Chapter08[1]

Copyright © 2005
William Kritsonis CHAPTER 8–SECONDARY SCHOOLING IN AMERICA
All Rights Reserved / Forever PAGE 209
This book is protected under the Copyright Act of 1976. Uncited Sources,
Violators will be prosecuted. Courtesy, National FORUM Journals

CHAPTER 8
SECONDARY SCHOOLING IN AMERICA
KEY POINTS

1. Junior high schools were the first form of intermediate schools developed.
2. Middle schools were developed as a result of critics questioning the poor
preparation of students for high school.
3. Middle schools are currently the most popular intermediate organization in
our public schools.
4. Today, high schools follow a comprehensive model and provide a variety
of programs to a diverse group of students.
5. Secondary schools are usually organized in a traditional manner that in-
cludes types of curriculum (vocational, general, college prep.) and specific
courses taken at different grades.
6. The common curriculum found in high schools include English, math, sci-
ence, social studies, vocational programs, and extra-curricular activities.
7. Specialized curricular areas, such as sex education, drug education, and nu-
clear education are found in some high schools.
8. Vocational education is a curricular option available to many students who
do not plan on pursuing academic objectives after high school.
9. Students in today’s high schools participate in a wide variety of extracur-
ricular activities.
10. The most common method of instruction at the secondary level is the lecture.
11. School policies regarding discipline, expulsion, suspension, and appearance
codes greatly affect secondary students.
12. Approximately 25% of American high school students dropout of school be-
fore graduation.
13. More than 90% of high school seniors in this country have used alcohol at
least once.
14. Nearly 25% of high school seniors had used illegal drugs during the previ-
ous 30 days.
15. Teenage pregnancy and suicide continue to be major problems for adolescents.

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CHAPTER 8–SECONDARY SCHOOLING IN AMERICA

A. OVERVIEW
This chapter includes information on secondary educational programs. Topics
include middle schools, junior high schools, and high schools. Also discussed
are the organizational structures found in these schools along with curriculum
of secondary schools and instructional methods. A final section focuses on
problems experienced by secondary students.

B. KEY TERMS–DEFINITIONS
ACADEMIC CURRICULUM - focuses on preparing students for higher edu-
cation programs.
ADOLESCENCE - teenage years; individuals must deal with physical, physio-
logical, and emotional changes.
ALCOHOL ABUSE - considered by some as America’s number one mental
health problem. In 2002, approximately 66% of high school seniors had used
alcohol in the past 30 days; 92% at one time in their lives.
APPEARANCE CODES - schools have the right to impose various dress and
appearance standards that can be shown to be related to the preservation of
safety and to the orderly functioning of the school program.
COMMON CURRICULUM - a study of those consequential ideas, experi-
ences, and traditions common to all of us by virtue of our membership in the
human family at a particular moment in history.
COMPREHENSIVE HIGH SCHOOL - secondary schools that provide a va-
riety of curricular options for students.
DISCIPLINE - actions in response to inappropriate behavior or actions that
prevent inappropriate behaviors.
DROPOUTS - those who dropout of school. Individuals who leave an activity,
a course, a program, or a school before completing its requirements and who
do so voluntarily. A tremendous amount of time and effort are required from
all school personnel and family members to keep dropouts in school.
DRUG ABUSE - the use of drugs contrary to medical and legal regulations
and/or norms.
EXPULSION - when students are barred from attending school for an extend-
ed period of time.

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HIGH SCHOOL - the first secondary schools to develop, starting in the late
19th century, followed by the intermediate schools. An institution of learning
that provides education to youth who have completed elementary and/or mid-
dle school programs.
INDEPENDENT STUDY - allows some students to venture into activities that
would not be possible to address in large groups. This method of instruction is
excellent for gifted students but also can be effective with students of average
academic abilities and students who have learning difficulties.
JUNIOR HIGH SCHOOL - the first form of intermediate school. Designed to
meet the unique educational needs and abilities of students during early adoles-
cence.
MIDDLE SCHOOL - an organized educational unit between elementary
school and high school; usually includes grades 5-8. A school organized to
meet the needs of preadolescents and early adolescents in the middle range of
grades.
MORRILL ACT OF 1862 - gave land grants and operating funds to states for
the operation of colleges and universities.
MULTICULTURAL - includes children from a variety of ethnic backgrounds.
MULTICULTURAL EDUCATION - includes teaching such courses as ethnic
studies or social assimilation. It also includes changing schools to provide
equal opportunities for all children, regardless of ethnic background.
SEARCH AND SEIZURE - the right of school officials to search students’
lockers and personal areas.
SEX EDUCATION - must “modify” in a few hours of classroom instruction
the messages that young people receive every day from their friends, the mass
media, and other sources.
SUSPENSION - used most often when schools can show that the continued
presence of a particular student is dangerous or severely disruptive to the
school program. Students are typically suspended for disciplinary reasons.
TEENAGE PREGNANCY - can occur more than one million times each year;
can result in difficulties for young families; learning and behavior problems for
children later in life.
VOCATIONAL CURRICULUM - educational programs that emphasize career
preparation and training of students for particular jobs in at least one occupation.

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C. SOME PRECEDING THOUGHTS
1. What is the structure of secondary education in the United States?
Secondary education in the United States functions on two levels: interme-
diate schools and high schools.
2. What are the purposes of middle schools compared with junior high
schools?
Junior high schools were established as an intermediate between grammar
and high schools. They tend to focus on academics while limiting their fo-
cus on personal development. Middle schools were developed as a method
of enhancing the focus of child growth and development during the pre-
and early adolescent years. Middle schools are now the most popular
school organization between elementary and high schools. For the most
part, middle schools attempt to serve students based on their needs, not on
their chronological age grouping. This results in a curriculum that includes
academic, physical, social, and emotional components.
3. What three curricular tracks are found in most secondary schools?
Comprehensive high schools provide educational opportunities to prepare
students for post-secondary academic education, vocational training, and
jobs. Most secondary schools offer three basic types of curricular options:
general, academic, and vocational.
4. How are secondary schools organized vertically?
In general, high schools group students horizontally and vertically by pro-
gram track; programs comprise various subjects taught by teachers certi-
fied in those areas; students are exposed to subjects in various classes each
day; and the social activities of students are many and varied.
5. What subjects are generally included in the common curriculum?
Courses in common curriculum should include literature, the arts, foreign
language, history, civics, science, mathematics, technology, and health.
6. What is the current status of science and math education?
In science education, the thrust appears to be toward making science more
functional and process oriented.
Math education, like science education, is in a crisis. Students often choose
to take only the minimal math requirements in secondary schools; they of-
ten elect to take general math rather than algebra or more difficult math
subjects when they have the option; math electives are rarely taken by
many students; many math teachers meet only minimal teaching qualifica-
tions.

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7. What are the purposes of vocational education?
a. providing skills and experiences considered valuable by students;
b. facilitating the mastery of avocational and vocational skills by students;
c. providing hands-on learning opportunities;
d. providing a curriculum that is closely related to everyday survival needs;
e. possibly providing an alternative for potential school dropouts;
also:
a. helping integrate children from the lower economic sector;
b. helping with national economic problems;
c. providing an appropriate curriculum for approximately half of the stu-
dent body not suited for a more academic program;
d. helping with the broader problems posed by youth.
8. What is the current status of vocational education?
Approximately 25% of high school students are enrolled in vocational edu-
cation programs and more than 90% of today’s graduates have completed
at least one vocational course. Sixty-three percent of the 20 million stu-
dents enrolled in vocational education programs are in programs at public
secondary schools.
9. What problems exist in secondary schools?
School dropouts–many programs have been developed to help prevent
students from dropping out of school. Some are:
a. providing support programs;
b. providing alternative classes;
c. encouraging co-curricular activities;
d. encouraging positive group interactions;
e. working with families.
Declining academic performance–educators must be aware of the past
trends and maintain efforts to improve students’ scores.
Alcohol and drug abuse–alcohol and drug abuse were once considered
problems for a small, select segment of the adolescent population. Current-
ly, however, abuses of these substances among American youth is an un-
fortunate acknowledged fact.

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Teenage pregnancy–approximately 1.2 million adolescents get pregnant
each year; nearly half of these pregnancies result in live births, with the re-
maining pregnancies ending in either spontaneous or induced abortions or
maternal death. Teenage pregnancy, therefore, is a large problem in the
United States.
Suicide–adolescent suicide in the United States has increased 300% during
the past two decades; it is the leading cause of death among 15 to 24-year-
olds.
10. Some related facts are:
a. Junior high schools were the first form of intermediate schools devel-
oped.
b. Middle schools were developed as a result of critics questioning the
poor preparation of students for high schools.
c. The middle school is currently the most popular intermediate organiza-
tion in the public schools.
d. Today’s high schools follow a comprehensive model to provide a vari-
ety of programs to a diverse group of students.
e. Secondary schools are usually organized in a traditional manner that in-
cludes types of curriculum (vocational, general, college prep.) and spe-
cial courses taken at different grades.
f. The common curriculum found in high schools includes: English, math,
science, social studies, vocational programs, and extra-curricular activities.
g. Specialized curricular areas, such as sex education, drug education, and
nuclear education are found in some high schools.
h. Vocational education is a curricular option available to many students
who do not plan on pursuing academic objectives after high school.
i. Students in today’s high schools participate in a wide variety of extra-
curricular activities.
j. The most common method of instruction at the secondary level is the
lecture.
k. School policies regarding discipline, expulsion, and suspension, and
appearance codes greatly affect secondary schools.
l. Approximately 25% of American high school students dropout of
school before graduation.
m. More than 90% of high school seniors in this country have used alcohol
at least once.

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n. About 25% of high school seniors had used illegal drugs during the
previous 30 days.
o. Teenage pregnancy and suicide continue to be major problems for ado-
lescents.
11. Where can students obtain work experience in their local community?
• Advertising agencies • Laundry and dry cleaning
• Appliance stores establishments
• Automobile agencies • Lumber and building
• Automotive supply stores • Meat and fish markets
• Banks • Men’s furnishings
• Book and stationary stores • Music stores
• Credit offices • Newspaper publishing
• Department stores • Office supply stores
• Discount stores • Paint and glass stores
• Drug stores • Pet shops
• Dry goods and general merchan- • Radio stations
dise • Real estate offices
• Employment agencies • Restaurants
• Family clothing stores • Sales offices
• Farm and garden stores • Self-employed students
• Florists • Service stations
• Furniture stores • Shoe stores
• Fruit stores • Sporting goods firms
• Gift shops • Supermarkets
• Grain and feed stores • Television stations
• Grocery stores • Theatres
• Hardware stores • Trucking terminals
• Heating and plumbing business • Variety stores
• Hotels-motels • Vegetable markets
• Household appliance stores • Women’s ready-to-wear stores
• Infant wear stores • Women’s specialty shops
• Insurance companies • Wholesale and jobbing outlets
• Jewelry stores • Yard goods and draperies
12. How can students respond effectively to sexual harassment?
a. Talking to a friend, counselor, or relative about the situation to place
the facts in perspective and develop solutions.
b. Learning not to laugh at the harassing behavior.

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c. Learning skills to confront the harasser with a firm NO at the first sign
of sexual harassment and letting the harasser know that this behavior
will not be tolerated.
d. Avoid being alone with harassers.
e. Talking with other students to see if they have been harassed and, if so,
petitioning school authorities to deal with the problem.
f. Obtaining eyewitnesses to verify experiences of harassment.
g. Keeping a written record documenting all incidents, with dates, times,
places, and persons who have seen the activity, and recording physical
and emotional reactions.
h. Filing complaints.

D. DISCUSSION QUESTIONS AND EXERCISES
1. What are the purposes of secondary schools?
In the 1800s, it was assumed that elementary schools should focus on
teaching the basic skills, such as reading, writing, and arithmetic while the
limited number of secondary schools should prepare students for higher
education or entry into vocation. In 1918, the Commission for Reorganiza-
tion of Secondary Education issued its report, the Cardinal Principles of
Secondary Education, that indicated that secondary schools should prepare
students for: a) health, b) command of the fundamental processes, c) wor-
thy home membership, d) vocational efficiency, e) civic competence, f)
worthy use of leisure time, and g) ethical character. These objectives laid
the foundations for the comprehensive high school and focused on much
more than academic training.
2. What role do extra-curricular activities play in secondary schools?
The purpose of extra-curricular activities is to enable students to partici-
pate in events that are not a part of regular academic curriculum, but that
are viewed as important for overall growth. Examples include: athletics,
subject matter clubs, debating, drama, band, student government, honorary
clubs, and cheerleading. Over the years, there has been some dispute about
extra-curricular activities, especially high school athletics. There still re-
mains strong support for these programs, although some school systems
have initiated policies to prohibit participation in extra-curricular activities
by students who violate rules, fail to pass courses, are insubordinate, or
abuse drugs. An example is Texas’ No Pass No Play Law.

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3. What types of problems are experienced by adolescents? How can
school leaders help these problems?
a. Alcohol and drug abuse–educators can teach students about the illegal
drugs and through this knowledge, hopefully deter future use and stop
present use by students.
b. Teenage pregnancy–educators need to be cognizant of the problems
resulting from teenage pregnancies and must understand the needs of
students who must deal with an unwanted pregnancy.
c. Suicide–although long-term solutions for teenage suicides must come
from the community and society, school leaders have a major responsi-
bility in helping to prevent suicides. These are the emotional years for
adolescents, with their bodies going through enormous changes, physi-
cally, emotionally, and physiologically. Educators who teach adoles-
cents must be aware of adolescent needs and problems.
4. What are the purposes of secondary schools?
Goals of Education: Two Major Statements of the Progressive Approach
Cardinal Principles of Secondary Ten Imperative Needs
Education (1918) of Youth (1944)
1. Health: provide health instruction and a Develop skills and/or attitudes that enhance the
program of physical activities; cooperate following:
with home and community in promoting 1. Productive work experiences and occupa-
health. tional success.
2. Command of fundamental processes: de- 2. Good health and physical fitness.
velop fundamental thought processes to 3. Rights and duties of a democratic citizen-
meet needs of modern life. ry.
3. Worthy home membership: develop quali- 4. Conditions for successful family life.
ties that make the individual a worthy 5. Wise consumer behavior.
member of a family. 6. Understanding of science and the nature
4. Vocation: equip students to earn a living, of man.
to serve society well through a vocation, 7. Appreciation of arts, music, and litera-
and to achieve personal development ture.
through that vocation. 8. Wise use of leisure time.
5. Civic education: foster qualities that help a 9. Respect for ethical values.
person play a part in the community and 10. The ability to think rationally and commu-
understand international problems. nicate thoughts clearly.
6. Worthy use of leisure: equip people to
“recreation of body, mind, and spirit” that
will enrich their personalities.
7. Ethical character: develop ethical charac-
ter both through instructional methods and
through social contacts among students and
teacher.

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Source: Commission on the Reorganization of Secondary Education, Cardinal principles of secondary
education, Bulletin No. 35 (Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1918), pp. 11-15;
and Educational Policies Commission, Education for all American youth (Washington, DC: Na-
tional Education Association, 1944). Adapted with permission.
5. What are some early warning signs of potential violent youth?
a. social withdrawal;
b. excessive feelings of isolation and being alone;
c. excessive feelings of rejection;
d. being a victim of violence;
e. feelings of being picked on and persecuted;
f. low school interest and poor academic performance;
g. expression of violence in writings and drawings;
h. uncontrolled anger;
i. patterns of impulsive and chronic hitting, intimidating, and bullying be-
haviors;
j. history of discipline problems;
k. past history of violent and aggressive behavior;
l. intolerance for differences and prejudicial attitudes;
m. drug and alcohol use;
n. affiliation with gangs;
o. inappropriate access to, possession of, and use of firearms;
p. serious threats of violence
Source: Dwyer, K., Osher, D., & Warger, C. (1998). Early warning, timely response: A guide to safe
school. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Education. Adapted with permission.

6. In order of seriousness for youth, what are the major problem sub-
stances?
a. Alcohol–most serious;
b. Heroin;
c. Nicotine;
d. Cocaine;
e. Caffeine;
f. Marijuana–least serious.

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7. What are some indicators of childhood or adolescent suicide?
Psychosocial Familial Psychiatric Situational
1. Poor self-esteem 1. Disintegrating 1. Prior suicide attempt 1. Stressful life
and feelings of family relationships events
inadequacy
2. Verbalization of
2. Firearms in the
2. Economic difficulties suicide or talk of home
2. Hypersensitivity and family stresses self-harm
and suggestibili-
3. Child and adolescent 3. Preoccupation with 3. Exposure to
ty death suicide
abuse
3. Perfectionism
4. Ambivalence con- 4. Repeated suicide
4. Sudden change cerning dependence ideation
in social behav- vs. independence 5. Daredevil or self-
ior abusive behavior
5. Running away
5. Academic
6. Family history of sui- 6. Mental illness such
deterioration as delusions or
cide
6. Underachieve- hallucinations in
ment and learn- schizophrenia
ing disabilities 7. Overwhelming sense
of guilt
8. Obsessive self-doubt
9. Phobic anxiety
10. Clinical depression
11. Substance abuse
Source: Adapted with permission from Metha, A., & Dunham, H.J. (1988). Behavioral indicators. In D.
Capuzzi, & L. Golden., Preventing adolescent suicide (pp. 49-86). Muncie, IN: Accelerated De-
velopment Inc.

8. What is the adolescents’ perception of failure?
Upwards of a thousand students commit suicide every year. They had their
wholes lives ahead of them, but somehow, they lost hope. No one cared,
they thought; life was not worth living. They asked themselves: “is that all
there is?”
Suicide is certainly the ultimate self-punishment for having failed. Life is
no longer worth the struggle, the effort, the will.
I would like to take a look with you at the concept of failure: at how ado-
lescents in high school and college see it; and what we, as parents and
teachers, have taught them about it. The world is full of people who are
fearful that they will fail at some task or goal and who usually manage to
avoid trying because they construe failure as the worst of all possible
crimes. We have all had a part in failure, all had to come to grips with it, and
all had to decide what failure actually means to each of us individually.
Success is important in our society, more important, surely, than the desire
to live sanely and to enjoy the good things of life which one has worked

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for. Success for its own sake is valued–valued, I believe, at any cost, and
the road to success rationalized in the name of the great American compet-
itive way, at the expense of honesty, and perhaps sanity.
The “F” for failure has become so feared that we in education have re-
vamped our marking system in preference for U’s and E’s without re-
vamping our attitudes–attitudes of those who should know.
We are apt to be very objective when we look at our students. We give
them what they desire, and in doing so, we feel very smug. We have given
out the material, we have given the examinations, and now it follows, as
night follows day, we give out the marks. Yet we forget that there is much
more that a teacher gives to his students, willingly or unwillingly. A teach-
er gives an example of how to look at life and at people. And if failure is
viewed as the worst fate, if it is something that is given the connotations of
shame, unworthiness, and hopelessness, then indeed, we have taught much
more than English or history or mathematics.
Adolescence marks the trying period of search which may have the signifi-
cant effects of subsequent personality structure, and on later adjustments in
the years that lie ahead. Probably, what brings the greatest amount of
equalizing balance to the period of adolescence is the presence of signifi-
cant people in the adolescent’s life. Since people become so very impor-
tant to an adolescent, it is the importance of the people, who possess that
special ingredient of compassion, who can help the adolescent come
through this unfolding, transitional period into the fullness of adult life.
It is important to realize that in most competitive situations, two major mo-
tives appear: either to achieve success . . . or to avoid failure. The strivers-
for-success are more likely to be middle-of-the-roaders in their aspirations
or ambitions, whereas the failure-avoider will be either excessively cau-
tious or extravagantly reckless in the things he tries. Because failure is
painful, a failure-avoider will choose either extreme rather than take the
50-50 chance.
A person’s self-picture does reflect the evaluation of himself by the crucial
figures of his interpersonal environment. Self-evaluation may be influ-
enced by peers as much as by parents. Feelings of adequacy and success
may depend more on self-acceptance than on actual achievement. Regard-
less of actual test performance, self-accepting students tend to be opti-
mistic, non-anxious, and non-competitive. Self-rejecting ones are anxious
and unrealistic in goal setting.
A study was done where the subjects were asked to rate themselves on a
list of traits as they thought they were, as they hoped they were, as they

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feared they were, and as they thought others regarded them. The groups
had first been classified as stable and unstable on the basis of personality
inventory. The stable group rated themselves higher showing less discrep-
ancy between their self-ratings and the way they thought others would rate
them. They were also better liked, better adjusted socially, less situation
dominated, and showed less defensive behavior.
Approximately half of the students who enter college dropout. Many are in
the highest levels of ability. When students dropout, it usually is under-
stood that they have failed. At the college level, a great deal of attention
has been given to the question: “What can we learn about those who have
failed in the past that will enable us to reject similar persons who might ap-
ply for admission in the future?” Little consideration is given to the ques-
tion: “What might the institution do to prevent failure, to help remedy
shortcomings within the college and with the individual student, which
produces failure?”
Reasons for coming to college are always multiple. Stress is usually placed
on one or another of these:
a. desire to get a higher paying job;
b. status of a degree;
c. social life–all my friends are going;
d. avoid joining work force;
e. get married;
f. pressure from parents.
Many are disillusioned with what is expected of them. Many find that col-
lege is the same old thing as high school–all these things which are not
practical. Others who are eager to learn find that college is not the kind of
challenge they had expected.
Many students entering college regret the time they wasted in high school.
They did not try hard enough; they did not apply themselves; they were
more interested in athletics, social life, or other things. Reflecting back,
one may find many things that a student was concerned about during high
school days–some things indeed far more important to the student than ge-
ometry or American history. Some interests were far more necessary and
pressing in order that the student might mature. But, those who observed
the adolescent in high school are very often unaware of what he is facing
and are not able to understand why he can’t buckle down. What one may
not understand is the reason that there are many things the adolescent is
trying to accomplish and school work often provides him with no stimula-

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tion, no incentive for interest or involvement. School is just a bore! And
teachers are a bore! And adults, in general, are a bore! Adults are forever
talking, but what they say often does not seem to mean anything.
A new interest can be sparked in school when there is a teacher who does
mean something. But it takes more than one teacher to make a school pro-
gram relevant. When competition and success are the significant ingredi-
ents of a program and when we are apt to be creating egocentric intellectu-
als who gloat over their achievements while looking down on those who
have developed feelings of worthlessness and fear that they will probably
never win, we are confirming that only those who win are important.
Our task ought to be providing help to the adolescent to see that failure is
neither good nor bad. It is, however, an inevitable fact of reality that the
way we use failure in our lives will determine, ultimately, its goodness or
badness for us.
Each of us must learn to live with certain limitations in ability. It is only
when an individual falls consistently below the norm in areas that seem
important to him that inferior ability constitutes a serious limitation.
From studies of both high achievers and underachievers in high school, the
pattern of the relationship between self-concept and achievement becomes
clearer. A relationship is present between positive self-concept and under-
achievement, but research does not indicate which is cause or effect.
Chances are we can see a circular pattern beginning earlier with perception
or experiences. Every experience contributes to the adolescent’s evolving
picture of himself, which, in turn, becomes a guide to future action.
Parental pressure for success seems to arise naturally out of parents’ desire
that their children receive the best the world has to offer, yet in the same
breath, it may be that many parents see the failure which their son or
daughter may face as a failure for themselves. Many parents want their
children to be a credit to them, forgetting that if a child is a credit to self,
the other will follow naturally.
Likewise, importance should not be given to doing better than the next
guy, but rather to trying to do our best. We should be our own chief and
best competition. We cannot always achieve our goal, but we ought to find
satisfaction in knowing we did the best we could. Too often, we are teach-
ing the idea of striving for success in high school, in college, in athletics,
in all the aspects of living for the wrong reasons. Let’s change our own at-
titudes about success and failure.

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9. What are the Six Realms of Meaning?
a. Symbolics – the arbitrary symbolic systems developed by man to ex-
press meaning; these systems include verbal language, mathematics,
rhythmic patterns, rituals, and other nondiscursive symbolic forms.
b. Empirics – meanings based on observation and experimentation in the
natural and social sciences; expressed as descriptions, generalizations,
and theories that are recognized as probably empirical truths in accor-
dance with specified criteria for evidence, verifications, and analysis.
c. Aesthetics – meanings derived subjectively and expressed through mu-
sic, visual arts, literature, and arts of movement.
d. Synnoetics – personal or relational knowledge that is direct and con-
crete and may apply to oneself, to other people, or to things.
e. Ethics – moral meanings related to obligations and personal conduct.
f. Synoptics – integration of meanings from empirical, aesthetic, and sy-
noetic realms into comprehensive structures, as in history, philosophy,
and religion.
10. What are some humanistic teaching methods that are effective with
youth?
a. a democratic teaching style;
b. individualization of instruction geared to students’ interests;
c. informality in classroom structure and functioning;
d. diversity of student activities based on individual interests;
e. diagnosis of problems based on individual goals, interests, and abilities
rather than no comparison with others;
f. stress on cooperation as opposed to competition;
g. productivity in terms of clearly purposeful activities by students that re-
late to and extend beyond the classroom;
h. classroom activities that are of interest to the students and provide them
with personal and academic satisfaction.
11. What are some specific objectives that student councils should strive
to achieve?
a. to promote the general welfare of the school;
b. to promote democracy as a way of life;
c. to teach home, school, and community citizenship;

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d. to provide school experiences closely related to life experiences;
e. to provide learning opportunities through the solution of problems that
are of interest and concern to students;
f. to provide training and experience in representative democracy;
g. to contribute to the total educational growth of boys and girls.
12. What are Bill Gates’ Rules for Life?
In a Bill Gates message about life to recent high school and college gradu-
ates, he listed 11 things they did not learn in school. He talked about how
feel-good, politically correct teachings have created a full generation of
kids with no concept of reality and how this concept has set them up for
failure in the real world. Here’s his List of Rules for Life:
RULE 1 – Life is not fair, get use to it.
RULE 2 – The world won’t care about your self-esteem. The world will
expect you to accomplish something BEFORE you feel good
about yourself.
RULE 3 – You will not make $40,000 a year right out of high school.
You won’t be a vice president with a car phone until you earn
both.
RULE 4 – If you think your teacher is tough, wait till you get a boss. He
doesn’t have tenure.
RULE 5 – Flipping burgers is not beneath your dignity. Your grandpar-
ents had a different word for burger flipping; they called it
opportunity.
RULE 6 – If you mess up, it’s not your parents’ fault, so don’t whine
about your mistakes, learn from them.
RULE 7 – Before you were born, your parents weren’t as boring as they
are now. They got that way from paying your bills, cleaning
your clothes, and listening to how cool you are. So before you
save the rain forest from the parasites of your parents’ genera-
tion, try “delousing” the closet in your own room.
RULE 8 – Your school may have done away with winners and losers,
but life has not. In some schools, they have abolished failing
grades; they’ll give you as many times as you want to get the
right answer. This doesn’t bear the slightest resemblance to
ANYTHING in real life.

PAGE 225

RULE 9 – Life is not divided into semesters. You don’t get summers off
and very few employers are interested in helping you find
yourself. Do that on your own time.
RULE 10 – Television is NOT real life. In real life people actually have
to leave the coffee shop and go to jobs.
RULE 11 – Be nice to nerds. Chances are you’ll end up working for one.
13. What are the components to The Tyler Model (Curriculum Develop-
ment and Improvement)?
Student as Source

Society as Source

Subject Matter as Source

Student, Society, and Subject Matter Sources lead to

Tentative General Objects

Philosophical and Psychological Screening lead to

Precise Instructional Objectives that leads to

Selection of Learning Experiences

Organization of Learning Experiences

Direction of Learning Experiences and

Evaluation of Learning Experiences
Source: Tyler, R.W. (1949). Basic principles of curriculum and instruction. Chicago: University of Chicago
Press. Adapted with permission.

14. What are the components to the Saylor, Alexander, and Lewis’ Con-
ception of the Curriculum Planning Process (Curriculum Develop-
GOALS AND OBJECTIVES lead to
CURRICULUM DESIGNING that leads to
CURRICULUM IMPLEMENTATION (Instruction) that leads to
CURRCICULUM EVALUATION
Source: Saylor, Alexander, & Lewis. (1981). Curriculum planning (4th ed.), p. 30. New York: Holt, Rinehart
and Winston. Adapted with permission.

SCHOOLING (2002)
PAGE 226

15. What are the components to The Taba Model (Curriculum Develop-
The Five-Step Sequence of Taba’s Model:
1. Production by teachers of pilot teaching-learning units is representative
of the grade level or subject area. Taba recommends an eight-step se-
quence for developing pilot units:
a. diagnosis of needs.
b. formulation of objectives.
c. selection of content.
d. organization of content.
e. selection of learning experiences.
f. organization of learning activities.
g. determination of what to evaluate and of the ways and means of do-
ing it.
h. checking for balance and sequence.
2. Testing experimental units.
3. Revising and consolidating.
4. Developing a framework.
5. Installing and disseminating new units.
Source: Taba, H. (1962). Curriculum development: Theory and practice. New York: Harcourt Brace Jo-
vanovich. Adapted with permission.

16. What are the components to The Oliva Model (Curriculum Develop-
a. specify the needs of students in general;
b. specify the needs of society;
c. write a state of philosophy and aims of education;
d. specify the needs of students in your school;
e. specify the needs of the particular community;
f. specify the needs of the subject matter;
g. specify the curriculum goals of your school;
h. specify the curricular objectives of your school;
i. organize and implement the curriculum;

PAGE 227

j. specify instructional goals;
k. specify instructional objectives;
l. select instructional strategies;
m. begin selection of evaluation strategies;
n. implement instructional strategies;
o. make final selection of evaluation strategies;
p. evaluate instruction and modify instructional components;
q. evaluate the curriculum and modify curricular components.
Source: Oliva, P.F. (1988). Developing the curriculum. Boston, MA: Scott, Foresman, and Com-
pany. Adapted with permission.

E. REVIEW ITEMS
True-False
1. The “Back to Basics” movement has been a major force in improving sci-
ence education.
2. Current trends seem to be away from extra-curricular activities.
3. Students have the right to “due process” in disciplinary actions.
4. The courts have consistently upheld schools’ rights to impose dress codes.
5. School officials have the right to search a student’s locker under some cir-
cumstances.
6. As of this writing, no successful program has been developed to help keep
potential dropouts in school.
7. SAT scores have been improving since the late 1960s.
8. The problems of adolescence invariably pass in time without lasting effects.
9. Adolescents are highly susceptible to feelings of isolation and rejection.
10. One purpose of vocational education is to provide an alternative for poten-
tial dropouts.
11. More than 90% of all high school graduates complete at least one voca-
tional educational course.
12. The enrollment in vocational education has declined significantly over the
past several years.

SCHOOLING (2002)
PAGE 228

Multiple Choice
1. The educational focus of the Common School Movement was primarily on
_______.
a. pre-school b. elementary education c. secondary education
d. post-secondary education
2. Approximately _______ of public school students eventually graduate.
a. 90% b. 85% c. 80% d. 75%
3. The first type of school designed to facilitate the transition from elemen-
tary school to high school was the _______.
a. common school b. junior high c. middle school
d. preparatory “prep” school
4. The primary focus of junior high schools is _______.
a. academics b. psychological rehabilitation
c. sociological development d. interpersonal skills develop-
ment
5. American high schools today _______.
a. focus only on academics
b. focus only on socialization skills
c. largely ignore vocational education
d. include all of the above general subject areas in their orientation
6. “The Seven Cardinal Principles” was a report dealing with _______.
a. appropriate objective of secondary education
b. the state of parochial education in America
c. the philosophical bases of vocational education
d. enhancing American democratic process through education
7. The curricular track most often selected in high schools is _______.
a. academics b. vocational c. general d. a and b in equal numbers
8. The event in the late 1950s that spurred a renewed interest in science edu-
cation in this country was _______.
a. launching of Sputnik b. the Mercury program
c. the Apollo program d. the Cuban Missile crisis
9. Since the mid 1960s science education _______.
a. has improved steadily
b. slid into a deepening state of crisis
c. has remained relatively steady at a very high level of achievement

PAGE 229

d. has suffered from misdirection on the face of extremely high funding levels
10. The method of instruction which places the responsibility for selecting, or-
ganizing, and sequencing information solely on the teacher is _______.
a. lecture b. discussion c. exploratory d. none of the above
11. Students exhibiting low levels of self motivation should not be taught using
the _______ method.
a. lecture b. discussion c. independent study d. all of the above
12. The best and most effective disciplinary programs are probably those
which _______.
a. are severe and swift b. are preventive in nature
c. emphasize corporal punishment d. are arbitrary and indiscriminate
13. The largest reason for students dropping out of schools appears to be
_______.
a. economics b. failing grades c. peer pressures
d. personal problems
14. The purposes of vocational education include all except _______.
a. facilitating the mastery of special skills
b. helping keep potential dropouts in school
c. providing a curriculum that is closely related to everyday survival needs
d. providing a base for college preparatory skills
e. all of the above are goals for vocational education

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Chapter08[1]