Chapter 2.pptx

The Research
Process:
A Quick
Glance
Chapter 2

Outline
• In this chapter you will learn about:
• The eight-step model for carrying out research
• PHASE I DECIDING WHAT TO RESEARCH
• Step I Formulating a research problem
• PHASE II PLANNING A RESEARCH STUDY
• Step II Conceptualizing a research design
• Step III Constructing an instrument for data collection
• Step IV Selecting a sample
• Step V Writing a research proposal

Cont.
• PHASE III CONDUCTING A RESEARCH STUDY
• Step VI Collecting data
• Step VII Processing and displaying data
• Step VIII Writing a research report

The research process: an eight-step model
• Research methodology is taught as a supporting subject in
several ways in many academic disciplines at various levels
by people committed to a variety of research paradigms.
Though paradigms vary in their contents and substance, their
broad approach to enquiry, in the author’s opinion, is similar.

Cont.
• Although the basic logic of scientific methodology is the same
in all fields, its specific techniques and approaches will vary,
depending upon the subject matter.
• Therefore, the model developed here is generic in nature and
can be applied to a number of disciplines in the social
sciences. It is based upon a practical and step-by-step
approach to a research enquiry and each step provides a
smorgasbord of methods, models and procedures.

Cont.
• Suppose you want to go out for a drive. Before you start, you
must decide where you want to go and then which route to
take.
• If you know the route, you do not need to consult a street
directory, but, if you do not know the route, then you need to
use one. Your problem is compounded if there is more than
one route. You need to decide which one to take.

Cont.
• The research process is very similar to undertaking a journey.
As with your drive, for a research journey there are also two
important decisions to make. The first is to decide what you
want to find out about or, in other words, what research
questions you want to find answers to.
• Having decided upon your research questions or research
problems, you then need to decide how to go about finding
their answers.

Cont.
• The path to finding answers to your research questions
constitutes research methodology. Just as there are posts
along the way as you travel to your destination, so there are
practical steps through which you must pass in your research
journey in order to find the answers to your research
questions (Figure 2.1).

Cont.
• The sequence of these steps is not fixed and with experience
you can change it. At each operational step in the research
process you are required to choose from a multiplicity of
methods, procedures and models of research methodology
which will help you best achieve your research objectives.
This is where your knowledge base of research methodology
plays a crucial role.

Cont.
• Quantitative and qualitative research methodologies differ
both in their underpinning philosophy and, to some extent, in
the methods, models and procedures used.
• Though the research process is broadly the same in both,
quantitative and qualitative research are differentiated in
terms of the methods of data collection, the procedures
adopted for data processing and analysis, and the style of
communication of the findings.

Cont.
• For example, if your research problem lends itself to a qualitative
mode of enquiry, you are more likely to use the unstructured
interview or observation as your method of data collection.
• When analysing data in qualitative research, you go through the
process of identifying themes and describing what you have found
out during your interviews or observation rather than subjecting
your data to statistical procedures. Table 2.1 summarises the
differences between qualitative and quantitative research.

Difference with respect to Quantitative Research Qualitative Research
Underpinning philosophy
Rationalism: ‘That human
beings achieve knowledge
because of their
capacity to reason’ (Bernard
1994: 2)
Empiricism: ‘The only
knowledge that human beings
acquire is from sensory
experiences’ (Bernard 1994: 2)
Approach to Inquiry
Structured/rigid/predetermine
d methodology
Unstructured/flexible/open
methodology
Main purpose of investigation
To quantify extent of variation
in a phenomenon, situation,
issue, etc.
To describe variation in a
phenomenon, situation, issue,
etc.
Measurement of variables
Emphasis on some form of
either measurement or
classification of variables
Emphasis on description of
variables

Difference with
respect to
Quantitative Research Qualitative Research
Sample size Emphasis on greater sample size Fewer cases
Focus of enquiry
Narrows focus in terms of extent of
enquiry, but assembles required
information from a greater number
of respondents
Covers multiple issues but
assembles required information
from fewer respondents
Dominant research
value
Reliability and objectivity (value-
free)
Authenticity but does not claim to
be value-free
Dominant research
topic
Explains prevalence, incidence,
extent, nature of issues, opinions
and attitude; discovers regularities
and formulates theories
Explores experiences, meanings,
perceptions and feelings

Difference with
respect to
Quantitative Research Qualitative Research
Analysis of data
Subjects variables to frequency
distributions, cross-tabulations
or other statistical procedures
Subjects responses, narratives or
observational data to identification of
themes and describes these
Communication of
findings
Organization more analytical in
nature, drawing inferences and
conclusions, and testing magnitude
and strength of a relationship
Organization more descriptive and
narrative in nature

Cont.
• Figure 2.2 shows the proposed model. The tasks identified in arrows
are the operational steps you need to follow in order to conduct a
study, quantitative or qualitative.
• Topics identified in rectangles are the required theoretical knowledge
needed to carry out these steps. The tasks identified in circles are the
intermediary steps that you need to complete to go from one step to
another. It is important for a beginner to work through these steps in the
proposed sequence, though, as already stated, with experience you do
not need to follow the sequence.

Phase I: deciding what to
research

Step I: formulating a research problem
• Formulating a research problem is the first and most important step in
the research process. A research problem identifies your destination: it
should tell you, your research supervisor and your readers what you
intend to research.
• The more specific and clearer you are the better, as everything that
follows in the research process – study design, measurement
procedures, sampling strategy, frame of analysis and the style of writing
of your dissertation or report – is greatly influenced by the way in which
you formulate your research problem. Hence, you should examine it
thoroughly, carefully and critically.

Cont.
• The main function of formulating a research problem is to decide what
you want to find out about. It is extremely important to evaluate the
research problem in the light of the financial resources at your disposal,
the time available, and your own and your research supervisor’s
expertise and knowledge in the field of study.
• It is equally important to identify any gaps in your knowledge of relevant
disciplines, such as statistics required for analysis. Also, ask yourself
whether you have sufficient knowledge about computers and software if
you plan to use them.

Phase II: planning a research
study

Step II: conceptualizing a research design
• An extremely important feature of research is the use of appropriate
methods. Research involves systematic, controlled, valid and rigorous
exploration and description of what is not known and establishment of
associations and causation that permit the accurate prediction of
outcomes under a given set of conditions.
• It also involves identifying gaps in knowledge, verification of what is
already known and identification of past errors and limitations. The
strength of what you find largely rests on how it was found.

Cont.
• The main function of a research design is to explain how you
will find answers to your research questions. The research
design sets out the specific details of your enquiry.
• A research design should include the following: the study
design per se and the logistical arrangements that you
propose to undertake, the measurement procedures, the
sampling strategy, the frame of analysis and the time-frame.

Note:
• (You should not be confused between
study design and research design.
Note that the study design is one part of
the research design. It is the design of the
study itself, whereas the research design
also includes other parts which constitute
the research process.)

Cont.
• For any investigation, the selection of an appropriate research
design is crucial in enabling you to arrive at valid findings,
comparisons and conclusions. A faulty design results in misleading
findings and is therefore tantamount to wasting human and
financial resources.
• In scientific circles, the strength of an empirical investigation is
primarily evaluated in the light of the research design adopted.
When selecting a research design it is important to ensure that it is
valid, workable and manageable.

Cont.
• Select or develop the design that is most suited to your study.
You must have strong reasons for selecting a particular
design; you must be able to justify your selection; and you
should be aware of its strengths, weaknesses and limitations.
In addition, you will need to explain the logistical details
needed to implement the suggested design.

Step III: constructing an instrument for data
collection
• Anything that becomes a means of collecting information for your
study is called a ‘research tool’ or a ‘research instrument’, for
example observation forms, interview schedules, questionnaires
and interview guides.
• The construction of a research instrument is the first ‘practical’
step in carrying out a study. You will need to decide how you are
going to collect data for the proposed study and then construct a
research instrument for data collection.

Cont.
• If you are planning to collect data specifically for your study
(primary data), you need either to construct a research instrument
or to select one that has already been constructed.
• If you are using secondary data (information already collected for
other purposes), you will need to identify what information is
needed and then develop a form to extract the required data. In
order to determine what information is required, you need to go
through the same process as for primary data, described above.

Cont.
• Field testing (or pre-testing) a research tool is an integral part
of instrument construction. As a rule, the pre-test of a
research instrument should not be carried out on the sample
of your study population but on a similar population which you
are not proposing to study.
• If you are planning to use a computer for data analysis, you
may wish to provide space for coding the data on the
research instrument.

Step IV: selecting a sample
• The accuracy of your findings largely depends upon the way you select
your sample. The basic objective of any sampling design is to minimise,
within the limitation of cost, the gap between the values obtained from
your sample and those prevalent in the study population.
• The underlying premise in sampling is that a relatively small number of
units, if selected in a manner that they genuinely represent the study
population, can provide – with a sufficiently high degree of probability –
a fairly true reflection of the sampling population that is being studied.

Cont.
• When selecting a sample you should attempt to achieve two
key aims of sampling the avoidance of bias in the selection of
a sample; and the attainment of maximum precision for a
given outlay of resources.
• There are three categories of sampling design:
random/probability sampling designs, non-random/non-
probability sampling designs and ‘mixed’ sampling design.

Cont.
• There are several sampling strategies within the first two
categories. You need to be acquainted with these sampling
designs – the strengths and weaknesses of each and the
situations in which they can or cannot be applied – in order to
select the one most appropriate for your study.
• The type of sampling strategy you use will influence your ability to
make generalisations from the sample findings about the study
population, and the type of statistical tests you can apply to the
data.

Step V: writing a research proposal
• Having done all the preparatory work, the next step is to put everything
together in a way that provides adequate information about your
research study, for your research supervisor and others. This overall
plan, called a research proposal, tells a reader about your research
problem and how you are planning to investigate.
• Broadly, a research proposal’s main function is to detail the operational
plan for obtaining answers to your research questions. In doing so it
ensures – and reassures the readers of – the validity of the
methodology to obtain answers accurately and objectively.

Cont.
• Universities and other institutions may have differing
requirements regarding the style and content of a research
proposal, but the majority of institutions would require most of
what is set out here. Requirements may also vary within an
institution, from discipline to discipline or from supervisor to
supervisor.
• A research proposal must tell you, your research supervisor
and a reviewer the following information about your study:

Cont.
WHAT YOU ARE
PROPOSING TO DO
HOW YOU PLAN TO
PROCEED
WHY YOU SELECTED THE
PROPOSED STRATEGY

Cont.
A STATEMENT OF THE
OBJECTIVES OF THE
STUDY
A LIST OF
HYPOTHESES, IF YOU
ARE TESTING ANY
THE STUDY DESIGN
YOU ARE PROPOSING
TO USE
THE SETTING FOR
YOUR STUDY
THE RESEARCH
INSTRUMENT(S) YOU
ARE PLANNING TO
USE

Cont.
information on
sample size and
sampling design
information on data
processing
procedures
an outline of the
proposed chapters
for the report
the study’s
problems and
limitations
the proposed time-
frame

Phase III: conducting a
research study

Step VI: collecting data
• Having formulated a research problem, developed a study design,
constructed a research instrument and selected a sample, you then
collect the data from which you will draw inferences and conclusions for
your study.
• Many methods could be used to gather the required information. As a
part of the research design, you decided upon the procedure you
wanted to adopt to collect your data. In this phase you actually collect
the data. For example, depending upon your plans, you might
commence interviews, mail out a questionnaire, conduct nominal/focus
group discussions or make observations.

Step VII: processing and displaying data
• The way you analyse the information you collected largely
depends upon two things: the type of information (descriptive,
quantitative, qualitative or attitudinal); and the way you want
to communicate your findings to your readers.
• In addition to the qualitative–quantitative distinction, it is
important for data analysis that you consider whether the data
is to be analysed manually or by a computer.

• If your study is purely descriptive, you can write your dissertation/report on the
basis of your field notes, manually analyse the contents of your notes (content
analysis), or use a computer program such as SPPS, NUD*IST N6, NVivio or
Ethnograph for this purpose.
• If you want quantitative analysis, it is also necessary to decide upon the type
of analysis required (i.e. frequency distribution, cross-tabulations or other
statistical procedures, such as regression analysis, factor analysis and
analysis of variance) and how it should be presented. You will also need to
identify the variables to be subjected to these statistical procedures.

Step VIII: writing a research report
• There are two broad categories of reports: quantitative and
qualitative. As mentioned earlier, the distinction is more
academic than real as in most studies you need to combine
quantitative and qualitative skills. Nevertheless, there are
some solely qualitative and some solely quantitative studies.

Cont.
• Writing the report is the last and, for many, the most difficult step
of the research process. This report informs the world what you
have done, what you have discovered and what conclusions you
have drawn from your findings. If you are clear about the whole
process, you will also be clear about the way you want to write
your report.
• Your report should be written in an academic style and be divided
into different chapters and/or sections based upon the main
themes of your study.

Chapter 2.pptx

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