2. Goals of Psychological Enquiry
• Like any scientific research, psychological enquiry has the following
goals-: description, prediction, explanation, and control of
behaviour, and application of knowledge so generated, in an
objective manner
• Description- describe a behavior
⮚ This helps in distinguishing a particular behavior from
other behaviors E.g. Study habits- such as attending all
your classes regularly, submitting assignments on time,
planning your study schedule,
⮚ Minute descriptions within a category
⮚ The researcher needs to describe meaning of study habits
3. Goals of Psychological Enquiry
• Prediction-once you are able to understand and
describe a behavior you will know the relation of
particular type of behavior with other types of
behavior
⮚ This helps to forecast under certain conditions
this particular behavior may occur
⮚ Positive relation between the amount of study
time with achievement
⮚ Prediction is more accurate with increase in the
number of persons observed
4. Goals of Psychological Enquiry
• Explanation-
⮚ to know the causal factor or determinants of
behavior,
⮚ Or conditions under which behavior does not
occur
⮚ Identify the antecedent conditions (conditions
that led to the event) ,so that cause- effect relation
could be established
⮚ Why few students more attentive in class ?
⮚ Why some students devote less time for studies
5. Goals of Psychological Enquiry
• Control –if you are able to explain why a
behavior occurs you can control it by making
changes in the antecedent conditions
⮚ By making it happen or – same number of
hours for study
⮚By reducing it ,or – reduce hours
⮚ By enhancing it - Increase the hours
6. Goals of Psychological Enquiry
• Application-
• Bring out positive changes in the lives of
people
• Improve the quality of lives of people , solve
problems in various situations
• Scientific enquiry is conducted to develop new
theories which lead to further research
7. Steps in Conducting Scientific
Research
⮚2 characteristics of scientific research
• Objectivity –refers to when 2 or more
persons conduct an independent study both of
them to a great extent should arrive at the
same conclusion
• Systematic Procedure or steps-4 systematic
steps
8. Steps in Conducting Scientific
Research
1. Conceptualizing a problem-Selects a topic for study,
develops a hypothesis ( tentative answer)
• Then the researcher narrows down the focus and develops
specific questions or problems for study
• Its based on past research, observations, experiences
• In psychology we study diverse range of problems related to
behavior and experiences like
a) Understanding our own behavior
b) Understanding other individual’s behavior
c) Group influences on individual behavior
d) Group behavior
e) Organisational behavior
9. Steps in Conducting Scientific
Research
2.Collecting Data- requires developing research
design and blueprint of the study
A. Participants of the study-adolescents, college
students, teachers, managers
B. Methods for collecting data- observation ,
experimental, correlational, case study method
C. Tools for collecting data- interview schedule,
questionnaire ,observation schedule
D. Procedure for data collection- individual and
group
10. Steps in Conducting Scientific
Research
3. Drawing Conclusion- use statistical
procedure to understand the data.
⮚ It can be done through graphical
representation ( Bar graph, Pie chart,
Cumulative frequency)
⮚Purpose is to verify hypothesis and draw
conclusions
11. Steps in Conducting Scientific
Research
4. Revising Research Conclusion-
⮚Check whether the conclusion supports the
hypothesis if yes then the theory is
confirmed
⮚Or else it is revised ,state an alternative
hypothesis, again test is based on the new data
,conclusions which may be verified by future
researchers
⮚Thus research is a continuous process
12. Alternative paradigms
• Human behavior is predictable ,caused by internal and
external factors ,can be observed, measured and
controlled
• To achieve this goal, psychology till the 20th
century
restricted to the study of overt behavior -observed and
measured
• Recent years a new method known as interpretive
method has emerged.
• It involves more subjective interpretation of the reality
– giving meaning to events and actions and interpret as
they occur in a context
13. Alternative paradigms
• People suffering due to
• external factors ( Tsunami, earthquake)
• internal factors ( illness)
• In such situations objective measurement not possible nor
desirable
• Everyone interprets reality based on past experiences and
contexts
• This method understands the human experiences without
disturbing the natural flow
• Both scientific and interpretive traditions are concerned with
studying behaviour and experiences of others.
• Psychological enquiry also aims in understanding self by
reflecting on one’s own experiences and insights (deeper
understanding of oneself)
14. Nature of Psychological Data
• Data- information regarding an individual’s overt or covert
behavior ,subjective experiences and mental processes
⮚ Data is based on physical and social context and time when the
behavior occurs
⮚ Method of data collection & Characteristics of respondents influence
nature and quality of data
⮚ The method of data collection – survey, interview, experiment
⮚ Characteristics of respondents – individual /group, young /old, male/
female , rural /urban
⮚ Data does not speak for itself but , Inferences are made from the data ,
and it’s made meaningful by placing it in the right context
15. Nature of Psychological Data
• Demographic Information – name, age, gender,
education ,occupation ,caste, religion , residence,
parental education, family income
• Physical Information- ecological conditions ,
housing conditions, size of rooms, facilities at
home ,neighborhood , school, mode of
transportation
• Physiological Data- height ,weight ,heart rate,
level of fatigue, G S R , E E G , sleep , BP, pattern
of dream , reaction time, amount of salivation ,
running and jumping – in animals
16. Nature of Psychological Data
• Psychological Information –intelligence ,
personality , aptitude, interest, creativity,
motivation, psychological disorders, delusions
hallucination, subjective
experiences ,illusions ,emotions
• Data could be collected as yes/no , high /low ,
ranks -1st
,2nd
,3rd
etc
• We also obtain verbal report, observational
records, personal diaries, field notes , archival data
which is analysed using qualitative methods
18. 1.Observational
Method
⮚ Powerful method of enquiry ,
most effective method
⮚ Scientific observation for the
following reasons
1. Selection-one does not
observe all behaviors rather
select particular
behavior ,when and where
and what to observe
⮚ 2 possibilities
⮚ 1- prepare a list of activities
to observe before
⮚ 2- you may like to discover
through observation
20. Observational Method
• Types of Observation
A. Naturalistic Observation vs. Controlled
Observation
▪ Observation is done in natural or real life setting
▪ No manipulation or control of the situation for
observation by the observer
▪ Hospitals , homes , schools, day care centres
▪ Controlled –in lab settings (Refer to 2.1)
21. Observational Method
• Types of Observation
B. Participant vs Non Participant Observation
▪ The observer may become the part of the group
(Participant)
▪In participant observation, the observer takes some time
to establish a rapport with the group so that they start
accepting her/him as one of the group members.
▪ The observer decides to observe the group from a
distance – the person may not be aware of being
observed (Non-Participant)
▪ Install a video camera
22. Observational Method
Disadvantages
1. The presence of another person may bring about a change
in the behavior of people
2. Labor intensive and time consuming, susceptible to
observers' bias
3. Influenced by the values and beliefs about the person or
event – observer’s bias
4. Hence Observer should record the behavior as it happens
and not interpret it.
Advantage
5. Observational method enables to study the behavior of
people in a natural setting
6. Researcher can study behavior at their own pace
23. Experimental Method
⮚ It studies the cause effect relationship between two events or
variables in a controlled setting
⮚ Cause – event being changed or manipulated
⮚ Effect – behavior that changes because of manipulation
⮚ Variable-A stimulus or event which varies and can take different
values and can be measured -Example - Pen , Height ,
Intelligence
⮚ Independent Variable- that variable that can be manipulated and
altered by the experimenter For example, Time spent studying on
student’s test score
⮚ "Time Spent Studying" must be the independent variable
⮚ "Test Score" must be the dependent variable
Dependent Variable – The variable on which the effect of the
independent variable is observed
24. Experimental Method ( Extra)
1. You run an experiment to learn how playing video games
impact a teenager's memory as well as their mood.
In the experiment, while playing video games is your
independent variable,
The teenager's memory, and mood are your two
dependent variables.
2. A car going down different surfaces.
Independent variable: the surface of the slope- rug,
bubble wrap and wood.
Dependent variable: the time it takes for the car to go
down the slope
3. Playing piano music will help babies fall asleep faster.
25. Experimental and Control Groups
Types of groups in experimental method.
• Experimental Group is the group where
members are exposed to the independent
variable manipulation
• Control Group treated in every way like the
experimental group but not manipulated by
the Independent variable
26. Experimental and Control
Groups
In an experiment conducted by Latane and Darley, there were
two experimental groups and one control group.
➔ The participants in the study were sent to three types of rooms.
➔ In one room no one was present (control group).
➔ In the other two rooms, two persons were already seated
(experimental groups)
➔ Two experimental groups-
➔ One group was instructed not to do anything when smoke filled in
the room.
➔ The other group was not given any instructions.
➔ After the experimental manipulation had occurred the performance
of the control group measured in terms of reporting of smoke
was compared with that of the experimental group
27. Experimental and Control Groups
➢It was found that the control group participants
reported in maximum numbers about the
emergency
➢ Followed by the first experimental group members
where the participants were not given any
instructions, and
➢ The second Experimental group (consisting of
confederates) reported the emergency situation, the
least.
28. Experimental and Control Groups
Experimenters use Several control techniques
⮚ Minimise extraneous variables –sound proof and air conditioned
room to eliminate noise and temperature
⮚ Conditions are kept constant – speed of smoke , total amount of
smoke, physical conditions in 3 rooms all kept same
⮚ Distribution of participants are equated- Male and Female ,
rural/urban, caste ,socio economic status
⮚ Counterbalancing technique to minimise sequence effect when
two task to be given in experiment.- A- B . B- A or A,B,B,A
( Participants divided in half one half completing 2 conditions in
one order, the other half completing in reverse order -to see
effects in doing so )
⮚ Random assignments of participants to avoid differences
between groups
29. Experimental and Control Groups
⮚ Strength – It provides a convincing evidence of the cause
effect relationship between two or more variables
⮚ Draw backs
1. They only simulate situations that exist in the outside
world as the labs are highly controlled hence has - Low
external validity hence cannot be applied to real life
situations
2. Not always feasible to study a particular problem
experimentally due to ethical issues
3. Difficult to know and control all the variables
30. Experimental Method
⮚Field Experiments – When certain events are not possible to
study in a lab setting the researcher may choose to go to the field or
natural settings where the phenomenon actually exists.
⮚ A researcher may want to know which method would lead to
better learning among students—lecture or demonstration method.
⮚ Experiment in the school.
⮚ The researcher may select two groups of participants;
⮚ Teach one group by demonstration method
⮚ Another group by the normal teaching method for sometime.
⮚ S/ he may compare their performance at the end of the learning
session.
31. Experimental Method
⮚Quasi ( as if )Experiment – In certain study the
independent variable is selected rather than varied or manipulated by
the experimenter.
⮚ In the experimental group we can have children who lost their
parents in the earthquake
⮚ And in the control group children who experienced the earthquake
but did not lose their parents
⮚ A quasi experiment attempts to manipulate an independent variable in
a natural setting using naturally occurring groups to form
experimental and control groups.
32. Experimental Method
⮚ Drawback
⮚ Field experiments are time consuming and expensive
⮚ Control over variables is less as compared to lab
experiments
33. Experimental Method
⮚ Extra Info
⮚ Field experiments take place in real world settings, using
people who often don't realise they are in an experiment.
Natural experiments do not manipulate the IV.
Instead, they study what happens to the DV when the IV
changes naturally.
⮚ Field experiments allocation is random, Quasi is to do
with naturally occurring events chosen for the study
34. Experimental Method
⮚ Extra Info - Field Experiment
⮚ Hodges and Tizard’s attachment research (1989) compared the long-term
development of children who have been adopted, fostered, or returned to
their mothers - Experimental group
⮚ With a control group of children who had spent all their lives in their
biological families.
35. Experimental Method
⮚ Extra Info - Quasi Experiment
⮚ Let’s say you want to study the effects of a motivational reward on
students who are frequently late to class.
⮚ First, you would choose two classes of similar age, size, and makeup,
then assign both classes a pretest, with research questions such as what
time they arrive every day, reasons for tardiness, and general enjoyment
of the class.
⮚ One class would then receive the motivational reward for being on time,
making this class the intervention group.
⮚ You would give nothing to the second class for arriving on time, making
this class the comparison group.
⮚ You would then administer a posttest with questions assessing the same
factors as the pretest to see if the motivational reward affected tardiness.
36. CoRrelational Research
⮚To understand the relation between 2
variables for prediction purpose
⮚It shows the strength and direction of the
relationship between variables is represented
by a number, known as correlation coefficient
⮚Its value can range from +1.0 through 0.0 to
–1.0.
⮚The correlation between 2 variables could be
positive ,negative or Zero
37. CoRrelational Research
⮚Extra info
⮚If the correlation coefficient is greater than zero, it
is a positive relationship.
⮚If the value is less than zero, it is a negative
relationship.
⮚A value of zero indicates that there is no
relationship between the two variables
38. Correlational Research
• Relationship between 2 variables for prediction
purpose.
⮚Study time – Academic achievement
⮚Intelligence – self esteem
⮚Creativity – Intelligence
• Do not manipulate the variables but see the
relationship
39. CoRrelational Research
• Positive Correlation- +1.0
• Value of 1 variable X increases the values of
variable Y increases
• Value of 1 variable X decreases the values of
variable Y decreases
• Negative Correlation- - 1.0
• Value of 1 variable X increases the values of
variable Y decreases
• Zero Correlation 0.0
• No significant relationship between 2 variables
40. CoRrelational Research
• Positive Correlation- (extra)
• The more time you spend running on a treadmill, the more calories you will
burn.
• The longer your hair grows, the more shampoo you will need
• As the temperature goes up, ice cream sales also go up.
• The more you exercise your muscles, the stronger they get.
• Negative Correlation-
• A student who has many absences has a decrease in grades.
• The more one works, the less free time one has.
• The more time you study or prepare for a test, the fewer mistakes you'll make.
• When you spend more time brushing your teeth, you'll have fewer cavities.
• Zero Correlation
• amount of tea drunk and the level of intelligence
• hair color and musical ability
• shoe size and intelligence:
• birth order and career success
41. Survey Research
⮚ It came into existence to study
opinions ,attitudes and social facts.
⮚ It uses different techniques for
collecting information
⮚ Interview, questionnaires , telephone
surveys ,controlled observations
42. Survey Research
1. Interview
✔ Frequently used in diverse situations
✔ Face to face , one person asks questions
(interviewer ) other answers (interviewee)
✔ An interview is a purposeful activity
conducted to derive factual
information ,opinions ,attitudes etc
43. Survey Research
1. Structured or Standardised interview
2. Unstructured or Non-Standardised
interview
✔ List of questions are prepared beforehand –
this is called interview schedule
44. Survey Research
1. Structured or Standardised interview
✔ Questions are written in a particular
sequence
✔ Interviewer has no liberty to change
questions
✔ Answers are specified in advance -So they
are called close ended questions
45. Interview
Interview Combinations
1. Individual to Individual - one interviewer
interviews 1 person
2. Individual to Group-one interviewer
interviews a group of persons
3. Group to Individual-one group of interviewers
interviews 1 person
4. Group to Group-one group of interviewers
another group of interviewees
46. Survey Research
✔Interviewing is a good skill which requires
proper training
✔Helps in obtaining in-depth information
✔Can be used on children and ill –literates,
flexible and adaptable to individuals
situations
✔Time consuming hence may not be cost
effective
47. Survey Research
• Questionnaire Survey-
✔ Common simple method
✔ Low cost method
✔ Open ended -free to write whatever they want
✔ Close ended questions (Yes/ No , True / False ,
multiple choice )
✔ Sometimes questions are send by mail but poor response
from respondents
✔Used for collecting background and demographic
information , attitude, opinion ,knowledge on a particular
topic
48. Survey Research
• Telephone Survey-
✔Telephone ,SMS
✔Helps in saving time ,used to conduct
surveys
✔Do not know the interviewer hence
uncooperativeness ,reluctant , give
superficial answers
49. Survey Research
2. Unstructured or Non-Standardised
interview
✔ Interviewer has Flexibility in the questions
, and wordings to be asked
✔ Since responses are not specified the
respondent can answer the way he chooses
✔ Answers are not specified - So they are
called open ended questions
50. Survey Research
Advantages are
✔1. Information can be gathered quickly and efficiently
✔2. Public opinions can be obtained as soon as a new issue
arises
Disadvantages are
✔1.Get inaccurate information due to memory lapses or
may not want to let the researcher know what they
believe in about a particular issue
✔2.Individuals also could give information what the
researcher wants to hear
53. Methods in Psychology
• Case Study-
⮚In-depth study of a case, narrative and descriptive
details of a person’s life
⮚Valuable research tool
⮚It could be about a person, group or institution
⮚It used multiple methods to collect information ,as
one method alone is not satisfactory
⮚To understand feelings, fantasies, hopes ,fears ,
experiences , parental upbringing
54. Methods in Psychology
⮚ Valuable tool in the field of clinical psychology and
human development
⮚ Through the process of data collection the researcher
needs to maintain a chain of evidence for linking data
⮚ Researcher should not depend on 1 method, a
combination of 2 or more methods is required to get a
real picture
⮚ If the methods converge –they give the same results one
can be confident about the study
55. Psychological Testing
• Intelligence, aptitude, personality, creativity ,values,attitude etc
are types of test.
• Tests are used for selection, placement , training ,guidance
diagnosis
• A test contains number of questions called items with their
probable responses which is related to a particular characteristic
• The test is generally meant for a particular age group.
• Psychological test is a standardised and objective method of
assessing an individual's mental or behavioral characteristics.
56. Psychological Testing
• Objectivity -refers to when 2 or more persons conduct an independent
study both of them should arrive at the same conclusion
• In order for a test to be objective measure, items should be worded in
such a manner that it conveys the same meaning to different readers
• Instructions , Procedure -Time limit,mode of administration
(Individual/group) environmental conditions ,scoring procedure
should all be spelt earlier.
57. Psychological Testing
• 3 steps for construction of a test – Reliability Validity,
Norms
• Reliability- Consistency of scores obtained by the person
on the same test on 2 different occasions.
• Test Retest Reliability-stability of the test scores over time
• Split Half Reliability-degree of internal consistency ,
items of a test if they are from the same domain should
correlate with each other ( A test can be split in half in several ways, e.g.
first half and second half, or by odd and even numbers. If the two halves of the
test provide similar results this would suggest that the test has internal
reliability.)
58. Psychological Testing
• Validity- Refers to whether the test measures what it
claims to measure
• Finally, Test is standardised when the Norms are
developed - Normal average performance of a group
• Test is administered on a Large group of students -their
normal average performance are set based on age, sex,
place of residence etc
• This helps in comparing the performance of individual
students with others of the same group
• It helps in interpretation of individual scores obtained in a
test .
60. Types of Tests
1. Language –
Verbal –literacy is required to answer as it’s written in
some language
Non Verbal –use of pictures ,symbols
Performance –movement of objects in a particular order
2. Mode of administration – Individual / Group
3. Difficulty Level-
Speed –time limit ,same degree of difficulty
Power –no time limit , increasing order of
difficulty
Majority of the tests are combination of both
63. Analysis of Data
1. Quantitative Method
⮚ Psychological tests, questionnaire ,structured interviews contain
close ended questions
⮚ These questions with responses are given measures
⮚ A score given to each question ,total the scores, use statistical
methods to derive meaning .
⮚ In this process we are converting psychological attributes it into
quantity (numbers)
⮚ The purpose is to compare individual’s score with the group,
compare score of two groups
⮚ Statistical methods enable researcher to make inference and give
meaning to the data
64. Analysis of Data
2. Qualitative Method – Narrative Analysis
⮚ Participant observation or unstructured interview – data is
generally descriptive in nature ,hence data cannot be
converted into scores or subjected to statistical analysis
⮚ Own words, field notes , photographs , interview
responses taped or video recorded ,informal talks
Methods are not contradictory but complementary to each
other
To understand phenomenon in totality , suitable
combinations of both methods are useful
66. Limitations of psychological
enquiry
1. Lack of true Zero point-
Physical measurements start with Zero ,but Psychological
measurements do not have a Zero point
Values in Psychology are not absolute in nature but have
relative value
Absolute - (Extra)
This is how absolute grading works. >75% you get an A. 60-75 it’s B. 50-60, it’s
C and so on.
Relative-(Extra)
Relative grading is dynamic, no fixed passing marks. Gives the faculty more
flexibility, but also more responsibility in deciding how to grade, how to consider
the continuous assessment scores of the students. The highest score in the
class/department is considered as a baseline. Rest of them are graded taking the
ratio of their respective score to highest score.
it hides your score. Say you get 35 in Math and you are the highest you get an
A. It is always better to tell your parents that you got A, rather than telling you
got 35 . Relative grading is a continuous assessment of your performance.
67. Limitations of psychological
enquiry
2. Relative nature of psychological tools-
Psychological tests are developed keeping features of a specific
context, Test developed for Urban students not suitable for
Tribal students
Tests developed for Western context may not be applicable for
Indian context
Such tests need to be properly modified and adapted keeping in
view the characteristics of the context in which they are to be
used. (Refer to example from text)
68. Limitations of psychological
enquiry
3. Subjective interpretation of qualitative data-
Data from qualitative studies are subjective and based on interpretation
of researcher
Interpretation vary from individual to individual, hence qualitative ,field
work should be done by more than 1 investigator and should arrive at a
conclusion.
It will be better off if the respondent too is part of the meaning
making process
69. Ethical Issues
3.Debriefing –leave the study in the same
mental and physical state, reassurance (
anxiety, adverse effects)The researcher
should make efforts to remove any
anxiety or other adverse effects that
participants may have felt as a result of
being deceived in the course of the
study.
4.Sharing of Results of the study- It is
obligatory for the researcher to give the
results to the participants, advantages –
1. fulfill the expectation of the subject
2. will give opinion and as a result will
develop insight
5.Confidentiality of Data-strict confidence ,
should not be passed on, not to record
identity , code numbers given on the
sheet ,identification sheet should be
destroyed once the research is over
