Chapter 7 learning

Indian Environment:
The Changing Scenario
UNIT 6 LEARNING
Objectives
After going through this unit, you should be able to:
• understand the nature of learning process
• explain the characteristics of the behaviourist and cognitive approaches to
learning
• differentiate between Pavlovian and Skinnerian conditioning
• explain and evaluate the technique of behaviour modification
• explain the practical relevance of the socialisation process
• understand the concept of the learning organisation
Structure
6.1 Introduction
6.2 What is Learning?
6.3 Approaches to Learning
6.3.1 The Behaviourist Approach to Learning
6.3.2 The Cognitive Approach to Learning
6.4 Training (Transfer of Learning)
6.5 Behaviour Modification Technique
6.6 Behaviour Modification versus Socialisation
6.7 Learning Organisation
6.8 Knowledge Management
6.9 Self-Assessment Questions
6.10 Further Readings
6.1 INTRODUCTION
The process of learning has great value for enriching human life in all spheres of life.
All activities and behaviours that make personal, social and economic life peaceful
and pleasurable are learned. Learning definitely affects human behaviour in
organisations. There is little organisational behaviour that is not either directly or
indirectly affected by learning. For example, a worker's skill, a manager's attitude, a
supervisor's motivation and a secretary's mode of dress are all learned. Our ability to
learn is also important to organisations peroccupied with controlled performance.
Employees have to know what they are to do, how they are to do it, how well they
are expected to do it, and the consequences of achieving good or poor levels of
performance. Thus, learning theories have influenced a range of organisational
practices concerning:
the induction of new recruits
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the design and delivery of job training
the design of payment systems-
how supervisors evaluate and provide feedback on employee performance
the design of forms of learning organisation 35

Social Processes and Issues
It is clear that theories of learning have significant practical implications. However,
this is one of the most fundamental and controversial topics in psychology. The
extremes of this controversy will be explained later, in the form of behaviourist and
cognitive theories of learning.
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The concept of the learning organisation became popular during the 1990s. The
learning organisation is a configuration of structures and policies which encourage
individual learning, with individual and organisational benefits. The organisation
itself can also be regarded as an entity which is capable of learning independently of
its members. Knowledge has thus become a more important asset for many
organisations than materials and products. We will discuss the concept of the learning
organisation later in a seperate unit.
6.2 WHAT IS LEARNING?
Learning covers virtually all behaviours and is concerned with the acquisition of
knowledge, attitudes and values, emotional responses (such as happiness and fear),
and motor skills (such as operating a computer keyboard or riding a bicycle). We can
learn incorrect facts or pick up bad habits in the same way that we learn correct facts
and acquire good habits. It refers to a spectrum of changes that occur as a result of
one's experience. Learning may be defined as "any relatively permanent change in
behaviour or behavioural potential produced by experience". It may be noted here
that some behavioural changes take place due to the use of drugs, alcohol, or fatigue.
Such changes are temporary. They are not considered learning. Therefore, changes
are due to practice and experience, and relatively permanent, alone are illustrative of
learning.
In the definition given above, it is clear that the process of learning has certain
distinctive characteristics. These are:
(i)
(ii)
(iii)
First, learning always involves some kind of experience. These experiences may
be derived from inside the body or they may be sensory, arising outside. The task of
inferring whether or not learning has taken place may be an obvious one, but
observable behaviour may not always reveal learning.
It is important to distinguish between two types of learning. Procedural learning or
'knowing how', concerns your ability to carry out particular skilled actions such as
riding a horse. Declarative learning or `knowing that', concerns your store of factual
knowledge such as an understanding of the history of our use of the horse.
Second, the behavioural changes that take place due to learning are relatively
permanent. Behaviour can be changed temporarily by many other factors and in ways
which we would not like to call learning. These other factors include growing up or
maturation (in children), aging (in adults), drugs, alcohol and fatigue. For example,
you must have noticed that whenever one takes a sedative or drug or alcohol, one's
behaviour changes. Each one of these drugs affect physiological functions leading to
certain changes in behaviour. Such changes are temporary in nature and disappear as
the effect of drugs wears out.
Third, learning cannot be observed directly. We can only observe a person's
behaviour and draw the inference from it that learning has taken place.
A distinction has to be made between learning and performance. Performance is
evaluated by some quantitative and some qualitative measures of output. For
example, the number of calls a sales representative makes to customers or the quality
of a manager's chairing of a committee meeting. But, learning acts as a constraint on
the outcome. Normally, we cannot perform any better than we have learned, though
there are occasions when the right motivational disposition and a supportive
environment helps to raise the level of performance. Researchers have found that
increased

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motivation may improve our performance up to a point but, beyond this, increased
motivation may cause a lowering of the level of performance.
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6.3 APPROACHES TO LEARNING
This unit explains two current and influential approaches to learning, based on
behaviourist psychology and cognitive psychology. These theoretical perspectives are
in many ways contradictory, but they can also be viewed as complementary. It may
be mentioned here that these two perspectives have very different implications for
organisation and management practice.
The two approaches are based on the same empirical data, but their interpretations of
these data are radically different. These approaches are summarised in Table 1.
Table 1: Behaviourist and Cognitives Perspectives on Learning : A Comparison
Behaviourist, stimulus-response Cognitive, information processing
• studies only observable behaviour
• behaviour is determined by learned
sequences of muscle movements
• we learn habits
• problem solving occurs by trial and
error
• dull, boring but amenable to
research?
also studies mental processes
behaviour is determined by memory,
mental processes and expectations
we learn cognitive structures and
alternative ways to achieve our goals
problem solving also involves insight
and understanding
rich, interesting but complex, vague and
unresearchable?
6.3.1 The Behaviourist Approach to Learning
The oldest theory of learning states that ideas that are experienced together tend to be
associated with each other. Behaviourist psychologists now speak of the association
between stimulus and response. Learning is a result of experience. We use
knowledge of the results of past behaviour to change, modify and improve our
behaviour in future. We cannot learn without appropriate feedback. Behaviourists
and cognitive psychologists agree that experience affects behaviour but disagree over
how this happens.
Feedback may be either rewarding or punishing. Common sense suggests that if a
particular behaviour is rewarded, then it is more likely to be repeated. If it is.
punished
or ignored, it is more likely to be avoided. This observation is encapsulated in the
behaviourists" law of effect' which simply states that we learn to repeat behaviours
that have favourable consequences and to avoid behaviours that lead to punishment
or to other unfavourable or neutral consequences.
The American psychologist John B. Watson introduced the term `behaviourism' in
1913. Behaviourists argue that nothing of psychological importance happens between
the stimulus and the response. On the other hand, cognitive theory argues that
something of considerable psychological importance happens between stimulus and
response.
The development of associations between stimuli and responses happens in two
different ways known as Pavlovian conditioning and Skinnerian conditioning.
Pavlovian conditioning is also known as classical and as respondent conditioning.
The concept and related conditioning techniques were developed by the Russian.

physiologist Ivan Petrovich Pavlov. Pavlov'
s work with dogs is well-known. Dog
owners are still trained today in the use of classical conditioning methods. If you
show meat to a dog, it will produce saliva. The meat is the stimulus, the saliva is the
response. The meat is an unconditioned stimulus (US), because the dog salivates
naturally. Similarly, the saliva is an unconditioned response (UR). Unconditioned
responses are also called reflexes. Your pupils contract when light is shown into your
eyes. Your lower leg jerks when you are struck just below the knee cap. These are
typical human reflexes. Humans also salivate naturally-another unconditioned
response-at the sight of and smell of food.
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Suppose we now ring a bell when we show the meat to the dog. Do this often enough
and the dog will associate the bell with the meat. Eventually the dog will start to
salivate at the sound of the bell without food being present. The bell is a conditioned
stimulus (CS) and the saliva is now a conditioned response (CR). The dog has now
learned from that experience to salivate at the sound of a bell as well as the sight of
food. All kinds of stimuli can be conditioned in this way.
This relationship of conditioned stimulus (CS), unconditioned stimulus (US),
conditioned response (CR) and unconditioned response (UR) are shown in Table 2.
Table 2: Relationship of Stages of Conditioning and Operations
Suppose we now stop giving meat to the dog after the bell. The dog will continue to
salivate at the sound of the bell alone. But, if we continue to do this, the association
between the conditioned stimulus and conditioned response eventually suffers
extinction.
It may be mentioned here that the conditioned response may also be invoked by
stimuli similar to the original conditioned stimulus, such as a bell with a different
pitch. This phenomenon is called stimulus generalisation. A complementary
phenomenon, stimulus discrimination, can also be demostrated by conditioning the
dog to salivate at a hell of one pitch, but not at another.
The concept of generalisation accounts for our ability to react to novel situations
where we perceive similarities to familiar situations. For example, the personnel
manager when dealing with a new problem, may see certain similarities between it
and a past problem and as a consequence is able to draw inferences from the past
situation to illuminate the present. This is an act of generalisation on the part of the
personnel manager. On the other hand;, discrimination is evident when a car
manufacturer highlights the positive design features of a particular car when
compared with similarly priced competitive models.
However, despite the theoretical possibility of the widespread applicability of
classical conditioning, most modern theorists agree that it represents only a very
small part of total human learning.
Skinnerian conditioning is also known as instrumental and as operant conditioning. It
was discovered by the American psychologist B.F. Skinner. Instrumental
conditioning demonstrates how new behaviours or responses become established
through association with particular stimuli.

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Given a particular context, any behaviour that is rewarded or reinforced will tend to
be repeated in that context. Skinner put a rat into a box (now known as a `Skinner
box') with a lever inside which, when pressed, gave the animal food. The rat was not
taught to press the lever. However, in the process of wandering around the box, the
rat eventually nudges the lever. That random behaviour is reinforced with food and it
is likely to happen again.
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Skinnerian conditioning is also called instrumental conditioning because it is related
to behaviours that are instrumental in getting some material reward. Skinner's rat thus
has to be under the influence of some drive before it can be conditioned in this way.
His rats are hungry when they went into his box and their behaviour led to a desired
reward.
Skinner argued that animals and humans do behave in the absence of specific stimuli.
In fact, most human behaviour is of this kind, according to Skinner. Behaviours
emitted. in the absence of identifiable stimuli are called operants. Operant
conditioning explains how new patterns of behaviour become established.
Respondent conditioning does not alter the animal's behaviour, only the behaviour's
timing.
Skinner also studied numerous variations on the operant conditioning theme. One
important variation concerns the occasional reward of desired behaviour rather than
delivering rewards in a continuous and regular manner. This phenomenon mirrors
real life more closely than the laboratory experiment. For example, why do gamblers
keep playing when they lose? Life is full of examples that demonstrate the power of
intermittent reinforcement. In other words, desired behaviour can be maintained
without regular and consistent reinforcement every time that it occurs.
The pattern and timing of rewards for desired behaviour is known as the schedule of
reinforcement. A schedule of reinforcement establishes the pattern and frequency of
rewards contingent on the display of desirable behaviour. There are two main classes
of intermittent reinforcement, concerning interval schedules and ratio schedules,
which are summarised in Table 3.
It may be mentioned here that the fixed ratio and fixed internal schedules and the
variable ratio and variable interval schedules are not the only methods of
Table 3: Schedules of Reinforcement
Schedule Description Implications
Continuous
Fixed ratio
Variable ratio
Fixed interval
Variable interval
reinforcement after every
correct response
reinforcement after a
predetermined number of
correct responses
reinforcement after a
random number of correct
Responses
reinforcement of a correct
response after a
predetermined period
reinforcement of a correct
response after random
periods
can establish high performance,
but can also lead to satiation;
rapid extinction when
reinforcement is withheld
tends to generate high rates of
desired responses
can produce a high response
rate that is resistant to
Extinction
can produce uneven response
patterns, slow following
reinforcement, vigorous
immediately preceding
Reinforcement
can produce a high response
rate that is resistant to
extinction

administering rewards. Many other possible combinations exist. However, these four
schedules are the way most employees is today's organisations are reinforced. Much
of the learning and resulting behaviour of every worker, supervisor, sales person, and
manager is determined by when and how they are reinforced.
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Understanding and then applying what is known about the administration of
reinforcement can be of great assistance to modern human resource managers. In
fact, one of the most important functions of all managers may well be the way they
administer reinforcement to their people.
Skinner explained the development of complex patterns of behaviour with the theory
of operant conditioning. This shows how our behaviour is shaped by our
environment, by our experiences in that environment and by the selective rewards
and punishments that we receive. He argued that thinking, problem solving and the
acquisition of language are dependent on these simple conditioning processes.
Operant conditioning has been enormously influential. It has led to the widespread
use of programmes learning, a technique of instruction designed to reinforce correct
responses in the learner and to let people learn at their own pace. The behaviour
modification techniques described later in this unit are also based on Skinner's ideas.
It is generally accepted that reinforcing desired behaviour is more effective than
punishing undesirable behaviour. However, C.C. Walters and J.E. Grusek (1977)
suggested after a review of research that punishment can be effective if it meets the
following conditions:
• the punishment should be quick and short;
• it shoule be administered immediately after the undesirable behaviour;
• it should be limited to its intensity;
• it should be specifically related to behaviour and not to character traits;
• it should be restricted to the context in which the undesirable behaviour occurs;
• it should not send `mixed messages' about what is accepted behaviour; and
• penalties should take the form of withdrawal of rewards, not physical pain.
Activity 1
To what extent should the punishment criteria identified above be used by managers
when disciplining employees in an organisational context?
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6.3.2 The Cognitive Approach to Learning
The rewards and punishments that behaviourists call reinforcement work in more
complex ways than conditioning theories suggest. Reinforcement is always
knowledge or feedback about the success of past behaviour. Feedback is information
that can be used to modify or maintain previous behaviours. However, this
information has to be perceived, interpreted, given meaning and used in decisions
about future behaviours. The feedback has to be processed. Thus, cognitive learning
theories are also called information-processing theories.
This approach draws concepts from the field of cybernetics which was established by
the American mathematician Norbert Wiener. He defined cybernetics as `
the science
of communication in the animal and in the machine'. One central idea of cybernetics
is the notion of the control of system performance through feedback. These theories
of learning are based on cybernetic analogy.

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The elements of a cybernetic feedback control system are outlined in Figure 1
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Figure 1: The elements of a cybernetic. feedback control system
The cybernetic analogy claims that this control loop is a model of what goes on
inside the mind. For standard, read motive, purpose, intent or goal. The output is
behaviour. The senses are our measuring devices. Our perceptual process is the
comparator which organises and imposes meaning on the sensory data, thus
controlling behaviour in pursuit of given objectives.
We have in our minds some kind of `internal representation' or `schema' of ourselves
and the environment in which we function. This internal representation is used in a
purposive way to determine our behaviour. This internal representation is also called
the image, also known as the individual's perceptual world.
Our behaviour is purposive. We formulate plans for achieving our purposes. The plan
is a set of mental instructions for guiding the required behaviour. For example, within
the master plan (get a qualification), there are likely to be a number of sub-plans
(submit assignments on time, pass this course, make new friends, etc.). We can use
information on how we are doing- feedback- to update our internal representation
and to refine and adapt our plans. Feedback comes in different forms. These are:
(i)
(ii)
(iii)
(iv)
Intrinsic feedback is information which comes from within our bodies, from the
muscles, joints, skin and other internal mechanisms such as that concerned with
maintaining balance when walking.
Extrinsic feedback is information which comes from our environment such as
the visual and aural information needed to drive a car.
Concurrent feedback is information which arrives during our behaviour and
which can be used to control behaviour as it unfolds.
Delayed feedback is information which is received after a task is completed and
which can be used to influence future performance.
These different forms of feedback can be understood with the help of the following
example. When you submit an assignment, intrinsic feedback is of limited value.
Extrinsic feedback from your evaluator is what matters and feedback is typically
delayed rather than concurrent. Evaluators, of course, cannot provide concurrent
feedback while you are submitting an assignment, but the longer the delay, the less
effective the feedback is likely to be.
People generally have an intense desire to know how they are doing, especially if
they have some degree of achievement motivation. It is generally accepted that
feedback enhances individual performance. A recent comprehensive review of thirty
laboratory and forty-two field experiments concluded that objective feedback had a
positive effect. In general, feedback should be as positive, immediate, graphic and
specific as possible to be effective.
A general guideline regarding feedback about performance is that it can be an
effective positive reinforcer. For example, a supervisor faced with the problem of
people taking unscheduled breaks successfully used feedback to reinforce them for

staying on the job, The supervisor calculated the exact cost for each worker in the
unit (in terms of lost group piece-rate pay) every time any one of them took an
unscheduled break. This information regarding the relatively significant amount of
lost pay when any one of them took an unscheduled break was fed back to the
employees of the unit. After this feedback, staying on the job increased in frequency
and taking unscheduled breaks dramatically decreased. In this case, feedback pointed
out the contingency that staying on the job meant more money.
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Activity 2
From your own experience, identify an example of each of the four forms of
feedback here. What changes in that feedback would be required for you to be able to
improve your performance (on this course, at sparts, etc.)?
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It may be noted here that feedback, rewards and punishments and knowledge of
results also have a motivating effect on behaviour rather than simply a reinforcing
effect. Several writers on motivation have argued that opportunities to learn new
skills and knowledge, to understand more, to develop more effective ways of living
and coping with our environment, are intrinsically motivating. The American
psychologist Robert W. White (1959) suggests that we have a need to develop
`competence' in dealing with our environment and that gives us satisfaction.
6.4 TRAINING (TRANSFER OF LEARNING)
The basic psychological principle underlying the transfer of learning is that of
generalisation of stimuli referred to earlier in connection with operant conditioning.
When a stimulus is similar to the original conditioned stimulus, it tends to elicit the
same response.
Transfer
The transfer of learning or training is the process by which the effects of training n
one form of activity are transferred to another form. Many educational programmes
are built on the assumption that people have the ability to transfer what they have
learned in one situation to another. If transfer was not possible, there would be little
justification for formal education; every element of knowledge, skill and capacity
would have to be taught separately. Different types of transfer take place such as:
(i)
(ii)
(iii)
Lateral Transfer: It involves performance at the same level of complexity as the
initial learning, but in a different context. For example, if a child has classroom
experience of arithmetic calculations with the aid of blocks, this understanding could
be transferred laterally at home if the child, having removed two balls from a box of
six, realises that four are left.
Sequential Transfer: It occurs when we build on a learning foundation. A fact
learned today in a subject may have some relationship to a fact or idea learned
tomorrow. For example, multiplication draws on an understanding of addition.
Vertical Transfer: It occurs when learning at one level, such as comprehending
facts about addition and substraction, facilitates the solution of problems utilising
these arithmetic operations.

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(iv)
(v)
Positive Transfer: When training or performance in one task can be transferred
to another, positive transfer is said to occur. For example, learning the skills ( ice-
skating may aid learning the skills of roller-skating.
Negative Transfer: It is said to occur when previous learning in a particular task
hinders learning in another task. This is obvious when a motorist from India switches
from driving on the left-hand side of the road to the right-hand side while holidaying
in France.
Skill Acquisition
Employee training can be defined as the systematic acquisition of skills, rules,
concepts or attitudes that result in improved performance on the job. Employee
training may be very specific as in the case of showing a telephone operator how to
handle long-distance calls, or it may be less concrete as in training a manager to
adopt a particular leadership style.
The acquisition of skilled performance is influenced by a number of factors. Most of
these factors were proposed following simulated training sessions rather than real-life
training situations. However, they command a certain degree of acceptance.
These are:
Knowledge of Results or Feedback
In the last section, we have seen the effect of feedback on individual performance.
Knowledge of results, preferably with appropriate comments, is important to the
manager who wants to know how well operations are progressing so that remedial
action can be taken, if necessary, and objectives modified accordingly. Feedback
should be appropriate to the stage of learning that the learner has reached and it
should concentrate on those aspects of the task that are critical for good performance.
A training can become very dependent on feedback and removing it could cause a
deterioration in performance.
Part or Whole Methods
In the part method, the task is broken down into sections and this method is suitable
where learning does not suffer from compartmentalising a body of knowledge.
Typing is an example of an activity best learned by this method where each letter is
practised on the keyboard before attempting whole words.
On the other hand, when the whole method is used, the total task is practised until
mastered. Tasks that are best learned by this method include those where integration
and rhythm are the critical features of-the skill. For example, some tasks like learning
to drive a car would lose their meaning if broken into chunks.
Massed or Distributed Practice
Should the elements of learning a task be massed together or should they be spaced
or distributed over a period of time? When the student is cramming in preparation for
an examination, he or she is engaged in massed practice. In such circumstances, some
students could be highly motivated with less time to forget the study material.
However, for some people, massed practice can result in boredom and fatigue and
impair performance.
Distributed or paced practice seems to be more beneficial for motor skill learning (for
example, typing) than for verbal or more complex learning. But, as the material to be
learned increases in quantity and difficulty, then paced practice has a useful function.

6.5 BEHAVIOUR MODIFICATION TECHNIQUE
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Behaviourism has led to the development of the technique of behaviour
modification. Behaviour modification is a technique for encouraging desired
behaviours and discouraging unwanted behaviours using operant conditioning. This
technique was first used for the treatment of mental disorders, learning disorders and
phobias, and for accident and trauma recovery. Applications of this technique have
been extended to organisational settings also.
Fred Luthans developed organistional behaviour modification or 'O.B. Mod.', which
consists of five main steps:
Identify the critical, observable and measurable work performance-related
behaviours to be encouraged.
(i)
(ii)
(iii)
(iv)
(v)
Measure the current frequency of those behaviours to provide a baseline
against which to measure improvement.
Establish the triggers or antecedents for those behaviours and also establish
the consequences - positive, neutral and negative-that follow from these
behaviours.
Develop an intervention strategy to strengthen desired behaviours and weaken
dysfunctional behaviours through the use of positive reinforcement (e.g.
money, recognition) and corrective feedback. Punishment may be necessary in
some instances to inhibit unsafe behaviour.
Evaluate systematically the effectiveness of the approach in changing and
improving performance compared with the original baseline measurement.
Behaviour modification, as a means of changing employee behaviour, can appear
particularly attractive to managers who are in a position to manipulate the
reinforcement of different employee behaviours. This approach argues that what has
to be changed is behaviour and to achieve this one needs to know very little about the
complex internal workings of the people concerned.
For example, desirable workplace behaviours could include working weekends to
meet deadlines, attending training to develop new skills and being helpful to
colleagues. Undesirable behaviours could include lateness, the production of poor
quality items and being rude to customers. Behaviour modification uses the
principles of reinforcement to el itninF'.te undesirable behaviour and to increase the
frequency of desired work behaviour.
Suppose a manager wants more work assignment completed on time and fewer
submitted beyond deadline. Tabel 4 summarises the behaviour modification options
available with the manager:
Table 4: Behaviour Modification Options
Procedure Operationlisation Behavioural Effect
Positive
Reinforcement
Negative
Reinforcement
Punishment
Extinction
manager compliments employee
each time work is completed on
schedule
unpaid overtime continues to be
mandatory until work is completed
on schedule, . then overtime is
rewarded
manager asks -
employee to stay
latewhen work is not handed in on
schedule
manager ignores the employee
when work is handed in late
increases desired
Behaviour
increases desired
behaviour
eliminates or decreases
undesired behaviour
eliminates or decreases
undesired behaviour

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Fred Luthans and colleagues describe the application of 'O.B. Mod.'
in a Russian
textile mill. To improve worker productivity, two interventions were used. First,
workers were offered extrinsic rewards for performance improvement, including
jeans, T-shirts with popular logos, music tapes, food, etc. Second, workers were
given `social rewards' for performing specific actions such monitoring fabric quality
and helping others. These social award§ involved attention, recognition and feedback
from trained supervisors. The researchers noted that this approach had a very positive
impact leading to highly significant increases in performance.
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The typical features of organisational applications of `O.B. Mod.' are:
It applies to clearly identifiable and observable behaviours such as time-
keeping, carrying out checks and repairs and the use of particular work
methods.
•
•
•
•
•
Rewards are clearly and unambiguously contingent on the performance of the
desirable behaviour.
Positive reinforcement can take a number of forms, from the praise of a
superior to cash prizes, to food, to clothing.
Behaviour change and performance improvements can be dramatic.
The desired modification in behaviour may be sustained only if positive
reinforcement is continued.
More about Behaviour Modification technique will be dealt with in a seperate
unit.
Activity 3
How would you feel about being given food, T-shirts and praise from superior for
working harder? Do you view this approach as realistic or as demeaning - and. why?
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Socialisation Process
Cognitive psychologists regard behaviour modification as simplistic and turn to more
complex social explanations and methods for organisational behaviour change.
Socialisation is the process through which an individual's pattern of behaviour and
their values, attitudes and motives are influenced to conform with those seen as
desirable in a particular organisation, society or sub-culture. For example, when
people join an organisation of any kind, they give up some personal freedom of
action. Thus, they concede that the organisation may make demands on their time and
effort, as long as these demands are perceived to be legitimate. Other members of the
organisation have to teach new recruits what is expected of them.
This perspective draws on social learning theory. One of the most influential
advocates of social learning theory has been Albert Bandura. He demonstrated that
we learn new behaviours through observing and copying the behaviour of others, in
the absence of any rewards or punishments. In this perspective, our capabilities for
reflection and self-determination are central. We construct internal models of our
environment through observation and experience and plan courses of action .
accordingly.
How does social learning theory apply in an organisational setting? For example,
organisations tend to encourage different standards concerning:
• what counts as adequate and good work performance;
• familiarity in everyday social interactions at work;

• the appropriate amount of deference to show to superiors;
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• dress and appearance;
• social activities after work; and
• attitudes to work, colleagues, managers, unions, customers.
The newcomer has to learn these standards and the ways of behaving and related
attitudes that they involve, to be a successful and accepted member of the
organisation. However, the individual does not have to believe that the organisation's
standards are appropriate. What matters is that individuals behave as if they believed
in them.
It may be noted here that the socialisation process is often informal, rather than a
planned programme of instruction. The newcomers learn the standards simply by
watching their new colleagues. Some organisations have formal induction
programmes, but these are often brief and superficial, concentrating on mundane
matters like the organisation's structures and policies, health and safety regulations,
etc. Beyond formal programmes, we learn about an organisation by just being there.
Thus, socialisation is achieved without planned intervention by giving rewards such
as parise, encouragement, and promotion for correct behaviour. It is also achieved by
negative reinforcements and punishments like being ignored, ridiculed or fined for
behavior that is out of line. We quickly learn what attitudes to take, what style of
language to use, what dress obey, where to take lunch and with whom and so on.
It is to be, noted here that some of the rewards for good behavior offered by
organisations are material rewards in the form of money and desirable working
conditions. On the other hand, some of the rewards are symbolic and social rewards
such as prestige, status, recognition and public praise.
6.6 BEHAVIOUR MODIFICATION VERSUS
SOCIALISATION
There are two major qualifications of behaviour modification technique. These are:
(i) This technique needs careful planning to identify specific behavioural goals
and procedures for
(ii) reinforcing the behaviours that will achieve those goals. The method can be
effective when behaviour and reinforcement are clearly identified and linked. For
example, follow the safety norms and we will give you cash. The method is less
effective when this relationship is vague. For example demonstrate commitment and
we will consider you for promotion.
(iii) The ‘rewards for good behaviour ’ method appears broadly consistent with
American cultural values and aspirations. The transfer of this approach to other
cultures is questionable.
Thus, this technique is clearly limited in its application. It is overtly manipulative,
potentially ignores internal needs and intrinsic rewards and can be seren as a threat to
individual dignity and autonomy. Therefore, behaviour modification requires the
communication of goals and expectations to employees in unambiguous terms.
Luther and Kreitner (1985) have summerised the problems with behaviour
modification. These are:
• Appropriate reinforcers may not always be available in limited and boring work
settings.
• We do not all respond the same way to the same reinforcers. What one person
finds rewarding may be of little consequence to someone else.

Indian Environment:
• Once started, a behaviour modification progamme has to be sustained.
47
• There may not be enough extrinsic motivators (such as money, lunch vouchers,
etc.) available.
However, they also argued that the technique has made four significant contributions:
1.
2.
3.
4.
Behaviour modification techniques put the focus on observable employee
behaviour and not on hypothetical internal states.
The technique shows how performance is influenced by contingent
consequences.
It supports the view that positive reinforcement is more effective in changing
employee behaviour than punishment.
There are demonstrable casual effects on employee performance. It is a feature
that is sometimes difficult to establish unequivocally with other behaviour
change methods such as job enrichment.
In contrast to behaviour modification, socialisation has the advantage of flexibility.
Social learning is dependent on the cultural context. As a process rather than a
specific technique, the general approach is not restricted to one culture. For instance,
Indian induction and socialisation procedures may be quite different from Swedish,
American, Malaysian or Nigerian methods.
Socialisation is a process that takes place anyway, planned or not. The main issue
concerns appropriate socialisation with respect to existing organisation culture and
behavioural preferences.
Table 5 summarises one similarity and number of differences between the techniques
of behaviour modification and socialisation.
6.7 LEARNING ORGANISATION
The concept of the learning organisation is derived from the work of Chris Argyris
and Donald Schon but became fashionable during the 1990s. A learning organisation
is a form of organisation that enables the learning of its members in such a way that it
creates positively valued outcomes such as innovation, efficiency, better alignment
with the enviroment and competitive advantage.

Interest in the learning organisation concept have been stimulated by a number of
factors. These are:
48
• the production of goods and services increasingly involves sophisticated
knowledge;
• knowledge is, therefore, as valuable a resource as raw material;
• many organisations lost knowledgeable staff through delaying in the 1990s;
• new information technologies are knowledge-intensive;
• knowledge can have a short life span, made obsolete by innovation;
• flexibility; creativity and responsiveness are now prized capabilities;
• knowledge can thus be a source of competitive advantage for an organisation.
Mike Pedler, John Burgoyne and Tom Boydell (1997) identified the eleven features
of the learning organisation. These features are summarised in Table 6.
Table 6 : The Features of Learning Organisation
The concept of learning organisation was popularised by the work of Peter Senge
whose book The Fifth Discipline (1990) became an international best-seller. Senge
argued that work must become more learningful at all organisational levels. He
identified five `learning disciplines' for building the organisation's learning
capabilites. These disciplines are summarised in Table 7.

Indian Environment:
Table 7: Peter Senge's Five Learning DisciplinesLearning
49
However, the organisational application of these disciplines is more problematic and
can be related to our discussion of socialisation, to encouraging the correct attitudes,
values and beliefs among employees at all levels. The most important of these
learning disciplines is the fifth discipline' (remember Senge's book title), systems
thinking, which means understanding how complex organisations function and how
they can be changed to work more effectively. Senge argues that the manager who
wants more commitment, flexibility and creativity from employees is advised to
provide them with lots of learning opportunies.
Weick and Westley(1996) argue that organisational learning is best understood in
terms of organisation culture. Culture includes values, beliefs, feelings, myths,
symbols, metaphors and rituals, which taken together distinguish one organisation or
group from other. Organisations are thus `repositories of knowledge'
independent of
their members, Organisation which accumulate stocks of codified, documented
knowledge, independent of their members, can thus be said to learn.
6.8 KNOWLEDGE MANAGEMENT
When we learn, we acquire knowledge. However, knowledge is a difficult term to
define clearly. According to Nonaka and Takeuchi (1995), there are two types of
knowledge - tacit and explicit.
Tacit knowledge is personal knowledge and understanding, specific to the individual,
difficult to articulate or to communicate to others because it derives from
accumulated experience and includes insights, intuition, hunches and judgements.
On the other hand, explicit knowledge is knowledge and understanding which is
codified, expressed and available to anyone. Nonaka and Takeuchi argue that the
Japanese emphasise tacit knowledge while Westerners emphasise formal, objective,
codified explicit knowledge.
It should be noted that tacit and explicit knowledge are complementary. Nonaka and
Takeuchi are thus concerned with `knowledge conversion' in which tacit knowledge
is made available to the organisation on the one hand, and organisational knowledge
becomes the individual's tacit knowledge, on the other.
Knowledge management concerns the conversion of tacit knowledge into explicit
knowledge so that it can be shared with others and is about turning individual
learning into organisational learning. In other words, it is a technology-based
technique for making tacit knowledge available more widely in the learning
organisation, typically

through individual and corporate databases which can be accessed through the
organisation's intranet.
50
The main positive and negative '
aspects of the learning organisation and its related
concepts of intellectual capital and knowledge management are summarised in Table
8.
It may he noted here that the concept of learning organisation has remained ,
fashionable for over a decade. This popularity has been reinforced by the growth of
'knowledge work', by the realisation that ideas generate competitive advantage and by
technological developments. However, there are organisational barriers to the
implementation of.this `ideal' It will be interesting to observe whether the learning
organisation remains fashionable in the twenty-first century.
Table 8: Learning Organisation : Positives and Negatives
6.9 SELF-ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS
l. What is learning? What are its distinguishing features?
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
What are the main distinctions between behaviourist and cognitive
perspectives on learning?
How do you distinguish between classical and operant conditioning? What
relevance do these and their related laboratory-based concepts have in an
organisational context?
Describe and illustrate the technique of organisational behaviour modification.
identify the advantages and disadvantages of this technique.
How can you differentiate between behaviour modification and socialisation
process?
What is learning organisation? What are its distinguishing characteristics?
Why are positive and negative reinforcement usually more effective methods
for encouraging behaviour change than punishment? In what circumstances
can punishment be effective in encouraging behaviour change?
6.10 FURTHER READINGS
Argyris, C. (1982). Reasoning, LearningandAclion. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
Bandura, A. (1977). Social Learning Theory. New York: Prentice-Hall.
Luthans, F.(1992). Organisational Behaviour. New York: McGraw-Hill.

51
Indian Environment:
Luthans, P. and Kreitner, R. (1975). Organisational Behaviour Modification.
Glenview, IL: Scott, Foresman.
Pedler, M., Burgoyne, J. and Boyd, ell, T. (1997). The Learning Company: A Strategy
for Sustainable Development. London: McGraw-Hill.
Robbins, S.P. (2001). Organisational Behaviour (9th edition). Delhi: Pearson
Education.
Senge, P. (1990). The Fifth Discipline: The Art and Practice of the Learning
Organisation. New York: Doubleday Currency.
Weiss, H.M. (1990). Learning Theory and Industrial Organisational Psychology. In
M.D. Dunnette and L.M. Hough (Eds.), Handbook of Industrial and Organisational
Psychology (2nd. ed., vol. I). Palo Alto: Consulting Psychologists Press.

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