Chapter One Introduction

This lecture will help you understand: The meaning of the term environment The importance of natural resources That environmental science is interdisciplinary The scientific method and how science operates Some pressures facing the global environment Sustainability and sustainable development

Environment: the total of our surroundings All the things around us with which we interact: Living things Animals, plants, forests, fungi, etc. Non-living things Continents, oceans, clouds, soil, rocks Our built environment Buildings, human-created living centers Social relationships and institutions

Humans exist within the environment Humans exist within the environment and are part of nature. Our survival depends on a healthy, functioning planet. The fundamental insight of environmental science is that we are part of the natural world. Our interactions with its other parts matter a great deal.

Environmental science is the study of: How the natural world works How the environment affects humans and vice versa With environmental problems come opportunities for solutions.

Natural resources: vital to human survival Renewable resources : Perpetually available: sunlight, wind, wave energy Renew themselves over short periods of time: timber, water, soil These can be destroyed Non-renewable resources : can be depleted Oil, coal, minerals Natural resources = substances and energy sources needed for survival

Global human population growth More than 6.7 billion humans Why so many humans? Agricultural revolution Stable food supplies Industrial revolution Urbanized society powered by fossil fuels Sanitation and medicines More food

Thomas Malthus and human population Thomas Malthus Population growth must be controlled, or it will outstrip food production. Starvation, war, disease Neo-Malthusians Population growth has disastrous effects. Paul and Anne Ehrlich, The Population Bomb (1968) Agricultural advances have only postponed crises.

Resource consumption exerts impacts Garret Hardin’s “tragedy of the commons” (1968) Unregulated exploitation causes resource depletion Grazing lands, forests, air, water No one has the incentive to care for a resource. Everyone takes what he or she can until the resource is depleted. Solution? Private ownership? Voluntary organization to enforce responsible use? Governmental regulations?

Environmental science Can help us avoid mistakes made by past civilizations Human survival depends on how we interact with our environment. Our impacts are now global. Many great civilizations have fallen after depleting their resources. The lesson of Easter Island: people annihilated their culture by destroying their environment. Can we act more wisely to conserve our resources?

Environmental science: how the natural world works Environment  impacts  Humans Its goal: developing solutions to environmental problems An interdisciplinary field Natural sciences: information about the natural world Environmental Science programs Social sciences: study human interactions and behavior Environmental Studies programs

Environmental science is not environmentalism A social movement dedicated to protecting the natural world

The nature of science Science : A systematic process for learning about the world and testing our understanding of it The accumulated body of knowledge that results from a dynamic process of observation, testing, and discovery Science is essential: To sort fact from fiction Develop solutions to the problems we face

Applications of science Restoration of forest ecosystems altered by human suppression of fire Policy decisions and management practices Energy-efficient methanol-powered fuel cell car from DaimlerChrysler Technology

Scientists test ideas Scientists examine how the world works by observing, measuring, and testing Involves critical thinking and skepticism Observational (descriptive) science : scientists gather information about something not well known or that cannot be manipulated in experiments Astronomy, paleontology, taxonomy, molecular biology Hypothesis-driven science : research that proceeds in a structured manner using experiments to test hypotheses through the scientific method

The scientific method A technique for testing ideas A scientist makes an observation and asks questions of some phenomenon. The scientist formulates a hypothesis, a statement that attempts to answer the question. The hypothesis is used to generate predictions : specific statements that can be tested. The results support or reject the hypothesis.

Testing predictions Experiment : an activity that tests the validity of a hypothesis Variables : conditions that can be manipulated and/or measured Independent variable : a condition that is manipulated Dependent variable : a variable that is affected by the manipulation of the independent variable Controlled experiment : one in which all variables are controlled Control : the unmanipulated point of comparison Treatment : the manipulated point of comparison Data : information that is generally quantitative (numerical)

Experiments test the validity of a hypothesis Manipulative experiments yield the strongest evidence Provides the strongest type of evidence Reveal causal relationships: changes in independent variables cause changes in dependent variables But many things can’t be manipulated: long-term or large-scale questions (i.e., global climate change) Natural experiments show real-world complexity Only feasible approach for ecosystem or planet-scale Results are not so neat and clean, so answers aren’t simply black and white

The scientific process is part of a larger process Peer-review : other scientists provide comments and criticism Guards against faulty science Conference presentations improve the quality of the science Scientists interact with their colleagues Grants and funding come from private or government agencies. Can lead to conflict of interest if the data show the funding source in an unfavorable light The scientist may be reluctant to publish or doctor the results.

Theories and paradigms A consistently supported hypothesis becomes a theory , a widely accepted explanation of one or more cause-and-effect relationships Has been extensively and rigorously tested, so confidence in a theory is extremely strong Darwin’s theory of evolution, atomic theory, cell theory, big bang theory, plate tectonics, general relativity Differs from the popular meaning of theory, which suggests a speculative idea without much substance With enough data, a paradigm shift — a change in the dominant view — can occur.

Ethics Ethics : the study of good and bad, right and wrong The set of moral principles or values held by a person or society that tells us how we ought to behave People use criteria, standards, or rules when making judgments. Different cultures or worldviews lead to different values, which lead to different actions. Relativists : ethics vary with social context Universalists : right and wrong remains the same across cultures and situations

Ethical standards Ethical standards : criteria that help differentiate right from wrong Classical standard = virtue The golden rule: treat others as you want to be treated Utility : something right produces the most benefits for the most people

Environmental ethics Environmental ethics : application of ethical standards to relationships between human and non-human entities Hard to resolve; depends on the person’s ethical standards Depends on the person’s domain of ethical concern Should we conserve resources for future generations? Is it OK for some communities to be exposed to excess pollution? Should we drive other species to extinction? Is is OK to destroy a forest to create jobs for people?

Three ethical perspectives Anthropocentrism: only humans have rights Costs and benefits are measured only according to their impact on people Anything not providing benefit to people has no value Biocentrism : certain living things also have value All life has ethical standing Development is opposed if it destroys life, even if it creates jobs Ecocentrism : whole ecological systems have value Values the well-being of species, communities, or ecosystems Holistic perspective, stresses preserving connections

Expanding ethical consideration

The preservation ethic Unspoiled nature should be protected for its own inherent value. We should protect our environment in a pristine state, because it promotes human happiness and fulfillment. John Muir ( right, with President Roosevelt at Yosemite National Park ) had an ecocentric viewpoint.

The conservation ethic Use natural resources wisely for the greatest good for the most people A utilitarian standard that calls for prudent, efficient, and sustainable resource extraction and use Gifford Pinchot had an anthropocentric viewpoint.

The land ethic Healthy ecological systems depend on protecting all parts. Aldo Leopold believed that humans should view themselves and the land as members of the same community. We are obligated to treat the land ethically. The land ethic will help guide decision making.

Ecofeminism In the 1960s and 1970s, feminist scholars saw parallels in how people treated nature and how men treated women. Degradation, social oppression Ecofeminism: a patriarchal (male-dominated) society is a root cause of both social and environmental problems Female worldview: interrelationships and cooperation Male worldview: hierarchies, competition, domination, and conquest

Environmental justice (EJ) Involves the fair treatment of all people with respect to the environment, regardless of race, income, or ethnicity The poor and minorities are exposed to more pollution, hazards, and environmental degradation. Despite progress, significant inequalities remain. The U.S. has still not ratified the Basel Convention, which prohibits the international export of waste, particularly to poor nations.

Sustainability A guiding principle of environmental science Living within our planet’s means The Earth can sustain humans AND other organisms for the future Leaving our descendents with a rich, full world Developing solutions that work in the long term Requires keeping fully functioning ecological systems

Sustainability We are increasing our burden on the planet each year. Population growth, affluence, consumption Natural capital : the accumulated wealth of Earth We are withdrawing our planet’s natural capital 30% faster than it is being produced

The “ecological footprint” The environmental impact of a person or population Amount of biologically productive land + water For resources and to dispose/recycle waste Overshoot : humans have surpassed the Earth’s capacity to support us We are using 30% more of the planet’s resources than are available on a sustainable basis!

Ecological footprints are not all equal The ecological footprints of countries vary greatly. The U.S. footprint is much greater than the world’s average. Developing countries have much smaller footprints than developed countries.

The 2005 Millennium Ecosystem Assessment The most comprehensive scientific assessment of the condition of the world’s ecological systems Major findings: Humans have drastically altered ecosystems. These changes have contributed to human well-being and economic development, but at a cost. Environmental degradation could get much worse. Degradation can be reversed, but it requires work.

Conclusion Finding ways to live sustainably on Earth requires a solid ethical grounding and scientific understanding of our natural and social systems. Environmental science helps us understand our relationship with the environment and informs our attempts to solve and prevent problems. Identifying a problem is the first step in solving it. Solving environmental problems can move us toward health, longevity, peace, and prosperity. Environmental science can help find balanced solutions to environmental problems.

Chapter One Introduction

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Chapter One Introduction