
good for girls.
First, playing FPS games gives girls the chance to beat guys at
their
own game. When I first began playing Halo 2, I was horrible.
My male
friends constantly put me down for my lack of skills, constantly
telling
me that I was awful, "but for a girl, you're good." But it didn't
take much
practice until I learned to operate the two joysticks with
precision and with
quick instinctual reactions. While guys and girls can play many
physical
games together, such as basketball or touch football, guys will
always have
the advantage because on average they are taller, faster, and
stronger than
females. However, when it comes to video games, girls can
compete equally
because physical strength isn't required, just quick reaction time
and man-
ual dexterity skills that women possess in abundance. The
adrenaline rush
that I receive from beating a bunch of testosterone-driven guys

at something
they supposedly excel at is empowering and exciting; I
especially savor the
look of horror on their faces when I completely destroy them.
(continued)
Title makes persua-
sive claim
Attention -grabbing
scene
Continues scene
and provides more
background
Sums up opposing
-· v1ews
States claim
States first reason
For grounds, uses
:personal narrative to
show how she can
beat guys
Briefly backs
warrant by showing
the good feeling of
empowerment

48 Chapter 3
States second reason
Details focus on back-
ing for warrant: It is
good for girls -t-o be
freed from feminine
stereotypes
Provides third reason
Uses a narrative
example for grounds;
shows how FPS
games give her a dif-
ferent way of bonding
with males
Backing for warrant:
This new kind of
bonding is good
Provides final reason
Provides grounds:
gives examples of
what she learned
about male
subculture
Provides backing for
warrant: Shows value
of learning about
male subcultu-re
while keeping sepa-

rate from it
Because female video garners are so rare, playing shooter games
allows
girls to be freed from feminine stereotypes and increases their
confidence.
Our culture generally portrays females as caring, nonviolent,
and motherly
beings who are not supposed to enjoy FPS games with their war
themes
and violent killings. I am in no way rejecting these traditional
female values
because I myself am a compassionate, tree-hugging vegan. But I
also like to
break these stereotypes. Playing video games offers a great way
for females
to break the social mold of only doing "girly" things and
introduces them
to something that males commonly enjoy. Playing video games
with sexist
males has also helped me become more outspoken.
Psychologically, I can
stand up to aggressive males because I know that I can beat
them at their
own game. The confidence I've gotten from excelling at shooter
games may
have even carried over into the academic arena because I am
majoring in
chemical engineering and have no fear whatsoever of intruding
into the
male-dominated territory of math and science. Knowing that I
can beat all
the guys in my engineering classes at Halo gives me that little
extra confi-
dence boost during exams and labs.

Another reason for girls to play FPS games is that it gives us a
different
way of bonding with guys. Once when I was discussing my
latest Halo 3
matches with one of my regular male friends, a guy whom I
didn't know
turned around and said, "You play Halo? Wow, you just earned
my respect."
Although I was annoyed that this guy apparently didn't respect
women in
general, it is apparent that guys will talk to me differently now
that I can
play video games. From a guy's perspective I can also
appreciate why males
find video games so addicting. You get joy from perfecting your
skills so
that your high-angle grenade kills become a thing of beauty.
While all of
these skills may seem trivial to some, the acknowledgment of
my skills from
other players leaves me with a perverse sense of pride in
knowing that I
played the game better than everyone else. Since I have started
playing, I
have also noticed that it is much easier to talk to males about
lots of differ-
ent subjects. Talking video games with guys is a great ice-
breaker that leads
to different kinds of friendships outside the realm of romance
and dating.
Finally, playing violent video games can be valuable for girls
because
it gives them insights into a disturbing part of male subculture.
When the
testosterone starts kicking in, guys become blatantly

homophobic and
misogynistic. Any player, regardless of gender, who cannot play
well (as
measured by having a high number of kills and a low number of
deaths)
is made fun of by being called gay, a girl, or worse. Even when
some guys
finally meet a female player, they will also insult her by calling
her ales-
bian or an ugly fat chick who has no life. Their insults towards
the girl will
dramatically increase if she beats them because they feel so
humiliated. In
their eyes, playing worse than a girl is embarrassing because
girls are sup-
posed to be inept at FPS games. Whenever I play Halo better
than my male
friends, they often comment on how "it makes no sense that
we're getting
owned by Carmen."
When males act like such sexist jerks it causes one to question
if they are
always like this. My answer is no because I know, firsthand,
that when guys
like that are having one-on-one conversations with a female,
they show a
softer side, and the macho side goes away. They don't talk about
how girls
should stay in the kitchen and make them dinner, but rather how
they think

it is cool that they share a fun, common interest with a girl. But
when they
are in a group of males their fake, offensive macho side comes
out. I find
this phenomenon troubling because it shows a real problem in
the way
boys are socialized. To be a real"man" around other guys, they
have to put
down women and gays in activities involving aggressive
behavior where
men are supposed to excel. But they don't become macho and
aggressive
in activities like reading and writing, which they think of as
feminine. I've
always known that guys are more physically aggressive than
women, but
until I started playing violent video games I had never realized
how this
aggression is related to misogyny and homophobia. Perhaps
these traits
aren't deeply ingrained in men but come out primarily in a
competitive
male environment. Whatever the cause, it is an ugly
phenomenon, and I'm
glad that I learned more about it. Beating guys at FPS games
has made me
a more confident woman while being more aware of gender
differences in
the way men and women are socialized. I joined the guys in
playing Halo,
but I didn't join their subculture of ridiculing women and gays.
The Th-esis-Governed "Self-Announcing" Structure
of Classical Argument
Like the complete classical argument explained at the beginning
of Chapter 2,

Carmen's supporting-reasons argument has a thesis-governed
structure in which
she states her claim near the end of the introduction, begins
body paragraphs
with clearly stated reasons, and uses effective transitions
throughout to keep her
reader on track. This kind of tightly organized structure is
sometimes called a
self-announcing or closed-form structure because the writer
states his or her claim
before beginning the body of the argument and forecasts the
structure that is to
follow. In contrast, an unfolding or open-form structure often
doesn't give away the
writer's position until late in the essay. (We discuss delayed-
thesis arguments in
Chapter 6.) A general rule of thumb for arguments using more
than one line of
reasoning is to place your most important or most interesting
reason last, where
it will have the greatest impact on your readers.
In writing a self-announcing argument, students often ask how
much of the
argument to summarize in the thesis statement. Consider
Carmen's options:
• She might announce only her claim:
Playing first-person-shooter games can be good for girls.
• She might forecast a series of parallel reasons:
There are several reasons that playing first-person-shooter
games can be
good for girls.

• She might forecast the actual number of reasons:
I will present four reasons that playing first-person-shooter
games can be
good for girls.
• Or she might forecast the whole argument by including her
because clauses
with her claim:
Su ms up why her
playing FPS games is
valuable
50 Chapter 3
Playing first-person-shooter games can be good for girls
because it lets girls
feel empowered by beating guys at their own game, because it
frees girls
from feminine stereotypes, because it gives girls a different way
of bonding
with guys, and because it gives girls new insights into a male
subculture.
This last thesis statement forecasts not only the claim, but also
the supporting
reasons that will serve as topic sentences for key paragraphs
throughout the body
of the paper.
No formula can tell you precisely how much of your argument
to forecast

in the introduction. However, these suggestions can guide you:
In writing a self-
announcing argument, forecast only what is needed for clarity.
In short arguments,
readers often need only your claim. In longer arguments,
however, or in especially
complex arguments, readers appreciate your forecasting the
complete structure of
the argument (claim with reasons). Also, as we explain in later
chapters, the direct-
ness of classical argument is not always the best way to reach
all audiences. On
many occasions more open-form or delayed-thesis approaches
are more effective.
Reasons, Warrants, and Conditions of Rebuttal
Individual task:
1. Choose one of the following reasons. Then write a passage
that provides grounds to support the
reason. Use details from personal experience or imagine
plausible, hypothetical details.
a. Web surfing or checking social media can be harmful to
college students because it wastes study time.
b. Getting one's news from social media undermines informed
citizenship because social media tend
to sensationalize news events.
c. The university's decision to raise parking fees for solo drivers
is a good environmental plan because
it encourages students to use public transportation.
2. Now create an argument to support the warrant for the reason
you chose in task 1. The warrants for

each of the arguments are stated below.
a. Support this warrant: Wasting study time is harmful for
college students.
b. Support this warrant: Sensationalizing of the news is harmful
to citizens' understanding.
c. Support this warrant: It is good for the environment to
encourage students to use public
transportation.
Group task:
strategies for supporting your chosen reason and
warrant.
Conclusion
Chapters 2 and 3 have provided an anatomy of argument. They
have shown that
the core of an argument is a claim with reasons that usually can
be summarized in
one or more because clauses attached to the claim. Often, it is
as important to articu-
late and support the underlying assumptions in your argument
(warrants) as it is
to support the stated reasons because a successful argument
should be rooted in
your audience's beliefs and values. To plan an audience-based
argument strategy,
arguers can use the Toulmin schema to help them discover
grounds, warrants, and

backing for their arguments and test them through conditions of
rebuttal.
A Note on the Informal Fallacies
The Toulmin system explained in this chapter is a response to
the problem of
uncertainty or inconclusiveness in real-world arguments, where
we have to deal
with probability as opposed to the certainty of formal logic. In
the real world, we
seldom encounter arguments that are absolutely conclusive. We
can say that an
argument is more or less "persuasive" or "non-persuasive" to
certain audiences
but not that it proves its case conclusively.
Another response to the problem of conclusiveness is the class
of reasoning prob-
lems known as the informal fallacies. (You have probably heard
of at least some of
them with their exotic, Latinate, or sometimes funny names
hasty generalization,
post hoc ergo propter hoc, slippery slope, or poisoning the
well.) They are called
"informal" because, like the Toulmin system, they don't focus
on the form of the
syllogism.* Although the fallacies are not useful for helping
writers plan and test
their own arguments, they can often help us name what is
uncertain or illogically
seductive in someone else's argument. They function as a
compendium of the ways
that flawed arguments can nevertheless seem persuasive on the
surface. To provide
flexibility in the way that informal fallacies can be integrated
into a course, we have

placed them all together in a convenient appendix at the end of
the text.
Writing Assignment
Plan of an Argument's Details
This assignment asks you to return to the working thesis
statement that you created for the brief writing
assignment in Chapter 2. From that thesis statement extract one
of your enthymemes (your claim with one
of your because clauses). Write out the warrant for your
enthymeme. Then use the Toulmin schema to brain-
storm the detai ls you might use (grounds, backing, conditions
of rebuttal) to convert your enthymeme into
a fleshed-out argument. Use as your model Chandale's planning
notes or Carmen's planning notes earl ier
in this chapter. Note that this is a process-oriented
brainstorming task aimed at helping you generate ideas
for an argument in progress. You may end up changing your
ideas substantially as you compose the actual
argument. (An assignment to write a complete "supporting
reasons" argument like Carmen's comes at the
end of the next chapter, which explains the uses of evidence.)
*A syllogism is a three-part logical structure containing a major
premise, a minor p remise,
and a conclusion. If the syllogism is worded in a valid, correct
way and if the premises are
both true, then the conclusion must necessarily be true.
Major premise: All men are mortal.
Minor premise: Socrates is a man.
Conclusion: Socrates is mortal.
Chapter 5

Learning Objectives
pathos
work together to move your audience.
5.4 Be mindful of kairos or the "timeliness" of your argument.
pathos,
and kairos.
pathos, and kairos.
In Chapters 3 and 4 we focused on logos the logical structure of
reasons and
evidence in argument. Even though we have treated logos in its
own chapters, an
effective arguer's concern for logos is always connected to
ethos and pathos (see
the rhetorical triangle in Figure 2.2) and always considers the
kairos, or timeliness
of the argument. This chapter explains how arguers can create
effective appeals
from ethos, pathos, and kairos. It also explains the crucial role
played by concrete
language, examples, narrative stories, and use of images in

enhancing ethical
and emotional appeals. We conclude by showing how audience-
based reasons
enhance logos while also appealing to ethos and pathos.
67
68 Chapter 5
Logos, Ethos, and Pathos as Persuasive
Appeals: An Overview
pathos work
together to move your audience.
At first, one may be tempted to think of logos, ethos, and pathos
as "ingredients"
in an essay, like spices you add to a casserole. But a more
appropriate meta-
phor might be that of different lamps and filters used on theater
spotlights to
vary lighting effects on a stage. Thus, if you switch on a pathos
lamp (possibly
through using more concrete language or vivid examples), the
resulting image
will engage the audience's sympathy and emotions more deeply.
If you overlay
an ethos filter (perhaps by adopting a different tone tow ard your
audience), the
projected image of the writer as a person will be subtly altered.
If you switch on
a logos lamp (by adding, say, more data for evidence), you will
draw the reader's

attention to the logical appeal of the argument. Depending on
how you modulate
the lamps and filters, you shape and color your readers'
perception of you and
your argument.
Our metaphor is imperfect, of course, but our point is that
logos, ethos, and
pathos work together to create an impact on the reader.
Consider, for example,
the different impacts of the following arguments, all having
roughly the same
logical appeal.
1. People should adopt a vegetarian diet because doing so will
help prevent the
cruelty to animals caused by factory farming.
2. If you are planning to eat chicken tonight, please consider
how much that
chicken suffered so that you could have a tender and juicy meal.
Commer-
cial growers cram the chickens so tightly together into cages
that they never
walk on their own legs, see sunshine, or flap their wings. In
fact, their beaks
must be cut off to keep them from pecking each other's eyes out.
One way to
prevent such suffering is for more people to become
vegetarians.
3. People who eat meat are no better than sadists who torture
other sentient
creatures to enhance their own pleasure. Unless you enjoy
sadistic tyranny
over others, you have only one choice: Become a vegetarian.

4. People committed to justice might consider the extent to
which our love of
eating meat requires the agony of animals. A visit to a modern
chicken fac-
tory where chickens live their entire lives in tiny, darkened
coops without
room to spread their wings might raise doubts about our right to
inflict such
suffering on sentient creatures. Indeed, such a visit mi ght
persuade us that
vegetarianism is a more just alternative.
Each argument has roughly the same logical core:
But the impact of each argument varies. The difference between
arguments
1 and 2, most of our students report, is the greater emotional
power of argument
2. Whereas argument 1 refers only to the abstraction "cruelty to
animals," argu-
ment 2 paints a vivid picture of chickens with their beaks cut
off to prevent their
pecking each other blind. Argument 2 makes a stronger appeal
to pathos (not
necessarily a stronger argument), stirring feelings by appealing
simultaneously
to the heart and to the head.
ENTHYMEME
CLAIM: People should adopt a vegetarian diet
REASON: because doing so will help prevent

the cruelty to animals caused by factory farming.
GROUNDS
• Evidence of suffering in commercial chicken
farms, where chickens are crammed together
and lash out at one another
• Evidence that only widespread adoption of
vegetarianism will end factory farming
WARRANT
If we have an alternative to making animals
suffer, we should use it.
The difference between arguments 1 and 3 concerns both ethos
and pathos.
Argument 3 appeals to the emotions through highly charged
words such as tor-
ture, sadists, and tyranny. But argument 3 also draws attention
to its writer, and
most of our students report not liking that writer very much. His
stance is self-
righteous and insulting. In contrast, argument 4's author
establishes a more posi-
tive ethos. He establishes rapport by assuming his audience is
committed to justice
and by qualifying his argument with the conditional term might.
He also invites

sympathy for the chickens' plight an appeal to pathos by
offering a specific
description of chickens crammed into tiny coops.
Which of these arguments is best? The answer depends on the
intended audi-
ence. Arguments 1 and 4 seem aimed at receptive audiences
reasonably open to
exploration of the issue, whereas arguments 2 and 3 seem
designed to shock com-
placent audiences or to rally a group of true believers. Even
argument 3, which is
too abusive to be effective in most instances, might work as a
rallying speech at a
convention of animal liberation activists.
Our point thus far is that logos, ethos, and pathos are different
aspects of the same
whole, different lenses for intensifying or softening the light
beam you project onto
the screen. Every choice you make as a writer affects in some
way each of the three
appeals. The rest of this chapter examines these choices in more
detail.
How to Create an Effective Ethos:
The Appeal to Credibility
The ancient Greek and Roman rhetoricians recognized that an
argument would be
more persuasive if the audience trusted the speaker. Aristotle
argued that such trust
resides within the speech itself, not in the speaker's prior
reputation. Speakers proj-
ect their credibility through their manner and delivery, their

tone, their word choice,
70 Chapter 5
their use of trustworthy evidence, and the sympathy and fairness
with which they
treat alternative views. Aristotle called the impact of the
speaker's credibility the
appeal from ethos. How does a writer create credibility? We
suggest four ways:
• Be knowledgeable about your issue. The first way to gain
credibility is to
be credible that is, to argue from a strong base of knowledge, to
have at
hand the examples, personal experiences, statistics, and other
empirical data
needed to make a sound case. If you have done your homework,
you will
command the attention of most audiences.
• Be fair. Besides being knowledgeable about your issue, you
need to demon-
strate fairness and courtesy to alternative views. Because true
argument can
occur only where people may reasonably disagree with one
another, your
ethos will be strengthened if you demonstrate that you
understand and empa-
thize with other points of view. There are times when you may
appropriately
scorn an opposing view. But these times are rare, and they
mostly occur when
you address audiences predisposed to your view. Demonstrating

empathy to
alternative views is generally the best strategy.
• Build a bridge to your audience. A third means of establishing
credibility-
building a bridge to your audience has been treated at length in
our ear-
lier discussions of audience-based reasons. By grounding your
argument in
shared values and assumptions, you demonstrate your goodwill
and enhance
your image as a trustworthy person respectful of your audience's
views. We
mention audience-based reasons here to show how this aspect of
logos-
finding the reasons that are most rooted in the audience's values
also affects
your ethos as a person respectful of your readers' views.
• Demonstrate professionalism. Finally, you can enhance your
ethos by the
professionalism revealed in your manuscript itself. Appropriate
style, care-
ful editing and proofreading, accurate documentation, and
adherence to the
genre conventions expected by your audience all contribute to
the image of
the person behind the writing. If your manuscript is sloppy,
marred by spell-
ing or grammatical errors, or inattentive to the tone and style of
the expected
genre, your credibility will be damaged.
How to Create Pathos: The Appeal
to Beliefs and Emotions

Before the federal government outlawed unsolicited telephone
marketing, news-
papers published flurries of articles complaining about annoying
telemarketers.
Within this context, a United Parcel Service worker, Bobbi
Buchanan, wanted
to create sympathy for telemarketers. She wrote a New York
Times op-ed piece
entitled "Don't Hang Up, That's My Mom Calling," which
begins as follows:
To those Americans who have signed up for the new national
do-not-call list, my
mother [a telemarketer] is a pest .... To others, she's just
another anonymous voice
on the other end of the line. But to those who know her, she's
someone struggling
to make a buck, to feed herself and pay her utilities.
The op-ed continues with a heartwarming description of
Buchanan's mother,
La Verne. Buchanan's rhetorical aim is to transform the reader's
anonymous,
depersonalized image of telemarketers into the concrete image
of her mother:
a "hardworking, first generation American; the daughter of a
Pittsburgh steel-
worker; survivor of the Great Depression; the widow of a World
War II veteran;
a mother of seven, grandmother of eight, great-grandmother of
three .... "The

intended effect is to alter our view of telemarketers through the
positive emotions
triggered by our identification with La Verne.
By urging readers to think of "my mother, La Verne" instead of
an anonymous
telemarketer, Buchanan illustrates the power of pathos, an
appeal to the reader's
emotions. Arguers create pathetic appeals whenever they
connect their claims
to readers' values, thus triggering positive or negative emotions
depending on
whether these values are affirmed or transgressed. Pro-life
proponents appeal to
pathos when they graphically describe the dismemberment of a
fetus during an
abortion. Proponents of improved women's health and status in
Africa appeal to
pathos when they describe the helplessness of wives forced to
have unprotected
sex with husbands likely infected with HIV. Opponents of oil
exploration in the
Arctic National Wildlife Refuge (ANWR) appeal to pathos when
they lovingly
describe the calving grounds of caribou.
Are such appeals legitimate? Our answer is yes, if they intensify
and deepen
our response to an issue rather than divert our attention from it.
Because under-
standing is a matter of feeling as well as perceiving, pathos can
give access to
nonlogical, but not necessarily nonrational, ways of knowing.
Pathos helps us see
what is deeply at stake in an issue, what matters to the whole
person. Appeals to

pathos help readers walk in the writer's shoes. That is why
arguments are often
improved through the use of stories that make issues come alive
or sensory details
that allow us to see, feel, and taste the reality of a problem.
Appeals to pathos become illegitimate, we believe, when they
confuse an issue
rather than clarify it. Consider the case of a student who argues
that Professor
Jones ought to raise his grade from aD to a C, lest he lose his
scholarship and
be forced to leave college, shattering the dreams of his dear old
grandmother. To
the extent that students' grades should be based on performance
or effort, the
student's image of the dear old grandmother is an illegitimate
appeal to pathos
because it diverts the reader from rational criteria to irrational
criteria. The weep-
ing grandmother may provide a legitimate motive for the
student to study harder
but not for the professor to change a grade.
Although it is difficult to classify all the ways that writers can
create appeals
from pathos, we will focus on four strategies: concrete
language; specific exam-
ples and illustrations; narratives; and connotations of words,
metaphors, and
analogies. Each of these strategies lends presence to an
argument by creating
immediacy and emotional impact.
Use Concrete Language
Concrete language one of the chief ways that writers achieve

voice can
increase the liveliness, interest level, and personality of a
writer's prose. When
used in argument, concrete language typically heightens pathos.
For example,
consider the differences between the first and second drafts of
the following
student argument:
72 Chapter 5
FIRST DRAFT
People who prefer driving a car to taking a bus think that taking
the bus will
increase the stress of the daily commute. Just the opposite is
true. Not being able
to find a parking spot when in a hurry to be at work or school
can cause a person
stress. Taking the bus gives a person time to read or sleep, etc.
It could be used as
a mental break.
SECOND DRAFT (CONCRETE LANGUAGE ADDED)
Taking the bus can be more relaxing than driving a car. Having
someone else
behind the wheel gives people time to chat with friends or study
for an exam. They
can check Instagram and Twitter, send text messages, doze off,
read their favorite
news website, or get lost in a novel rather than foam at the
mouth looking for a
parking space.

In this revision, specific details enliven the prose by creating
images that
evoke positive feelings. Who wouldn't want some free time to
doze off or to get
lost in a novel?
Use Specific Examples and Illustrations
Specific examples and illustrations serve two purposes in an
argument: They pro-
vide evidence that supports your reasons; simultaneously, they
give your argu-
ment presence and emotional resonance. Note the flatness of the
following draft
arguing for the value of multicultural studies in a university
core curriculum:
FIRST DRAFT
Another advantage of a multicultural education is that it will
help us see our
own culture in a broader perspective. If all we know is our own
heritage, we might
not be inclined to see anything bad about this heritage because
we won' t know
anything else. But if we study other heritages, we can see the
costs and benefits of
our own heritage.
Now note the increase in presence and emotional resonance
when the writer adds
a specific example:
SECOND DRAFT (EXAMPLE ADDED)
Another advantage of multicultural education is that it raises

questions about
traditional Western values. For example, owning private
property (such as buying
your own home) is part of the American dream. However, in
studying the beliefs
of American Indians, students are confronted with a very
different view of private
property. When the U.S. government sought to buy land in the
Pacific Northwest
from Chief Sealth, he is alleged to have replied:
The president in Washington sends words that he wishes to buy
our land.
But h ow can you buy or sell the sky? The land? The idea is
strange to us.
If we do not own the freshness of the air and the sparkle of the
water, how
can you buy them? [ ... ] We are part of the earth and it is part
of us. [ ... ]
This we know: The earth d oes not belong to man, man belongs
to the earth.
Our class was shocked by the contrast between traditional
Western views of
property and Chief Sealth's views. One of our b est class
discussions was initi-
ated by th is quotation from Chief Sealth. Had we not been
exposed to a view
from anoth er culture, we would have never been led to question
the "rightness"
of Western values.

Th e writer begins his revision by evoking a traditional Western
v iew of p ri-
vate proper ty, which h e then questions by shifting to Chief
Sealth ' s vision of
land as op en, endless, and unob tainable as the sk y. Th rough
the use of a specific
example, the writer brings to life his previously abstract point
about the benefit
of multicultural education.
Use Narratives
A par ticularly powerful way to evoke pathos is to tell a st ory
tha t either leads
into your claim or emb odies it implicitly and that appeals to
your readers'
feelin gs and imagination. Brief narratives wheth er true or
hypothetical are
particularly effective as opening attention grabber s for an
argument. To illus-
trate h ow an introductory narrative (either a story or a brief
scene) can create
appeals to pathos, consider the following fi rst paragraph to an
argumen t oppos-
ing jet skis:
I d ove off the dock into the lake, and as I approached the
surface I could see the
sun shining through the water. As my head popped out, I located
my cousin a few
feet away in a rowboat waiting to escort me as I, a twelve-year-
old girl, attemp ted
to swim across the mile-wide, pristine lake and back to our
dock. I made it, and that
glorious summer day is one of my most precious memories.
Today, however, no
one would dare attempt that swim. Jet skis have taken over this

small lake where
I sp ent many summers with my grand parents. Dozens of
whining jet skis criss-
cross the lake, ruining it for swimming, fishing, canoeing,
rowboating, and even
water-skiing. More stringent state laws are needed to control jet
skiing because it
interferes with other uses of lakes and is currently very d
angerous.
This narrative makes a case for a particular point of view
toward jet skis by win-
ning our identification w ith the writer's experience. She invites
us to relive that
experience with her while she also taps into our own treasur ed
memories of sum-
mer experien ces th at have been destroyed by change.
Op ening n arratives to evoke pathos can be p owerfully
effective, but they are
also risky. If they are too private, too self-indulgent, too
sentimental, or even too
dramatic and fo rceful, they can backfire. If you have doubts
about an op ening
narrative, read it to a sample audience before using it in your
fina l draft.
74 Chapter 5
Use Words, Metaphors, and Analogies
with Appropriate Connotations
Another way of appealing to pathos is to select words,
metaphors, or analo-
gies with connotations that match your aim. We have already

described this
strategy in our discussion of the "framing" of evidence in
Chapter 4. By using
words with particular connotations, a writer guides readers to
see th e issue
through the writer's angle of vision. Thus, if you want to create
positive feelings
about a recent city council decision, you can call it "bold and
decisive"; if you
want to create negative feelings, you can call it "short-sighted
and autocratic."
Similarly, writers can use favorable or unfavorable metaphors
and analogies to
evoke different imaginative or emotional responses. A tax bill
m ight be viewed
as a "potentially fatal poison pill" or as "unpleasant but
necessary economic
medicine." In each of these cases, the words create an emotional
as well as intel-
lectual response.
Incorporating Appeals to Pathos
Outside class, rew rite the introd uct ion to one of you r
previous papers (or a current draft) to include more
appeals to pathos. Use any of t he strateg ies for g iving your
argument presence: concrete language, specific
examples, narrat ives, metaphors, analog ies, and connotative
wo rds. Bring both you r orig inal and your
rewritten introduct ions to c lass. In pairs or in groups, d iscuss
the comparat ive effectiveness of these int ro-
d uctions in trying to reac h your intended audience.
Kairos: The Timeliness and Fitness
of Arguments
5.4 Be mindful of kairos or the ''timeliness" of your argument.

To increase your argument's effectiveness, you need to consider
not only its
appeals to logos, ethos, and pathos, but also its kairos that is,
its timing, its appro-
priateness for the occasion. Kairos is one of those wonderful
words adopted from
another language (in this case, ancient Greek) that is impossible
to define, yet
powerful in w hat it represents. In Greek, kairos means "right
time," "season," or
"opportunity." It differs subtly from the ordinary Greek word
for time, chronos,
the root of our words "chronology" and "chronometer." You can
measure chronos
by looking at your watch, but you measure kairos by sensing the
opportune time
through psychological attentiveness to situation and meaning.
To think kairoti-
cally is to be attuned to the total context of a situation in order
to act in the right
way at the right moment. By analogy, consider a skilled base
runner who senses
the right moment to steal second, a wise teacher who senses the
right moment to
praise or critique a student's performance, or a successful
psychotherapist who
senses the right moment to talk rather than listen in a
counseling session. Kairos
reminds us that a rhetorical situation is not stable and fixed, but
evolves as events

unfold or as audiences experience the psychological ebbs and
flows of attention
and care. Here are some examples that illustrate the range of
insights contained
by the term kairos:
• If you write a letter to the editor of a newspaper or post a
response to a blog,
you usually have a one- or two-day window before a current
event becomes
"old news" and is no longer interesting. An out-of-date response
will go
unread, not because it is poorly written or argued but because it
misses its
kairotic moment. (Similar instances of lost timeliness occur in
class discus-
sions: On how many occasions have you wanted to contribute an
idea to class
discussion, but the professor doesn't acknowledge your raised
hand? When
you finally are called on, the kairotic moment has passed.)
• Bobbi Buchanan's "Don't Hang Up, That's My Mom Calling,"
which we used
earlier in this chapter to illustrate pathos, could have been
written only dur-
ing a brief historical period when telemarketing was being
publicly debated.
Moreover, it could have been written only late in that period,
after numerous
writers had attacked telemarketers. The piece was published in
The New York
Times because the editor received it at the right kairotic
moment.
• A sociology major is writing a senior capstone paper as a

graduation require-
ment. The due date for the paper is fixed, so the timing of the
paper isn't
at issue. But kairos is still relevant. It urges the student to
consider what is
appropriate for such a paper. What is the "right way" to produce
a sociology
paper at this moment in the history of the discipline? Currently,
what are
leading-edge versus trailing-edge questions in sociology? What
theorists are
now in vogue? What research methods would most impress a
judging com-
mittee? How would a good capstone paper written in 2019 differ
from one
written a decade earlier?
As you can see from these examples, kairos concerns a whole
range of questions
connected to the timing, fitness, appropriateness, and
proportions of a message
within an evolving rhetorical context. There are no rules to help
you determine
the kairotic moment for your argument, but being attuned to
kairos will help you
"read" your audience and rhetorical situation in a dynamic way.
Often you can establish the kairos of your argument in the
opening sentences
of your introduction. An introduction might mention a recent
news event, politi-
cal speech, legislative bill, or current societal problem that the
audience may have
experienced, thereby using awareness of kairos to connect with
the audience's
interests, knowledge, and experience. Elsewhere in your

argument, attention to
kairos can infuse currency and immediacy by establishing the
stakes in the argu-
ment and enlisting the audience's concern. For example, if you
are going to argue
that your university's policy on laptops in the classroom is too
restrictive, you
might enhance your argument by mentioning several recent
editorials in your
campus newspaper on this subject. If you are going to argue for
increased urban
gardening in your city, you might cite a recent TED talk on
successful experi-
ments with urban gardening. If you are creating a text that
includes images,
you might also establish kairos through a photograph or cartoon
that signals
appropriate currency. Thinking about kairos helps you focus on
the public con-
versation your argument is joining and on your audience's
interests, knowledge,
and values.
76 Chapter 5
Analyzing an Argument from the Perspectives of Logos, Ethos,
Pathos,
and Kairos
Your instructor w ill select an argument for analysis. Working
in small groups or as a class, analyze the assigned
argument first from the perspective of kairos and then from the
perspectives of logos, ethos, and pathos.

1. As you analyze the argument from the perspective of kairos,
consider the fol lowing questions:
a. What is the motivating occasion for this argument? That is,
what causes this writer to put pen to
paper or fingers to keyboard?
b. What conversation is the writer joining? Who are the other
voices in this conversation? What are
these voices saying that compels the writer to add his or her
own voice? How was the stage set to
create the kairotic moment for this argument?
c. Who is the writer's intended aud ience and why?
d. What is the writer's purpose? Toward what view or action is
the writer trying to persuade his or
her audience?
e. To what extent can various features of the argument be
explained by your understanding of its
kairotic moment?
2. Now analyze the same argument for its appeals to logos,
ethos, and pathos. How successful is this
argument in achieving its writer's purpose?
Using Images to Appeal to Logos,
pathos,
and kairos.
One of the most powerful ways to move your audience is to use
photos or other

images that can appeal to logos, ethos, pathos, and kairos in one
glance. (Chapter 9
focuses exclusively on visual rhetoric the persuasive power of
images.) Although
many written arguments do not lend themselves to visual
illustrations, we suggest
that when you construct arguments you consider the potential of
visual support.
Imagine that your argument is to be delivered as a PowerPoint
presentation or
appear in a newspaper, in a magazine, or on a website where
space will be pro-
vided for one or two visuals. What photographs or drawings
might help persuade
your audience toward your perspective?
When images work well, they make particularly powerful
appeals to pathos
analogous to the verbal strategies of concrete language, specific
illustrations, nar-
ratives, and connotative words. The challenge in using visuals is
to find material
that is straightforward enough to be understood without
elaborate explanations,
that is timely and relevant, and that clearly adds impact to a
specific part of your
argument. As an example, suppose you are writing an argument
supporting fund-
raising efforts to help a developing country that has recently
experienced a natural
catastrophe. To add a powerful appeal to pathos, you might
consider incorporating
into your argument the photograph shown in Figure 5.1 of the
devastation and
personal loss caused by Typhoon Haiyan in the Philippines in
2013. A photograph

such as this one can evoke a strong emotional and imaginative
response as well
as make viewers think.
Analyzing Images as Appeals to Pathos
Individual task:
Use the following questions to analyze the photo in Figure 5.1.
1. How would you describe the emotional/ imag inative impact
of Figure 5.1? What specific detai ls of the
photo create its appeal to pathos?
2. Many disaster-rel ief photos seek to convey the magn itude of
the destruction and suffering, sometimes
shockingly, by depicting destroyed buildings, mangled bod ies,
and images of human misery. How is
your response to Figure 5.1 similar to or d ifferent from your
response to commonly encountered close-
up photographs of grief-stricken victims or to d istance shots of
widespread destruction? To what extent
is Figure 5.1 's story-told from the perspective of a child -
different from the more typical photographs
of destroyed build ings or angu ished faces?
3. After searching the web for other photos taken after Typhoon
Haiyan, write a rationale for why you
wou ld, or would not, choose this photo to accompany a
proposal argument appealing for support for
people in this region of the Ph ilippines.

Group task:
Share your individual analysis and rationale with others in your
class.
Figure 5.1 Photo after Typhoon Haiyan in the Ph ilippines
78 Chapter 5
Examining Visual Arguments
Logos, Ethos, Pathos, and Kairos
Efforts to combat sexual assault and date rape on college
campuses have figured prominently in public con-
versation recently, with discussions booming on the websites of
newly formed organizations and stories of
ral lies on university campuses appearing on news sites. As this
advocacy poster shows, the need to bolster
bystander intervention is a critical piece in addressing this
problem.
How does this advocacy poster attempt to move its audience?
Analyze the poster's visual and verbal
appeals to logos, ethos, pathos, and kairos.
How Audience-Based Reasons
Appeal to Logos, Ethos, Pathos,
and Kairos
pathos, and kairos.

We conclude this ch apter b y returning to the con cept of
audience-based reason s
that we introduced in Chapter 3. Audience-based reasons
enhance logos becau se
they build on underlying assumptions (warrants) that the audien
ce is likely to
accept. But they also enhan ce ethos, pathos, and kairos b y
helping the audien ce
identify w ith the w riter, by appealing to shared beliefs and
valu es, and by con vey-
ing a shared sense of an issue's timeliness. To consider the need
s of your audience,
you can ask yourself the questions in Table 5.1.
To see h ow a con cern for audien ce-based reason s can enhan
ce ethos and
pathos, we ask you to role p lay a student in the following h yp
othetical scenario.
Interested in a career in public h ealth, you are a nursing m ajor
w h o h as d on e
Table 5.1 Questions for Analyzing Your Aud ience
1. Who is your audience?
2 . How much does your
audience know or care
about your issue?
3 . What is your audience 's
current attitude toward
your issue?
4 . What will be your
audience's likely objections

to your argument?
5 . What values, beliefs, or
assumptions about the
world do you and your
audience share?
Your answer wil l help you thin k about audience-based reasons.
• Are you writing to a single person , a committee, or the
general readership of a newspaper,
magazine, blog, and so forth?
• Are your readers academics, professionals, other students,
general citizens, or people with
specialized background and interests?
• Can you expect your audience to be politically and culturally
liberal , middle of the road ,
conservative, or a mixture of these groups?
• What are the rel igious views of your audience?
• How do you picture your audience in terms of social class,
ethnicity, gender, sexual
orientation, gender identity, age, and cultural identity?
• To what extent does your audience share your own interests
and cultural position? Are you
writing to insiders or to outsiders with regard to you r own
values and beliefs?
Your answer can especially affect your introduction and
conclusion.
• Do your readers need background on your issue, or are they

already in the conversation?
• If you are writing to specific decision makers, are they
currently aware of the problem you are
addressing? If not , how can you get their attention?
• Does your audience care about your issue? If not , how can
you get them to care?
Your answer wil l help you decide the structure and tone of
your argument.
• Are your readers already supportive of your position?
Undecided? Skeptical? Strongly opposed?
• What points of view other than your own will your audience
be weighi ng?
Your answer wil l help determine the content of your argument
and wi ll alert you to extra research
you may need to conduct.
• What weaknesses will audience members find in your
argument?
• What aspects of your position will be most threatening to your
audience and why?
Your answer wil l help you find common ground with you r
audience.
• How are your basic assumptions, values, or beliefs different
from your audience's?
• Despite different points of view on th is issue, where can you
find common ground with
you r audience?
• How might you use common ground to build bridges to your
audience?

80 Chapter 5
research on the obesity crisis in the United States. You have
also researched the
role of sugary soda and energy drinks in promoting heart
disease and diabetes.
Recently health advocates in your city have teamed with
preschool education
advocates to persuade the city council to propose a soda tax.
Revenue from the tax
would be used to improve the city's preschool programs. Your
city council points
to nationwide precedents for soda taxes, citing Philadelphia;
Berkeley, California;
and Cook County, Illinois, which includes Chicago. Other
cities, such as Seattle,
are on the verge of creating such a tax. The tax being proposed
in your city would
raise the price of a twelve-pack of soda by four dollars; the p
rice of a large foun-
tain soda at a fast-food restaurant would go up 35 cents.
As you can expect, the proposed tax is controversial. Opponents
include the
beverage industry, grocery store owners, fast-food restaurants,
truck drivers (who
deliver soda to the stores), and citizens who oppose the
government's telling
private citizens what they should or should not buy. Proponents
include health
advocates and education advocates. Medical and nursing
associations point to the
long-range health benefits of reducing consumption of sugary

drinks. Meanwhile,
education advocates point to the value of improved and
extended preschool pro-
grams made possible by revenue from the soda tax.
Your school 's student nurse association is scheduling a meeting
next week
to produce an advocacy piece in favor of the soda tax. Here is
your dilemma:
You are opposed to the soda tax, not from the perspective of
business owners but
from the perspective of d isproportionate costs to lower -income
city residents.
What bothers you is the fact that the soda tax is regressive,
meaning that it will hit
low-income consumers harder than wealthier consumers. Will
you have enough
courage to sp eak out at the nursing association meeting? After
all, your anti-tax
stance will be unpopular among other nursing students, even
though it m igh t be
applauded by business owners, truck drivers, and the beverage
industry.
As you think about your upcoming speech, you formulate your
audience-
based problem like this:
Problem: How can I create an argument rooted in shared values
with my fel-
low nursing students? How can I reduce my audience's fear that
I am becom-
ing an advocate for the beverage industry? How can I make the
case th at I
share my audience's goals of reducing sugar consumption and
improving

preschool education? How can I show that these goals might be
accomplished
in a fairer way?
Possible bridge-building strategies:
• Show th at I support the health goals of our nursing
association to figh t
obesity-related d iseases by reducing consump tion of sugary
drinks.
• Show that I support the educational goals made reachable by
revenue from
the tax. This revenue w ill make improved preschool education
available for
all children in the city.
• Stress that both my audience and I share a concern for the
welfare of the poor-
est citizens, who will be hit hardest by the tax.
• Make the case th at the tax will eat up a higher proportion of
poor people's
income than wealthier people's income. Research shows that
poorer people
buy more soda than wealthy people. Paying an extra four dollars
for a 12-pack
of soda p uts a substantial strain on a p oor family's budget.
(Wealth y p eople
often choose diet soda or get their sugar fix from syrups in their
espresso

coffee drinks). The cost of improving the city's preschools will
thus be borne
disproportionately by the poor.
• Show that the values underlying the tax are incoherent: If the
tax truly reduces
consumption of soda (the goal of health advocates), then it will
not generate
enough revenue to achieve the goals of the education advocates.
In sum, the
goals of one set of tax proponents are in conflict with the goals
of the other
set of proponents.
• Show that the goal of reducing sugar consumption might be
better achieved
through an aggressive educational campaign. Putting a "sin tax"
on soda
won't be as effective in the long run as raising public awareness
about healthy
diets and the danger of wasted calories.
• Show that the goal of improving preschool education can be
achieved by
establishing a fairer tax that puts a higher burden on wealthier
people who
can afford it.
These thinking notes allow you to develop the following p lan
for your argument:
Our nursing association should take a courageous stand against
the
soda tax
• because a soda tax places a disproportionate burden on low -

income
consumers. (WARRANT: Taxes that primarily burden low-
income consumers are
unfair.)
• because preschool revenue can be raised by a more equitable
tax that burdens
the wealthy more than the poor. (WARRANT: It is fair for
wealthier people to pay
a greater proportion of their income on taxes than the poor.)
• because an educational campaign may be more effective than a
soda tax in
changing long-range diet behaviors. (WARRANT: If alternative
solutions can be
applied to a problem, the one promoting long-range change is
better.)
As this p lan shows, your strategy is to seek reasons whose
warrants your audi-
ence will accept. Even though you oppose the soda tax, your
argument differs
significantly from the pro-business arguments mounted by the
beverage industry.
Whereas their arguments are aimed at undecided voters, your
argument is aimed
specifically at supporters of the tax. You can hope to persuade
them only if you can
build bridges to them with audience-based reasons and appeals
to shared values.
Planning an Audience-Based Argumentative Strategy
Individual task:

1. Choose one of the following cases and plan an audience-
based argumentative strategy. Follow the t hink-
ing process used by the writer of the anti-soda tax argument: (1)
state several problems t hat the writer
must solve to reach t he audience, and (2) develop possible
solutions to those problems.
a. An argument for the right of software companies t o continue
making and sell ing v iolent v ideo
games: Aim the argument at parent s who oppose their ch ildren
playing these games.
(continued)
82 Chapter 5
b. An argument to reverse grade inflation by limiting the
number of As and Bs a professor can give in
a course: A im the argument at students who fear getting low er
grades.
c. An argument supporting the legalization of cocaine: Aim the
argument at readers of Reader's Digest,
a conservative magazine that supports the current war on drugs.
Group task:
Share your plann ing notes with other members of your c lass,
and d iscuss how your sketched argument
would make appeals to ethos and pathos as well as to logos.
Conclusion
In this chapter, we explored ways that writers can strengthen the
persuasiveness of
their arguments by creating appeals to ethos and pathos, by

being attentive to kairos,
by thinking visually, and by building bridges to their readers
through audience-
based reasons. Arguments are more persuasive if readers trust
the writer's cred-
ibility and if the argument appeals to readers' hearts and
imaginations as well as to
their intellects. Attentiveness to kairos keeps the writer attuned
to the dynamics of a
rhetorical situation in order to create the right message at the
right time. Sometimes
images such as drawings or photographs may reinforce the
argument by evoking
strong emotional responses, thus enhancing pathos. Finally, all
these appeals come
together when the writer explicitly focuses on finding audience-
based reasons.
Writing Assignment
Revising a Draft for Ethos, Pathos, and Audience-Based
Reasons
Part 1:
Choose an argument that you have previously written or that
you are currently drafting. Revise the argument
with explicit focus on increasing its appeals to logos, ethos,
pathos, and kairos via audience-based reasons
and other strategies. Consider especially how you might
improve ethos by building bridges to the audience
or improve pathos through concrete language, specific
examples, metaphors, or connotations of words.
Finally, consider the extent to which your reasons are audience-
based.
Or

Create a multimodal argument by adding effective photographs
or images to an argument that you have pre-
v iously written or are currently drafting that could be enhanced
with effective photographs or images. Revise
your argument to include these images, perhaps creating a
desktop-publ ished document that wraps text
around visuals chosen to enhance pathos. Other multimodal
possibilities include transforming your argu-
ment into a speech supported by PowerPoint images (see
Chapter 15, into a poster argument (see Chapter
9), or even into a podcast that includes music.
Part 2:
Attach to your revision or transformed project a reflective letter
explain ing the choices you made in revising
your original argument or in transform ing it using a mu
ltimodal approach. Describe for your instructor the
changes or transformations you made, and explain how or why
your new version enhances your argument's
effectiveness at moving its audience.
Part One Principles of Argument 2 The Core of an Argument:A
Claim with Reasons 3 The Logical Structure of
Arguments:logos 5 Moving Your Audience:Ethos,Pathos,and
Kairos
Week 2: Core Argument Structures
Fallacy Study Guide
Assignment Sheet and Grading Rubric

In order to prepare for the Fallacies Quiz, complete this study
guide with original example and memory/visual
tools you will use to prepare. In order to complete this study
guide, utilize the weekly assigned readings and
the Informal Fallacies Appendix on pages 397-404. If you are
struggling to come up with an original fallacy
example, consult classmates or use online resources. Fill out the
Logical Fallacies study guide completely and
turn it into our online classroom. You are not required to cite
any outside materials for this assignment. Even if
you are taking images or links from online, for this assignment,
I don’t want you to concern yourself with MLA
citation. First and foremost, this is a study guide and personal
tool that I want you to use in order to best
prepare for the upcoming Fallacy quiz. I encourage you to draw
from course assigned readings, our course
textbook, and use any and all online resources to help you
memorize all of the logical fallacies.
Remember: For the Fallacy quiz, you need to be able to 1)
define each fallacy, 2) identify and classify
fallacious arguments and 3) generate examples of fallacies.
Step 1: Download the Logical Fallacies Study Guide Template
Step 2: Fill out a definition, fallacy example, and visual or
memory tool for each Fallacy type
Step 3: Submit Fallacy Study Guide as a .doc or .docx to our
online classroom
Criteria Below Expectation
(0-9)
Meeting Expectations
(10-17)

Outstanding
(18-25)
Total
Points
Nuts and Bolts
Did student fully complete the fallacy study guide template?
Are all 18 Fallacy types
identified and did students provide an original and generative
example? Did students
carefully craft a memory or visual tool to help facilitate
thoughtful studying?
This Study guide is for your benefit in order to prepare yourself
for the summative
Fallacy Quiz. While this assignment is based on completion,
points will be awarded
based on the breadth, quality, and completeness of your study
guide.
__/ 25
Definition Fallacious Example Visual/Memor y Tool
Example: Appeal to False Authority (ethos): This
fallacy happens when you use a popular person,
often a celebrity or star, to support your
argument despite not having any kinds of
expertise/authority.
For example, a celebrity might be a popular
public figure but might not be qualified to sell or

endorse a health product or cultural fad.
Regina George wears
pink on Wednesdays
and only eats carbs so
you should too.
Name:
Instructor:
Course:
Date: DD Month YYYY
Logical Fallacies Study Guide
Definition
Fallacious Example
Visual/Memory Tool
Provide a Clear Definition of what the Fallacy is and what it
looks like in the context of an argument
Generate an original example of this fallacy in the context of an
argument
Find or craft a tool that will help you remember this definition
and example. This may include a visual or image.
Fallacies of Pathos
Argument to the People:

Appeal to Ignorance:
Appeal to Popularity-Bandwagon:
Appeal to Pity:
Red Herring:
Fallacies of Ethos
Appeal to False Authority:
Ad Hominem:

Poisoning the Well:
Straw Man:
Fallacies of Logos
Hasty Generalization:
Part for the Whole:
Post Hoc, Ergo Propter Hoc:

Begging the Question-Circular Reasoning:
False Dilemma-Either/Or:
Slippery Slope:
False Analogy:
Non-Sequitur:
Loaded Label or Definition:

Chapter 2 A Claim with Reasons Learning Objectives

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