2. Definition of
Semantics
- Semantics is the study
of meaning in
language.
- It examines how words,
phrases, and sentences
convey meaning.
- Focuses on
interpretation and
understanding of
linguistic elements.
3. Key Aspects of Semantics
1. Word Meaning (Lexical Semantics) – Meaning
of individual words.
2. Sentence Meaning (Compositional Semantics) –
How words combine to form meaning.
3. Meaning Relationships (Semantic Relations) –
Connections between words.
4. Pragmatic Aspects of Meaning – Context-
dependent meaning.
4. Word Meaning
(Lexical Semantics)
- Examines individual word meanings
and relationships.
- Examples:
- Synonyms: big vs. large (big mistake
is more natural).
- Polysemy: (multiple meanings) for
example: bank (financial institution vs.
riverbank).
- HOMOPHONES: When two or more
forms(written) have different spellings
but have same pronunciation is called
homophones.
For example: Right/write, bear/bare,
light/lite, whether/weather, pail/pale, etc.
these are words that have different
meanings and history but have come to
have exactly the same form.
5. Sentence
Meaning
(Compositional
Semantics)
- Meaning arises
from word
combinations.
- Examples:
- 'The cat chased
the mouse' vs. 'The
mouse chased
the cat.'
- 'All doctors are
human' implies
'Some humans are
doctors.'
6. Meaning
Relationships
(Semantic Relations)
- Synonymy: happy = joyful
- Antonymy: hot vs. cold
- Hyponymy: rose is a type
of flower
- Homonymy:
- Bank (financial
institution/riverbank)
- Bat (animal/sports tool)
- Right (correct/opposite of
left)
7. Pragmatic
Aspects of
Meaning
- Meaning depends
on context.
- Examples:
- 'Can you pass
the salt?' (request,
not question of
ability)
- 'It’s cold in here.'
(could imply a
request to close the
window)
- 'That’s a nice
way to park!'
(sarcasm)
8. Scope of Semantics
- LINGUISTICS:
LANGUAGE STRUCTURE
AND MEANING.
- PHILOSOPHY:
MEANING, TRUTH,
REFERENCE.
- ARTIFICIAL
INTELLIGENCE: NATURAL
LANGUAGE
PROCESSING.
- LEXICOGRAPHY:
DICTIONARY
DEVELOPMENT.
9. Levels of Linguistic Analysis
- Phonology:
Sound systems.
- Syntax:
Sentence
structure.
- Semantics:
Meaning of
words and
sentences.
10. Semantic
Knowledge in
Language Use
Synonymy: Different sentences describe the same idea.
Example:
She is intelligent. = She is smart.
He passed away. = He died
Contradiction: Some sentences negate others.
Example:
He is alive. vs. He is dead.
The lights are on. vs. The room is completely dark
Ambiguity: Multiple interpretations possible.
Example:
I saw the man with the telescope. (Did I see a man using a
telescope, or did I see a man who had a telescope?)
Flying planes can be dangerous. (Are we talking about the
act of flying planes or the planes themselves being
dangerous?)
11. Semantics &
Semiotics
- Semantics is part of semiotics (study of
signs and symbols).
- Types of signs (Peirce’s Classification):
- Icons: Resemble meaning (portrait).
- Indexes: Direct association (smoke →
fire).
- Symbols: Conventional meaning
(words, insignia).
12. Interdisciplinary Nature of Semantics
- Philosophy: Meaning and reference
(Frege’s sense and reference).
- Psychology: Cognitive processing of
meaning.
- Semiotics: Study of signs and symbols.
13. Key Scholars in Semantics
- Ferdinand de
Saussure: Language
as a system of signs.
- C.S. Peirce:
Classification of signs
(icon, index, symbol).
14. Conclusion
- Semantics explores how meaning is
structured and communicated.
- Interconnected with semiotics and
other disciplines.
- Enhances our understanding of human
language and communication.
16. What is Semantic
Analysis?
- Semantics studies how meaning
is constructed in language.
- Definitions Theory: Meaning is
determined by defining words.
- Three Major Challenges:
1. Circularity in Definitions
2. Precision in Definitions
3. The Role of Context
17. Challenge 1: Circularity in Definitions
- Defining a word requires using
other words, creating an
endless cycle.
- Example: 'Happiness' → 'The
state of being happy' → 'Feeling
pleasure' → 'A feeling of
happiness' (loop).
- Key Question: Can we ever
define language without using
language?
18. Examples
of
Circularity
1. 'Know' → 'To
have
knowledge' →
'What is known
by a person'
(loop).
2. 'Ferret' → 'A
domesticated
polecat' → 'A
type of
carnivore' → 'An
animal that eats
meat' (loop).
20. What is
Grammar?
Grammar is a set of rules
that help us form and
understand sentences.
It consists of three main
components:
1. Syntax – Sentence
structure and word order.
2. Phonology – Sounds in
language.
3. Semantics – The meaning
of words and sentences.
21. Is Semantics a Separate
Part of Grammar?
Some linguists think semantics is part of
all language levels (Cognitive
Grammar).
Others believe it is a separate part of
grammar, like syntax and phonology.
Both views agree that meaning is
important for communication.
22. Word Meaning
vs. Sentence
Meaning
Word Meaning: The
meaning of a single word
(e.g., 'apple' = a type of
fruit).
Sentence Meaning: The
meaning of a whole
sentence, based on word
meanings and structure.
Example:
- 'She eats an apple.' →
Meaning comes from both
words and structure.
23. How Do We Create New
Sentences?
We can form infinite new sentences with a limited
number of words.
Chomsky's Generative Grammar (1965):
- Syntax follows rules that allow unlimited
sentence formation.
Example:
- 'I ate dinner and watched TV.'
- 'I ate dinner and watched TV and read a book.'
Meaning is compositional – built from words and
rules.
24. Different Views on Syntax
and Semantics
1. Chomsky’s Generative Grammar – Syntax and
semantics are separate but interact at Logical
Form.
2. Functional Grammar (Halliday, 1994) & Role
and Reference Grammar (Van Valin, 2005) –
Syntax and semantics are deeply connected.
3. Head-Driven Phrase Structure Grammar (Sag et
al., 2003) – Links syntax and meaning through
detailed structures.
25. Why is Semantics
Important?
Helps us understand and interpret language
correctly.
Prevents misunderstandings in communication.
Example: 'I saw a man with a telescope.'
- Does it mean I used a telescope to see a man?
- Or does it mean the man had a telescope?
- Context and structure matter!
26. Key Takeaways
Semantics is about meaning in language.
Word meanings are stored in our mental lexicon.
Sentence meanings are created dynamically
based on word meanings and grammar rules.
Different linguistic theories explain how syntax and
semantics interact.
27. Examples of
Precision
Issues
- 'Fruit': Scientists
include tomatoes &
cucumbers, but
most people think
of apples &
oranges.
- 'Planet': Pluto was
a planet before
2006, now it's a
dwarf planet.
- Problem: If word
meanings change
or differ, how can
we have a
universal definition?
28. Challenge 3: The Role of
Context
- Words and sentences change meaning
based on context.
- Example: 'Marvelous weather in Ireland!'
means something different on a sunny
day vs. during heavy rain.
- Example: 'He's dying!' can mean a
comedian is failing or a person is critically
ill.
29. Examples of
Context
Dependence
- 'It’s getting late.'
- At a party → 'Let’s
leave.'
- In a meeting → 'Let’s
wrap up.'
- 'Can you pass the
salt?'
- Literal: Ability to pass
salt.
- Intended: A polite
request.
30. How to
Address These
Challenges?
- Semantic
Metalanguage: Uses a
neutral system to define
meaning.
- Mental Lexicon: Word
meanings exist in
people’s minds.
- Pragmatics: Studies
how context influences
meaning.
31. Key
Takeaways
- Meaning is more than
just definitions.
- Words are
interconnected,
making definitions
circular.
- Different people
interpret words
differently.
- Context determines
true meaning in
communication.
33. Overview of Key
Concepts in
Semantics
Introduction to foundational
ideas in semantics
Simplified explanations for easy
understanding
Establishing key ideas widely
assumed in semantic theories
34. Reference vs. Sense
(Saussure's Theory)
• Reference: Relationship between language and the world
• Sense refers to the meaning of a word, but not in isolation. It is the meaning that arises from the relationships
between words within a language. In other words, a word’s sense is determined by how it contrasts and
connects with other words in the linguistic system, not just by what it refers to in the world.
Example 1:
• "Cat" vs. "Dog": While both are animals, the meaning of "cat" (a small, typically independent animal with sharp claws) is
understood in relation to "dog" (a larger, often domesticated animal). The sense of "cat" is shaped by its contrast with "dog,"
and vice versa. We understand each word not only by what it refers to in the world but also by how it fits into the network of
relationships that other words share.
Example 2:
• "Bachelor" vs. "Married": The word "bachelor" has meaning partly because of its relationship to the word "married". In
this case, "bachelor" refers to an unmarried man, and its sense is shaped by the opposition to the concept of being married.
Without the concept of "married," the meaning of "bachelor" wouldn’t be as clear.
• Saussure's Model: Saussure conceptualized language as a system of signs. Each word (or sign) is like a "node" in a network, and
its meaning is defined by its relationship to other words in the system. This network creates meaning not just by reference to
the world but through its position and relationships within the language itself.
In Saussure’s view:
• Words do not simply refer to things in the world.
• Words acquire their meaning from the system of relationships that connects them to other words in that language.
35. Illustrative Examples
of Reference and
Sense
• English vs. French (Sheep vs.
Mouton)
• Color Terms (Red in relation to
other colors)
• Plural Forms in Different
Languages (French, Sanskrit,
Arabic)
36. Conclusion on
Reference
and Sense
• Meaning is
shaped by both
external world
references and
internal language
relationships.
• Variations in
meaning across
languages
highlight the
importance of
linguistic context.
37. Utterances, Sentences,
and Propositions
• Utterances: Concrete language created in
communication.
• Sentences: Grammatical structures abstracted
from utterances.
• Propositions: Abstract meaning of sentences,
independent of form (e.g., Active vs. Passive).
38. Literal vs. Non-Literal
Meaning
• Literal Meaning: Direct, fact-based expressions
(e.g., 'I’m hungry').
• Non-Literal Meaning: Figurative language (e.g.,
'I could eat a horse').
• Metaphors and Cognitive View: Structuring
human thought through metaphors (e.g., 'Time is
money').
39. Semantics vs.
Pragmatics
• Semantics: Focus on the
relationship between signs and
their referents.
• Pragmatics: Focus on the
relationship between signs and
their interpreters (users of
language).
• Syntax: Formal relationship
between signs (Morris, 1938).
40. Example:
Semantics vs.
Pragmatics
• Sentence: 'The place is
closing.'
• Semantics: Core meaning –
place shutting down.
• Pragmatics: Context-specific
meanings (e.g., warning,
command, invitation).
41. Application to Pronouns
• Sentence: 'Is he awake?'
• Semantics: 'He' refers to a
male entity.
• Pragmatics: Identifying the
specific individual in context.
42. Purpose of
Semantics
vs.
Pragmatics
• Semantics: Focus on linguistic
meaning without context.
• Pragmatics: Contextual
interpretation and use of language.
• Structured Analysis: Allows for clear
distinction despite overlapping roles
in communication.
43. Challenges and Debates
• Unclear boundary between semantics and
pragmatics.
• Some theorists question the validity of the
distinction (e.g., Lakoff, Langacker).
• Different interpretations of where to draw the
line (e.g., Birner).
44. Conclusion
• Semantics and Pragmatics: Essential for
understanding how meaning is conveyed.
• Context plays a critical role in shaping meaning.
