Child Development in the Broader Context of Developmental Science.docx

Child Development in the Broader Context of Developmental
Science
Child development is one aspect of the broader,
interdisciplinary field of developmental science, which includes
the entire lifespan. Researchers in the area of child development
typically divide these initial years into five age periods
encompassing conception through adolescence.
PRENATAL PERIOD
INFANCY AND TODDLERHOOD
EARLY CHILDHOOD PERIOD
MIDDLE CHILDHOOD PERIOD
ADOLESCENT PERIOD
Vygotsky’s Sociocultural Theory
Does society or culture have an impact on child development?
Of course! Each individual has a different religious, ethnic, and
economic background. Since all of those factors influence our
development, there has been a rise in research studies that
address the cultural context of children’s lives. Researchers are
examining the effect of culturally specific beliefs and practices
on development.
Sociocultural theory, developed by Lev Vygotsky, focuses on
how culture is transmitted to the next generation. Vygotsky
believed that social interaction with more knowledgeable
members of society is necessary for children to develop the
ways of thinking and behaving that comprise a community’s
culture. He saw cognitive development as a socially mediated
process in which children depend on assistance from peers and
adults as they take on new challenges. One additional discovery
of cross-cultural research is that each individual culture may
emphasize different tasks for childr
Ecological Systems Theory
Urie Bronfenbrenner (1917–2005) posited that our environment,
consisting of our home, school, neighborhood, and beyond, is a
series of structures that form a system. Each layer of that

system interacts with the others and has a powerful impact on
development. According to Bronfenbrenner’s ecological systems
theory, children develop within this complex system of
relationships and are affected by multiple levels of the
surrounding environment.
MICROSYSTEM
MESOSYSTEM
EXOSYSTEM
MACROSYSTEM
CHRONOSYSTEM
An Illustration of Ecological Systems Theory: The Transition to
Siblinghood
The early weeks after a new baby enters the family are full of
profound changes. While the arrival of a newborn sibling is a
normative life event for many children, the transition to
siblinghood can result in a mixture of positive and negative
emotions. Some children welcome the new arrival, while others
experience a developmental setback in a specific area like toilet
training. Volling (2005) provides a developmental ecological
systems approach to examine changes in both child and family
functioning that occur with the birth of a new baby.
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Significant changes occur within the immediate family
(microsystem). Because the mother may spend most of the early
weeks after the birth caring for the newborn, the quality of the
father–child relationship may be particularly important for
sibling adjustment.
Development as a Dynamic System
According to a theory known as dynamic systems perspective, a

child’s mind, body, and physical and social worlds form an
integrated, dynamic system that guides mastery of new skills.
Like tossing a pebble into a pond, any introduced changes cause
reactions within the entire system. This prompts the child to
actively adjust his or her behavior so that the system works
together again, but with more complexity and efficiency. While
these theories support that human genetic heritage and common
occurrences within the world of children lead to universal
elements of development, a child’s individual genetics, daily
experiences, and familial support systems lead to vast
differences in how each child acquires skills.
Public Policy
Laws and government programs aimed at improving current
conditions for children are essential for protecting children’s
development. The study of childhood development directly
impacts these public policy decisions. One of the current trends
in child development is to apply knowledge gained from
research to solve critical societal problems through social and
public policies. Social policy is any planned set of actions by a
group, institution, or governing body directed at attaining a
social goal. Public policy includes laws and government
programs designed to improve current conditions. One cultural
value debate which heavily influences public policy is
individualism versus collectivism. Should cultures emphasize
individual well-being or the needs of an entire group? A
nation’s economic resources, as well as the role of
organizations and individuals that advocate for children’s
needs, also impact public policy.
Role of Theories, Hypotheses, and Research Questions in the
Research Process
What do you know about research? When you examine the
results of a research study, do you take them at face value? Do
you ever question the validity of the results or wonder how the
results were devised? You should! As a consumer, it is critical
that you are equipped to distinguish dependable information
from misleading results. If you are working with children, you

may have an opportunity to assist researchers and/or collaborate
with community agencies to identify child development-related
issues. In this way, you will become a vital link between
research and practice. Understanding the strengths and
limitations of various research strategies can prepare you to
interpret research data, as well as design and conduct your own
investigations.
Researchers face many challenges as they plan and implement
studies of children. Initially, they must develop a researchable
idea, such as a hypothesis (a prediction drawn from a theory) or
research question. They may explore two opposing theories, test
a prediction from a single theory, or investigate a topic on
which little or no theory exists. Subsequently, they must
develop a research strategy. This involves choosing the methods
they will use in their investigations. Common methods include
systematic observation, self-reports, psychophysiological
measures, clinical or case studies, and ethnography. They must
ensure that their procedures are both reliable and valid—two
keys to scientifically sound research. Next, the researcher must
choose a research design. Two main types of designs,
correlational and experimental, are used in all studies of human
behavior. Scientists who study child development extend these
approaches to special developmental research strategies—
longitudinal and cross-sectional designs—that include
measurements at different ages. Modified developmental
designs, such as the sequential design, build on the strengths of
both approaches. The microgenetic design allows researchers to
observe change as it occurs in an individual. Now, let us more
closely examine these common methods of research.Physical
Growth and Development of Sex Differences and Gender Roles
This week we will cover the development of the brain, factors
affecting physical growth, the psychological impact of pubertal
events. We will also examine gender stereotypes, influences on
gender stereotyping, gender identity, and the extent to which
boys and girls differ in gender-stereotyped attributes.Topics to
be covered include:

· Process of Physical Growth
· Factors that affect Physical Growth
· Impact of Puberty on Physical and Psychological Health
· Development of Sex Differences and Gender Roles
· When compared to other animals, humans experience a
prolonged period of physical growth. During the first two
decades of life, the human body continuously and dramatically
changes, a process regulated and controlled by a number of
biological and environmental factors. New parents may be
surprised to discover that their baby will nearly double in height
during the first year and that birth weight will nearly triple.
Obviously, we do not continue to grow at such a fast rate
throughout our entire lives. While gains in height and weight
are rapid during infancy, they slow down during early and
middle childhood. However, growth accelerates again when
puberty is reached. Average teens will gain 10-11 inches in
height and approximately 50-75 pounds in weight during
puberty.
· In childhood, physical growth follows cephalocaudal and
proximodistal trends. Have you ever noticed how the bodies of
young children can seem out of proportion? That is because
parts of the body grow at different rates throughout
development. During the prenatal period, the head develops
first, followed by the lower part of the body. After birth, the
head and chest continue to grow, while the trunk and legs
gradually begin to catch up. That is known as the cephalocaudal
trend, otherwise known as “head to tail.” Alternately, with the
proximodistal trend, growth occurs from the center of the body
outward, or “near to far.”
· PHYSICAL MATURITY
During puberty, growth patterns reverse. The hands, legs, and
feet grow more rapidly, followed by the torso. This accounts for
most of adolescent height gain and explains why many
adolescents appear awkward in terms of proportion. In addition,
because sex hormones begin to act on the skeleton, differences

in the body composition of boys and girls become evident.
Remember, the rate of development is different for every
individual. This includes physical growth. Therefore, the best
measure of a child’s physical maturity is skeletal age. Skeletal
age can be estimated by X-raying the bones to determine the
number of epiphyses (special growth centers) and the degree to
which they are fused. Skeletal age is slightly more advanced in
African American children over Caucasian American children
and in girls over boys. The girl-boy gap widens over infancy
and childhood. This discrepancy in physical maturity may be a
factor in girls having greater resistance to harmful
environmental influences and fewer developmental problems.
· Throughout early and middle childhood, a child’s body
changes in size, proportion, and muscle strength which leads to
the development of a wide variety of gross-motor skills. The
body becomes less top-heavy and the center of gravity shifts
downward toward the trunk. This enhances balance, which leads
to actions such as running, jumping, hopping, and skipping.
Strength, agility, and flexibility also improve during the school
years, which allows abilities like ball skills to develop. Just as
they did during earlier development, children continue to
combine previously acquired skills into more complex dynamic
systems of action. They improve each skill as their bodies and
minds become more developed and are able to participate in
organized sports. In childhood, boys’ advantage over girls in
gross-motor skill development largely reflects social
expectations. However, by adolescence, sex differences in size
and strength play a greater role.
· INFLUENCES ON GROWTH
Hormones, which are produced by the endocrine glands, play an
important role in a child’s growth. Hormones are chemical
substances secreted by specialized cells in one part of the body
that influence cells in another. The pituitary gland is
responsible for producing the hormones most vital to human
growth. The hypothalamus, which is part of the brain that

initiates and regulates pituitary secretions, acts as the control
center for the hormones. Growth is carefully managed as the
hypothalamus monitors hormone levels and directs the pituitary
gland to increase or decrease the amount of each hormone.
· Sexual maturation is controlled by pituitary secretions that
stimulate the release of sex hormones. This leads to changes
such as muscle growth, body and facial hair, and other male sex
characteristics in boys and breast, uterus, and vagina maturation
in girls. These changes are the direct result of estrogens and
androgens, which are hormones present in each sex, but in
different amounts. In both sexes, estrogens increase growth
hormone secretion, augmenting the growth spurt.
· As is the case in many types of development, differences in
body size and rates of maturation are influenced by both
heredity and environment. Body size can be a manifestation of
evolutionary adaptations to a climate. For example, it is typical
for people in hot, tropical regions to have long, lean bodies, as
lean physiques are easier to keep cool. In contrast, those
residing in frigid, Arctic climates tend to be short and stocky.
Also, it makes sense that taller children usually live in highly
developed countries, whereas children from countries with
prevalent hunger, disease, and poverty tend to be smaller.
· ndustrialized nations have seen changes in body size from one
generation to the next over the past 150 years. These secular
trends in physical growth appear early in life, increase over
childhood and early adolescence, and then decline as adult body
size is reached. Children in Australia, Canada, Japan, New
Zealand, the U.S. and most of the European countries are taller
and heavier than their parents and grandparents were as
children. These changes are one outcome of increasing emphasis
on improved health and nutrition.
Brain Development
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· Even though the brain is our most complex organ, it reaches
its adult size earlier than any other organ in the body.
Therefore, stimulation of the brain is vital during periods in

which it is growing most rapidly. First, let us examine brain
growth both at the cellular level and the larger level of the
cerebral cortex.The Cerebral Cortex
Brain plasticity is the capacity of various parts of the cerebral
cortex to take over functions of damaged regions and is an
intriguing area of study for researchers. When the cerebral
cortex is highly plastic, or capable of being molded, many areas
have not committed to a specific function, so there is a high
capacity for learning. Brain plasticity remains elevated for the
first few years. If there is damage to the cortex during this time,
other regions can manage the tasks previously controlled by the
damaged area. However, once the two hemispheres of the brain
lateralize, or take on specific functions, full recovery of skills
controlled by damaged areas may not be possible.
Connections in the brain continue to strengthen through
childhood and adolescence. There is a great deal of
communication happening, and the prefrontal cortex begins to
work more efficiently in managing this communication,
allowing for more flexible and adaptive thinking and behavior.
This leads to significant gain in various cognitive skills, such as
attention, memory, and regulation of emotion. However,
because this progression occurs progressively in teenagers, they
typically do not perform as well on tasks requiring self-control,
planning, and future orientation. The adolescent brain is also
dealing with changes to the emotional/social network which
makes it difficult to maintain emotional balance. All of this is
important for parents to keep in mind so that they can best
support their teenager.
We have learned that stimulation of the brain is fundamental
during periods of rapid growth. Researchers consider two types
of brain development in order to determine appropriate
stimulation of the brain.
Factors Affecting Physical Growth
Heredity, nutrition, infectious disease, and parental affection all
contribute to physical growth and overall health. Given that
other factors are stable, height and rate of physical growth are

chiefly influenced by heredity. Even weight is affected by
genetics, although nutrition and eating habits are, of course,
significant factors.
· NUTRITION
· MALNUTRITION
· OBESITY
· INFECTIOUS DISEASE
· EMOTIONAL FACTORS
Proper nutrition should be encouraged at every stage of growth.
Babies have specific nutritional needs, and breast milk is
ideally suited for this crucial time of development. It provides a
perfect balance of protein and fat, ensures nutritional
completeness and digestibility, and protects against many
diseases. It is recommended that this practice is continued
throughout the age of two years, with the addition of solid foods
at the six month mark. Including all the food groups should
begin as early as age one. By the time a child reaches the age of
two, growth has slowed, and his or her appetite becomes
irregular. Selective eating is not uncommon at this stage. It
makes sense that when rapid growth returns during puberty,
appetite dramatically increases. Unfortunately, this rise in food
intake corresponds with a time when eating habits are the
poorest. Establishing routine family mealtimes can lead to a
much healthier diet during this time.Puberty
Puberty has an extreme impact on physical and psychological
health in adolescent development. Puberty is the phase of
development in which a boy or girl becomes sexually mature. In
this phase, young people grow rapidly, develop full-grown
bodies, and become capable of producing children. Primary
sexual characteristics, which involve the reproductive organs,
and secondary sexual characteristics, which are observable on
the outside of the body, begin to take root. Typically, this
process takes about four years. However, since we know each
child develops at a unique rate, the process can take as little as
two years or as long as six years.
Here is a brief overview of how females and males experience

puberty:
FEMALES
MALES
HEREDITY
Heredity is a significant factor in the onset of puberty for each
individual. However, nutrition and exercise also play a role.
Significant weight gain in girls, for example, may trigger this
process earlier than in their average-weight peers. Girls who are
highly athletic or who eat modest amounts of food usually
experience a slightly delay in puberty. Note that this link is not
common in boys. When we examine countries where
malnutrition and infectious diseases are common, we learn that
physical health plays a major role in puberty. Menarche, for
instance, can be greatly delayed in these regions. Additionally,
family dynamics may affect pubertal timing. It has been
suggested that, when a child does not feel safe and secure in his
or her environment, his or her body begins the process of
puberty earlier to allow for reproduction. Research has shown
that girls and boys with a history of family tension, overly strict
parenting, or parental separation have a propensity to reach
puberty at earlier ages.Sexuality
As puberty arrives, it brings with it an increased sex drive for
teenagers. In turn, they begin to fret about how to deal with
sexuality within social settings. Their level of education about
sex becomes a factor in how they approach sexual situations.
Sex-related education practices can vary widely across cultures.
Surprisingly, sexual attitudes in North America are somewhat
restrictive. While young people are now more liberal in regards
to sexual behavior, parents often provide little or no
information about sex with their adolescents. Though there are
other ways teenagers can obtain information regarding sex,
other sources (friends, internet, movies, etc.) do not have the
same positive impact as meaningful discussions with caring

family members.
EARLY SEXUAL ACTIVITY
CONTRACEPTION
TEENAGE PREGNANCY
LGBT YOUTHGender Stereotyping and Gender Roles
Children naturally adopt many gender-linked standards that are
reflected in their cultures. Current research reveals how
biological, cognitive, and social factors influence development
of gender stereotypes, gender roles, and gender identity, and
provides insight on how to release children from gender-based
societal expectations.
Gender stereotypes, or widely held beliefs about characteristics
deemed appropriate for males and females, are not a new
concept. They have existed in religious, philosophical, and
literary works for centuries. It was once believed that healthy
development was due, in part, to the acceptance of gender-
specific beliefs and behaviors. However, as women’s rights
came to the forefront of society, this view has been adjusted,
and the study of gender typing has undergone theoretical
revision in response to this societal change. Even with this
renewed awareness, many individuals still recognize and
respond to ideas about differences between genders.
Strong beliefs still persist about sex differences in personality.
Two different kinds of traits – instrumental (competence,
rationality, and assertiveness) and expressive (warmth, caring,
and sensitivity) – were identified when asking people about
personality characteristics typically associated with males and
females. It may not surprise you to learn that instrumental traits
are widely regarded as masculine, while expressive traits are
considered feminine. In addition to personality, gender
stereotypes for physical characteristics, occupations, and
activities also persist. These characteristics tend to elevate men

over women.
nfluences on Gender Stereotyping and Gender Role
Identification
· HORMONES
· ADULTS
· SCHOOL AND COMMUNITY
· PEERS
While many believe that gender-stereotyped information is
communicated to children through instruction, others believe
that our biology causes males or females to be better suited for
certain roles.
From an evolutionary perspective, males were typically the
competitive hunters, and females the gatherers who stayed near
the camp to raise children. To some, this means males are
genetically groomed for dominance and females for affection
and support roles. Think back to our learning about genetics and
hormones. We know that hormones regulate sexual development
and body growth and even affect brain development. According
to research, hormones even affect how young children play, as
boys tend to be more rough and noisy, while girls are generally
calm and gentle. This causes boys to want to play with boys and
girls to want to play with girls. While these differences in play
styles may be due, in part, to social pressure, hormones do play
a role. Studies have shown that prenatal androgen (male sex
hormones) levels contribute to these behavioral outcomes.
These findings are supported by cross-cultural similarities in
gender stereotypes and gender-role adoption.
Although hormones are a clear factor in gender-role adoption,
environmental influences are compelling forces for gender-role
adoption. If girls and boys are treated differently, they will
likely act differently. A child’s home, school, and community
provide many opportunities for children to observe this
occurrence.Gender Identity
Gender identity is a person’s self-perception as masculine or
feminine. It influences gender stereotyping and gender-role
behavior and is a good predictor of psychological adjustment.

Researchers can actually measure gender identity by asking
individuals to evaluate themselves based on a list of personality
traits. Those who viewed themselves as masculine rated
themselves highly on traits that are traditionally considered
masculine, such as competitiveness, independence, and
ambition. In contrast, those who viewed themselves as feminine
showed an inclination to associate with traditional feminine
traits, like affection or gentleness. The majority of people fit
into either masculine or feminine categories. However, some
possess an identity known as androgyny, scoring high on both
masculine and feminine traits. This means they are adaptable to
many types of situations. Those who identify as masculine or
androgynous typically have higher self-esteem than those who
identify as feminine, as feminine characteristics are not often
highly esteemed by society.Gender Identity Process
You may be wondering about the process that children go
through to establish a gender identity. Two theories have
contrasting views on this progression. Social learning theory
suggests that behavior precedes self-perception. In other words,
young children learn how to act according to their sex through
modeling and reinforcement and then later apply these
behaviors to ideas about their own gender. Cognitive-
developmental theory, however, suggests that self-perceptions
pave the way for behavior. These include:
GENDER CONSTANCY
GENDER LABELING
GENDER CONSISTENCY
GENDER TYPICALITY, CONTENTEDNESS, AND ROLES
GENDER INTENSIFICATION

Intersectionality and Research in Psychology
Elizabeth R. Cole
University of Michigan
Feminist and critical race theories offer the concept of
intersectionality to describe analytic approaches that si-
multaneously consider the meaning and consequences of
multiple categories of identity, difference, and disadvan-
tage. To understand how these categories depend on one
another for meaning and are jointly associated with out-
comes, reconceptualization of the meaning and signifi-
cance of the categories is necessary. To accomplish this,
the author presents 3 questions for psychologists to ask:
Who is included within this category? What role does
inequality play? Where are there similarities? The 1st
question involves attending to diversity within social cate-
gories. The 2nd conceptualizes social categories as con-
noting hierarchies of privilege and power that structure
social and material life. The 3rd looks for commonalities
across categories commonly viewed as deeply different.
The author concludes with a discussion of the implications
and value of these 3 questions for each stage of the re-
search process.
Keywords: intersectionality, feminist psychology, race,
theory
Psychologists are increasingly concerned with theeffects of
race/ethnicity, gender, social class, andsexuality on outcomes
such as health and well-
being, personal and social identities, and political views
and participation. However, little work has considered how

these categories of identity, difference, and disadvantage
are jointly associated with outcomes. Silverstein (2006)
found that among the publications dealing with either gen-
der or race indexed in PsycINFO between 2002 and 2004,
only a minority investigated both constructs, perhaps be-
cause psychologists generally aim to simplify models for
parsimony, either by omitting variables or by statistically
controlling for membership in categories other than the one
of interest (Betancourt & López, 1993). Even less attention
has been paid to how social categories depend on one
another for meaning, despite the obvious fact that every
individual necessarily occupies multiple categories (i.e.,
gender, race, class, etc.) simultaneously.
Such questions may be understood within the rubric of
intersectionality, which feminist and critical race theorists
developed to describe analytic approaches that consider the
meaning and consequences of multiple categories of social
group membership. However, psychologists have been
slow to incorporate this concept into their work because
there are no established guidelines for empirically address-
ing research questions informed by an intersectional frame-
work (McCall, 2005). Given this gap, some psychologists
might imagine that to address intersectional questions, it is
necessary to develop complex designs involving prohibi-
tively large samples or to enlist the cooperation of an
interdisciplinary team to triangulate the problem. Although
this is not the case, an intersectionality framework does ask
researchers to examine categories of identity, difference,
and disadvantage with a new lens. This article aims to
explicate this framework for psychologists by describing
the theoretical rationale underlying intersectionality and
outlining a series of three questions psychologists can ask
to conceptualize the influences of multiple social catego-
ries. I conclude by discussing the implications and value of

these questions for the research process.
History of the Concept of
Intersectionality
The Combahee River Collective (1977/1995), a group
of Black feminists, wrote a manifesto that has been cited as
one of the earliest expressions of intersectionality (see also
Beale, 1970). They argued “We . . . find it difficult to
separate race from class from sex oppression because in our
lives they are most often experienced simultaneously”
(Combahee River Collective, 1977/1995, p. 234). In fact,
the concept has deeper roots. In the United States, Black
scholar–activists have long theorized this position and at-
tempted to incorporate it into their politics. Late in the 19th
century, Anna Julia Cooper exhorted Black male leaders to
include sexist discrimination faced by Black women in
their race-based agenda (Giddings, 1985). Not long after-
ward, W. E. B. DuBois challenged the U.S. communist
party to incorporate an analysis of race into their class-
based organizing (Hancock, 2005). Despite these early
framings, King (1988) showed that major U.S. social
movements organized on the basis of race, class, and gen-
der failed to consider the intersections of these categories in
their political analysis and organizing. Consequently, the
interests of those who experienced multiple forms of sub-
Elizabeth R. Cole, Department of Women’s Studies, Department
of Psy-
chology, and Center for Afroamerican and African Studies,
University of
Michigan.
A version of this article was presented as the Yulee Endowed
Lecture
at George Washington University in Washington, DC, on

February 27,
2006. I thank Ramaswami Mahalingam, Peggy McCracken,
Yopie Prins,
Abigail J. Stewart, Elizabeth Wingrove, and Alyssa N. Zucker
for their
helpful feedback on the article. Any errors are mine alone.
Correspondence concerning this article should be addressed to
Eliz-
abeth R. Cole, University of Michigan, Department of Women’s
Studies,
204 South State Street, Ann Arbor, MI 48109-1290. E-mail:
[email protected]
umich.edu
170 April 2009 ! American Psychologist
© 2009 American Psychological Association 0003-
066X/09/$12.00
Vol. 64, No. 3, 170 –180 DOI: 10.1037/a0014564
ordination (e.g., Black women, working-class Blacks) were
often poorly served (see also Purdie-Vaughns & Eibach,
2008).
The early 1980s saw an upsurge in scholarship about
race and gender by women of color (e.g., Anzaldua, 1987;
Davis, 1983; Giddings, 1985; hooks, 1984; Hull, Scott, &
Smith, 1982). Without naming the theory driving their
investigations, this work addressed intersections of race,
gender, and often class and sexuality. Legal scholar and
critical race theorist Kimberle Crenshaw (1989/1993) is
credited with originating the term intersectionality, but
almost concurrently other scholars were drawing attention

to the limitations of analyses isolating race or gender as the
primary category of identity, difference, or disadvantage
(Hancock, 2007a; e.g., Collins, 1990; Hurtado, 1989;
Smith & Stewart, 1983). In a groundbreaking work, Cren-
shaw critiqued the “single-axis framework that is dominant
in antidiscrimination law . . . feminist theory and anti-racist
politics” (p. 383) for its focus on the experiences of the
most privileged members of subordinate groups. She ar-
gued that legal cases revealed Black women plaintiffs
sometimes experience discrimination in ways similar to white
women’s experiences; sometimes they share very similar experi-
ences with Black men. Yet often they experience double
discrim-
ination—the combined effects of practices which discriminate
on
the basis of race, and on the basis of sex. And sometimes, they
experience discrimination as Black women—not the sum of race
and sex discrimination, but as Black women. (Crenshaw, 1989/
1993, p. 385)
Note that she described three permutations: similar
experiences, additive or multiplicative effects (double dis-
crimination or double jeopardy), and experiences specific
to their status as Black women. Although scholars today
often distinguish between the additive or multiple approach
and intersectionality (Hancock, 2007a; Stewart & McDer-
mott, 2004), each of the permutations Crenshaw offered are
viable hypotheses about how multiple social statuses might
be experienced simultaneously and might be included un-
der the rubric of intersectional analyses.
Each of these early articulations of intersectionality
focused on the experiences of groups holding multiple
disadvantaged statuses; in doing so, they highlighted the

ways that analyses considering categories such as race and
gender independently may be limited because, in practice,
individuals experience these statuses simultaneously. How-
ever, a corollary to this observation is that some members
of disadvantaged groups also hold privileged identities
(e.g., middle-class Blacks, White women). This reveals that
although much of the literature on intersectionality has
been theorized from the standpoint of those who experience
multiple dimensions of disadvantage, this framework can
also inform how privileged groups are understood.
The concept of intersectionality is a signal contribu-
tion of feminist studies (McCall, 2005; Risman, 2004); in
some academic circles, the phrase race– class– gender is
invoked so frequently that it has been called a mantra (Fine
& Burns, 2003). However, too often this triad is mentioned
without meaningfully addressing the concerns for which
the phrase serves as shorthand (Knapp, 2005). This may be
inevitable until psychologists develop new ways to use the
theory of intersectionality to conceptualize how social cat-
egories jointly shape experiences and outcomes.
Intersectional Conceptualizations of
Social Categories: Three Questions
Toward this end, I propose three questions psychologists
might ask as a strategy for addressing intersectional ques-
tions in psychology research: First, who is included within
this category? Second, what role does inequality play?
Third, where are there similarities? The first question in-
volves attending to diversity within social categories to
interrogate how the categories depend on one other for
meaning. The second question conceptualizes social cate-
gories as connoting hierarchies of privilege and power that
structure social and material life. The third question looks
for commonalities cutting across categories often viewed as
deeply different. These questions are not mutually exclu-

sive; in fact, each question builds on insights generated by
the previous one.
To demonstrate the fruitfulness of asking these ques-
tions, I draw on examples from research in psychology and
related social sciences on aspects of women’s sexuality,
including ideals of feminine appearance, sexual respect-
ability, and risk in intimate relationships. Conceptualizing
categories of identity, difference, and disadvantage in terms
of these questions has implications for each stage of the
research process, which I discuss later (see Table 1).
1. Who Is Included Within This Category?
At the simplest level, psychologists can begin to consider
the intersectional nature of the social categories they study
by reflecting on who is included within a category. This
Elizabeth R.
Cole
Photo by Scott C.
Soderberg
171April 2009 ! American Psychologist
question draws researchers’ attention to diversity within
categories. Because certain groups have been systemati-
cally underrepresented in psychology research (e.g., people
of color, S. Sue, 1999; poor women, Reid, 1993), subcat-
egories that only partially represent a larger category have
often been taken as representative of the whole category.
For example, because of the use of student samples (S. Sue,
1999), much of what is known about women in psychology
is based on responses from women who are White and

often middle class. An intersectional approach is an anti-
dote to this erasure.
Moreover, the question may also encourage research-
ers to study groups belonging to multiple subordinated
categories, such as women from racial/ethnic minority
groups. This attention to those who have traditionally been
excluded, perhaps the oldest approach within intersection-
ality studies, thwarts any tendency to view a category in
essentialist terms, both by illuminating what is overlooked
when a social category is assumed to include only certain
(usually privileged) subgroups of that category and by
representing diverse experiences contained within catego-
ries defined by multiple identities (e.g., the category of
Black women includes women of different social classes
and sexualities). Asking who is included within a category
can facilitate representation of those who have been over-
looked and the repair of misconceptions in the extant
literature. The need for representation was well illustrated
by early work on intersectionality showing that a single-
axis framework that defines disadvantage only in terms of
group members who are otherwise privileged systemati-
cally excludes members of multiply subordinated groups
(Crenshaw, 1989/1993; King, 1988).
However, turning scholarly attention to groups who
experience disadvantage based on membership in multiple
categories is more than a matter of equity or inclusiveness.
Such inclusion transcends representation, offering the pos-
sibility to repair misconceptions engendered by the erasure
of minority groups and the marginal subgroups within
them. First, by focusing on groups that have been ne-
glected, researchers are better able to arrive at a contextu-
alized understanding of the groups’ experiences, rather
than viewing them in terms of the way they depart from

norms based on dominant groups (Weber & Parra-Medina,
2003). Second, analyses that presume to focus on, say,
gender, without consideration of other category member-
ships, implicitly assume a host of other social statuses that
usually go unnamed in American culture: middle-class
standing, heterosexuality, able-bodiedness, and White race
(D. W. Sue, 2004). Scholars who attend to which groups
are represented and which tend to be excluded— either by
focusing their work on members of subordinate groups
(hooks, 1984) or, conversely, by explicitly identifying and
investigating the multiple identities that define privilege
(see, e.g., Farough, 2006; Kuriloff & Reichert, 2003)—
disrupt these assumptions by identifying the ways that race,
class, or other identities shape the meaning of gender
(Higginbotham, 1992).
Table 1
Implications of the Three Questions for Each Stage of the
Research Process
Research stage
Question
Who is included within this category? What role does inequality
play? Where are the similarities?
Generation of
hypotheses
Is attuned to diversity within
categories
Literature review attends to
social and historical
contexts of inequality

May be exploratory rather than
hypothesis testing to discover
similarities
Sampling Focuses on neglected groups Category memberships
mark groups with
unequal access to power
and resources
Includes diverse groups
connected by common
relationships to social and
institutional power
Operationalization Develops measures from the
perspective of the group
being studied
If comparative, differences
are conceptualized as
stemming from structural
inequality (upstream)
rather than as primarily
individual-level
differences
Views social categories in
terms of individual and
institutional practices rather
than primarily as
characteristics of individuals
Analysis Attends to diversity within a
group and may be
conducted separately for

each group studied
Tests for both similarities
and differences
Interest is not limited to
differences
Interpretation of
findings
No group’s findings are
interpreted to represent a
universal or normative
experience
Differences are interpreted
in light of groups’
structural positions
Sensitivity to nuanced
variations across groups is
maintained even when
similarities are identified
Such attention is critical because failure to attend to
how social categories depend on one another for meaning
renders knowledge of any one category both incomplete
and biased. This was illustrated by Spelman’s (1988) cri-
tique of Chodorow’s claims about the universal character-
istics of mothering. Spelman noted that Chodorow consid-
ered only the specific practices of Western families with

race and class privilege; Spelman concluded that “it is
theoretically significant . . . if statements that appear to be
true about ‘men and women’ clearly aren’t true when we
specify that we are talking about men and women of
different classes or races” (p. 80). Similarly, Savin-Wil-
liams and Diamond (2000) showed that general models of
the development of same-sex erotic identity were based
primarily on men’s experience and did not reflect the
trajectories of lesbians and bisexual women. In this case,
attempting to conceptualize sexual minority as a status or
identity that exists independently of gender has little meaning.
Research investigating perceptions of the body among
women of color illustrates how attending to diversity
within groups can productively complicate the understand-
ing of a category such as women. Using survey methods,
Schooler, Ward, Merriwether, and Caruthers (2004) found
that the more hours White women spent viewing television
shows featuring mainly White casts, the greater their body
dissatisfaction. Watching the same mainstream programs
had no effect on Black women’s body satisfaction, and
Black women who watched programs with predominantly
Black casts reported higher satisfaction. The authors ar-
gued that observing media images involves different pro-
cesses for White and Black women. White women may
view the thin and perfectly groomed White actresses as
competitors representing an unattainable ideal; Black
women, aware of the stigma on their group, may view
attractive Black actresses as allies and role models. For this
sample, ethnic identity was also a positive predictor of
Black women’s body satisfaction. In contrast, Lau, Lum,
Chronister, and Forrest (2006) found that Asian American
women experienced a kind of double bind. Those who
reported that media influenced their appearance ideals had
greater body dissatisfaction, but the same was true of
women reporting greater endorsement of Asian values

(e.g., collectivism, adherence to family norms). Unlike the
Black women studied by Schooler et al., psychological
engagement with the minority culture was not associated
with satisfaction among Asian American women.
These examples suggest several ways that attending to
who is included within a category can lead to a more
nuanced understanding of how social categories of identity,
difference, and disadvantage shape experience. First, con-
sidering groups that have traditionally been overlooked
may lead researchers to hypothesize about different predic-
tors. Because both studies were sensitive to the ways that
women’s experiences of social norms for feminine appear-
ance are shaped by race/ethnicity, they included variables,
such as cultural values and ethnic identity, as predictors for
body dissatisfaction. Second, as researchers increase their
understanding of how one social category is shaped by
another—in this case, how gender is shaped by race/eth-
nicity—they can begin to reread silences in the extant
literature as well. Schooler et al.’s (2004) work encourages
researchers to construe much of what psychologists have
already learned about women’s body image (e.g., media
representations are harmful) to be knowledge about White
women’s body image. Third, knowing more about diversity
within a category may help psychologists envision more
ways of creating treatment interventions and social change
to benefit all members of the category. For example,
Schooler et al. concluded that Black women’s experiences
suggest that under certain circumstances, media images
could have a beneficial impact on viewers.
Considering who is included within a category accom-
plishes more than mere inclusion; it improves psycholo-
gists’ ability to theorize and empirically investigate the
ways social categories structure individual and social life

across the board. Thus, intersectionality is not only a tool to
understand the experiences of minority group members.
Nevertheless, increasing attention to diversity within social
groups is not sufficient to address the psychological mean-
ing of race, gender, and other social categories. Sociolo-
gists remind researchers that the social practices that con-
struct race and gender involve hierarchy and inequality
(Bonilla-Silva, 1997; Risman, 2004). Yet, when research-
ers attend to who is included within the social categories
they study, with particular attention to groups that have
been traditionally overlooked, social and material inequal-
ity between groups may be treated only implicitly (why,
after all, have some groups been studied to the exclusion of
others?). These concerns are addressed by the second
question.
2. What Role Does Inequality Play?
Categories such as race, gender, social class, and sexuality
do not simply describe groups that may be different or
similar; they encapsulate historical and continuing relations
of political, material, and social inequality and stigma.
Mahalingam (2007) characterized intersectionality in terms
of the “interplay between person and social location, with
particular emphasis on power relations among various so-
cial locations” (p. 45). Asking what role inequality plays
draws attention to the ways that multiple category mem-
berships position individuals and groups in asymmetrical
relation to one another, affecting their perceptions, experi-
ences, and outcomes. This question helps psychologists to
view constructs such as race and gender as structural cat-
egories and social processes rather than primarily as char-
acteristics of individuals, a move consistent with recent
methodological critiques (Helms, Jernigan, & Mascher,
2005) and social constructionist approaches within psy-
chology (e.g., Jost & Kruglanski, 2002). Moreover, soci-
ologists argue that constructs like race (Bonilla-Silva,

1997) and gender (Risman, 2004) affect beliefs about what
is possible or desirable and define the contours of individ-
uals’ opportunities and life chances through social and
institutional practices. Considering the role of inequality
helps psychologists see individuals as embedded in cultural
and historical contexts, a tradition that has deep roots
within the discipline but one that has languished recently.
Hurtado (1989) theorized how structural inequality
shapes contact between women who differ by race/ethnic-
ity, arguing that the interests of White women and women
of color are deeply divided by their relationship to White
men, the most privileged race/gender group in American
culture. As wives, mothers, and daughters of White men,
White women derive social and economic benefits from
existing inequities; thus, even those who are feminists may
participate in a form of complicity with the status quo. In
contrast, women of color generally have no vested interest
in placating White men in personal relationships and, thus,
have more latitude in their consciousness, resistance, and
protest. This analysis led Hurtado to argue that “the defi-
nition of woman is constructed differently for White
women and women of color, though gender is the marking
mechanism through which the subordination of each is
maintained” (p. 845). These dynamics make the divisions
within feminism between White women and women of
color intelligible and predictable.
Femininity, long conceptualized within psychology in
terms of traits and/or behavior, provides a rich test case for
such an analysis. Girls and women are pressured to con-
form to feminine norms, including beauty, cultivation of

feminine traits, performance of normative heterosexuality
including motherhood, development of domestic skills, and
sexual restraint. For much of U.S. history, however, eco-
nomic exploitation, stereotyping, and lack of legal protec-
tion (Collins, 1990) served to deny Black women (and
other women of color; see, e.g., Espiritu, 2001) the protec-
tions femininity is purported to afford. This history led
Collins (2004) to argue that these benchmarks of femininity
“become a normative yardstick for all femininities in which
Black women [and other women of color] are relegated to
the bottom of the gender hierarchy” (p. 193; Higginbotham,
1992). In response, Black women activists have long as-
serted their femininity, and accordingly their respectability,
as a means to claim entitlement to legal protection and civil
rights (Giddings, 1985).
Cole and Zucker (2007) explored Black and White
women’s perceptions of femininity in light of this history.
Confirmatory factor analysis of national survey data
showed both groups used the same dimensions to concep-
tualize femininity: feminine traits, appearance, and tradi-
tional gender beliefs. However, for White women, tradi-
tional gender ideology was negatively related to feminist
identification. Among Black women, those who placed a
high value on wearing feminine clothing were more likely
to identify as feminist, and Black women rated appearance
items as more important to them. Black women were also
more likely than White women to identify as feminists,
arguably because the experience of racial oppression sen-
sitizes Black women to issues of sexism. Craig’s (2002)
historical research can help explain why these aspects of
femininity have different political meaning for Black and
White women: Black women have traditionally used a
strategy of scrupulous attention to appearance to challenge
stereotypes of Blacks as uncivilized and sexually immoral.
Thus, Black and White women’s social locations, defined

by structural relations of inequality rooted in history and
culture, explained patterns of similarity and difference in
the findings: Black and White women had similar views
about the components of normative femininity; Black
women reported higher levels of feminist identification
because of double discrimination; and structural relations
between White and Black women explain why feminine
appearance bears a different association with feminism for
each group. These findings address all three permutations
of intersectionality as theorized by Crenshaw (1989/1993).
Similarly, Mahalingam and Leu (2005) investigated
how the implicit racialization of femininity can affect
members of groups who are not privileged by these ideals.
They studied the experiences of Indian immigrants to the
United States who work as programmers and Filipina “mail
order brides.” Interviews and archival content analysis re-
vealed that women from both groups asserted traditional
views of femininity either to claim entitlement to the pro-
tections that follow from traditional femininity or to re-
deem Asian masculinity, which has often been denigrated
in Western representations. Both groups contrasted their
values and behavior with those of White women, whom
they viewed as sexually promiscuous, lacking family ori-
entation, and corrupted by feminism. They created ideal-
ized gendered immigrant identities as a reaction to, and a
defense against, the denigration and subordination they
experienced in the United States. This research revealed
similarities across these groups of Asian immigrants who
face different cultural and economic circumstances. The
source of this similarity lies not in a pan-Asian identity, but
in the two groups’ common structural experience of racial
discrimination in the United States. Thus, these Asian
American groups can also be understood as similar to the
African American women surveyed by Cole and Zucker

(2007) in that all three groups strategically embraced pre-
vailing norms of femininity in an effort to resist racial
denigration. This is perhaps a surprising observation, given
the widespread notion that Asian Americans represent a
model minority defined by negative comparisons to African
Americans and Latinos; it is the theorization of both groups
as subordinated by privileged identities (albeit in different
ways) that reveals this commonality.
Weber and Parra-Medina (2003) have made a useful
distinction between looking “downstream” for causes (i.e.,
in individual behavior that might be associated with social
category membership) and “upstream” at “the group pro-
cesses that define systems of social inequality” (p. 190),
such as laws, institutional practices, and public policies.
Consideration of the role of inequality can help psycholo-
gists look upstream by drawing attention to how groups
stand in relation to each other and to public and private
institutions, including families, schools, workplaces, and
the law, and, correspondingly, how political, material, and
social inequality lead to class, race, and gender differences
in outcomes (see, e.g., Eagly & Wood, 1999; Glick et al.,
2004; Lott, 2002; Reid, 1993). Asking this second question
helps avoid the risk of treating socially constructed cate-
gories as though they refer to static and ahistorical con-
structs. However, to deeply engage this question, psychol-
ogists would be well served to supplement their training
with interdisciplinary study in history, sociology, or other
social sciences and/or to pursue collaborative relationships
with scholars in other disciplines.

Just as research that considers who is included within
a social category can expose the experiences of the most
disadvantaged members within disadvantaged subgroups to
augment psychologists’ vision of the meaning of social
categories, asking what role inequality plays makes visible
some ways these categories are constructed through histor-
ical and ongoing social practices. Just as attention to ne-
glected groups can reveal that which has been obscured in
conventional analyses (e.g., the significance of race for
Whites or of gender for men), intersectional analyses that
conceptualize category membership in terms of inequality
can help psychologists understand the relationships among
groups—and group members—in societies organized
around hierarchies of race, gender, sexuality, and class.
Such an analysis promises that rather than merely calling
for attention to the ways that these categories of identity,
difference, and disadvantage intersect (Knapp, 2005), re-
searchers can identify mechanisms through which they do
so.
3. Where Are There Similarities?
The third way to reconceptualize social categories to ad-
dress intersectional research questions entails seeking sites
of commonality across difference. Asking where there are
similarities encourages researchers to reassess any pre-
sumption that categories of identity, difference, and dis-
advantage define homogeneous groups as they look for
similarities that cut across categories. Looking for com-
monality across difference entails viewing social cate-
gories as reflecting what individuals, institutions, and
cultures do, rather than simply as characteristics of indi-
viduals. This shift opens up the possibility to recognize
common ground between groups, even those deemed fun-
damentally different by conventional categories.
This way of approaching intersectional research ques-

tions is grounded in the work of authors who have used the
concept as a tool for political organizing. Urging intersec-
tional analysis to address important differences within
groups, Crenshaw (1994) criticized agencies serving
women who had experienced intimate partner violence for
overlooking how statuses such as poverty and immigration
status fundamentally shape certain women’s specific needs;
if these needs were not addressed, the agencies were not
meeting the needs of some women. Unfortunately, this key
insight of intersectionality—the heterogeneity of groups—
is easily misconstrued to suggest that identity groups can
effectively organize around only the most specific, and thus
the most limited, constituencies. Cohen (1997) exploded
this misreading, advocating that social change organiza-
tions should not mobilize on the basis of shared identities
(which inevitably exclude some people). Instead, she noted
that oppression operates through a series of interlocking
systems that cut across conventional identity categories.
Specifically, she suggested that lesbian and gay political
activists have a limited constituency if their organizing is
based only on identity. However, many of the political
issues that concern activists offer opportunities to build
coalitions among diverse groups who are disadvantaged by
public policies that attempt to regulate sexuality or that
confer resources and privileges on the basis of sexual
behavior. When seen through this lens, women on welfare
targeted by marriage incentive policies have important
shared interests with gay men and lesbians whose sexuality
and intimate partnerships are also stigmatized and pro-
scribed (Cohen, 1997).
Cohen’s (1997) argument is groundbreaking because
psychologists tend to see certain identities as totalizing and
determinative, as trumping all others. For example, Hig-
ginbotham (1992) argued,

Race not only tends to subsume other sets of social relations,
namely, gender and class, but it blurs and disguises, suppresses
and negates its own complex interplay with the very social rela-
tions it envelops. It precludes unity with the same gender group,
but often appears to solidify people of opposing economic
classes
[italics added]. (p. 255)
Asch (1984) made a similar argument concerning
disability. Such perceptions on the part of both laypeople
and researchers can obscure both intragroup difference and
loci of possible commonalities across groups.
Such insights can be powerful in research related to
social issues and public policy, as these examples show.
Fine and Weis (1998) interviewed poor and working-class
adults about violence. Although nearly all agreed that vi-
olence was a serious problem in their communities, differ-
ences in the types of violence they emphasized emerged,
patterned by gender and race/ethnicity. White men dis-
cussed street violence by men of color, a perspective the
authors likened to that of policymakers. Men of color and
African American women stressed state violence, such as
police brutality. White women and women of color dis-
cussed domestic violence. Fine and Weis also found the
groups varied in their views of the police. Many White men
knew and trusted police officers, as did White women, but
to a lesser extent. In contrast, the respondents of color
expressed mistrust, with African American men and Lati-
nas, in particular, citing police corruption. Their analysis
revealed commonalities and differences that cut across
simple groupings like gender or even women of color. Such
a nuanced understanding would be invaluable for those
planning community interventions or political organizing
around this issue.

Dworkin’s (2005) work provides another example.
She observed that much of the scholarly discussion of
heterosexual transmission of HIV depicts women as vul-
nerable and at risk from men. These representations are
grounded partly in the biology of transmission, but also in
gendered assumptions that women are sexually oppressed,
responsive, and passive, whereas men are sexually invul-
nerable, dominating, and agentic. Dworkin argued that the
women-at-risk framing overlooks the ways that men vary
in power and patriarchal privilege: Some heterosexual men
experience sexual assault, engage in sex work, or are oth-
erwise at risk because of inequities associated with race and
class. This analysis underscores that it is not identity cat-
egories that put individuals at risk of HIV infection but
behavior and experiences. Although Dworkin made her
argument discursively, she laid the groundwork for social
scientists to generate hypotheses in which risk is operation-
alized in terms of behavior rather than social categoriza-
tion. This is not to say that categories are irrelevant: Dwor-
kin also pointed to the role of power, noting that “[HIV]
transmission and infection . . . [are] linked to social and
economic relations of inequality” (p. 618). It is important to
note, however, that she did not treat category membership
as primarily an individual-level characteristic. From this
perspective, similarities between heterosexual women and
men who have sex with men come into view under the
umbrella concept of risk. These similarities could be fertile
sites of intervention or mobilizing to lobby for prevention
and treatment resources.

Although grounded in insights from political organiz-
ing, looking for commonality across difference suggests
how an intersectional analysis can generate innovative re-
search questions. The activists who developed coalition-
building strategies recognized that the diversity within a
group (e.g., the racial diversity among women or the class
diversity among Blacks) provides opportunities to reach
across perceived boundaries to identify common ground
with other communities. Dworkin’s (2005) work makes
clear how failing to see these commonalities raises the
likelihood that researchers may misunderstand how multi-
ple social structures— gender, race, sexuality—shape sex-
ual behavior with potentially tragic consequences. In this,
she implicitly made an argument about gender that is
analogous to Helms, Jernigan, and Mascher’s (2005) re-
thinking of psychologists’ methodologies for studying
race; they recommended that psychologists move away
from viewing race as an independent variable and instead
operationalize specific mechanisms through conceptual
variables. The examples I have described suggest that some
research related to social issues, public policy, and practice
engages these principles of coalition in an untheorized way.
The concept of intersectionality offers a way to bring this
insight to bear in future research.
Implications for Research
To translate the theoretical insights of intersectionality into
psychological research does not require the adoption of a
new set of methods; rather, it requires a reconceptualization
of the meaning and consequences of social categories. The
extant literature on intersectionality, developed by feminist
and critical race theorists, suggests three questions that can
guide psychologists wishing to use this type of reconcep-
tualization in their research: Who is included within this
category? What role does inequality play? Where are there
similarities? In this order, each question takes psycholo-

gists further away from an approach in which social cate-
gories are operationalized through demographic items
whose meaning is self-evident; in this respect, the ques-
tions can be viewed as layers of intersectional inquiry.
These conceptual questions have implications for each
stage of the research process (see Table 1). When research-
ers ask who is included within a category, it encourages
them to understand all their participants in terms of the
multiple social categories of identity, difference, and dis-
advantage they represent and to attend to groups that are
often overlooked in psychology. This question does not
imply that any given study ought to include individuals
representing every permutation of race, gender, class, or
other social identity; not only is this practically impossible,
it is properly the cooperative work of a field. Rather,
attention to who is included within any category of interest,
with particular attention to groups that have often been
excluded, is meant to encourage psychologists to view all
samples in terms of their particularity and to attend to
diversity within samples. For example, a random sample of
Black college students includes men and women, but it
may not include proportional representation of youths from
low-income families. Analyses should attend to gender
differences within this sample, and the findings should not
be interpreted to apply to Black youths in general. Psychol-
ogists who ask this question may also be more likely to
consider studying groups that have been overlooked by
researchers. Reading the literature in psychology with this
question in mind can make systematic omissions in sam-
pling obvious.
This question also entails scrutiny of the manipula-
tions and measures used to operationalize constructs:
Which groups’ experiences do they reflect and represent?

What samples were used in the development of the scales,
and how might the instruments differ if other groups were
included? For example, in her study of Black women’s race
and gender identities, Settles (2006) included items about
the extent to which these identities were experienced as
conflicting; such questions would be less relevant— or
even puzzling—for some other race/gender groups. Thus,
reflecting on the implicit inclusions and exclusions in re-
search can lead to greater cognizance of how the concep-
tualization of social categories affects methodological de-
cisions.
The question of what role inequality plays makes the
greatest demands at the level of hypothesis generation and
interpretation of findings. This question helps researchers
view the participants and phenomena they study as
grounded in social and historical contexts: Race, gender,
sexuality, and class, as well as other social categories,
structure groups’ access to social, economic, and political
resources and privileges. Jackson and Williams’s (2006)
work on public health crises among the Black middle class
illustrates the insights resulting from this question. They
noted that although higher social class is related to de-
creased rates of suicide for Whites, the association is pos-
itive for Black American men. To understand this finding,
they pointed to three sources of psychological stress related
to this group’s structural position in terms of race, class,
and gender: stressors of racist experiences, the recency and
fragility of middle-class status for many Blacks, and dis-
appointment that occupational advancement has not been
commensurate with educational achievement for many
Black men. By conceptualizing race, gender, sexuality, and
class as simultaneously shaping this group’s experience,
Jackson and Williams looked for explanations in terms of

structural inequality upstream, rather than primarily at the
level of individual differences. Of course, individual dif-
ferences are also important for understanding suicide; how-
ever, this second question draws psychologists’ attention to
the ways categories of identity, difference, and disadvan-
tage are also associated with individuals’ life chances and
choices.
Asking what role inequality plays may lead research-
ers to look for both similarities and differences across
groups. This leads to the third question, Where are the
similarities? This question represents the greatest departure
from viewing social categories as defining fundamentally
different types of people. Often researchers use social
categories of identity, difference, and disadvantage primar-
ily to define groups whose difference is a testable hypoth-
esis, which, if not supported, defaults to similarity. Testing
these differences rarely provides insight into the psycho-
logical experience implicit in the categories or the practices
that create and maintain them. If psychologists conceptu-
alize social categories as defining structural relations with
implications for individual, social, and institutional prac-
tices, they must attend to both differences and similarities,
even among groups that appear to be disparate. Because
these similarities may not be obvious, addressing the ques-
tion of commonalities across difference may entail con-
ducting exploratory analyses or using interpretive qualita-
tive methods. At the level of sampling, this question
encourages researchers to include diverse groups within
their studies, groups chosen not only in terms of group
membership, but also in terms of shared relations to power.
For example, qualitative research suggests that some work-
ing-class White men feel that economic restructuring,

changes in gender roles, and increased immigration have
eroded privileges they previously held with respect to their
status as earners, their gender, and their race (Weis, Prow-
eller, & Centrie, 1997); this psychological sense of “being
under siege” (p. 212) on multiple fronts might have some
similarities to the experiences of Black middle-class men in
terms of mental health outcomes.
What I am suggesting here is distinct from Hyde’s
(2005) gender similarities hypothesis. Hyde argued that
meta-analytic review of the gender difference literature
finds many more similarities between women and men than
differences; much of what might appear to be gender dif-
ferences can be shown to be a function of the different
contexts that men and women typically find themselves in
by virtue of their social roles. In contrast, looking for
commonality across differences does not suggest research-
ers should reexamine the magnitude or extent to which
there are differences between groups defined on one social
category (e.g., gender). It is critically important from an
intersectional standpoint that in recognizing similarities,
researchers remain sensitive to nuanced differences across
groups, even when similarities are found. For example,
although middle-class Black men and working-class White
men might experience some of the stressors they face in
similar ways, their experiences are not equivalent or iden-
tical.
What then are the implications of an intersectional
analysis for research methods? Certainly the first tool that
many research psychologists would reach for to address
questions of how outcomes are related to multiple group
memberships is a research design in which social catego-
ries are treated as independent variables with main effects
and interactions. Sociologist McCall (2005) termed this the
“categorical approach” to intersectionality, which “fo-

cus[es] on the complexity of relationships among multiple
social groups within and across analytical categories. . . .
The subject is multigroup and the method is systematically
comparative” (p. 1786). This raises the question of whether
the theoretical concept of intersectionality is equivalent to
the inclusion of variables assessing race, gender (or other
social categories), and their interaction in statistical models.
Certainly, this statistical method is an indispensable
tool, particularly useful for revealing patterns of disparity
in arenas such as employment and income, physical and
mental health, and social life. Smith and Stewart (1983)
described some of the patterns of group differences these
interactions might describe: In some cases, the negative
effects of racism and sexism might multiply each other,
rendering women of color most disadvantaged on a depen-
dent variable (e.g., income); in other cases, they might have
“subtractive effects” (p. 7), in effect canceling each other
out (Sanchez-Hucles, 1997). The “intersectionality para-
dox” (Jackson & Williams, 2006, p. 138) in the minority
health literature illustrates what can be gained by using
such an approach. Although higher socioeconomic status is
generally associated with better health outcomes, on many
health indices, highly educated Blacks fare no better than
Whites with the lowest education. Jackson and Williams
(2006) identified this “largely unrecognized and high risk
pattern” (p. 137) in two gendered health risks: infant mor-
tality and homicide. In these examples, the interactive
effects of race and gender suggest that even with the
growth of the Black middle class since the civil rights
movement, many middle-class Blacks do not enjoy the
same outcomes as middle-class Whites.
Despite the power of this method to address certain
intersectional research questions, it would be a mistake to
reduce the nuanced theoretical concept of intersectionality

to include only the type of associations that can be modeled
through the use of interaction effects. One limitation to this
approach arises from the fact that social categories, such as
race and gender, are confounded in individuals; this means
that any survey question that asks participants to report
whether their experiences were a function of one category
membership rather than another may be eliciting flawed
data. A good example of this problem is racialized sexual
harassment reported by women of color, including verbal
harassment or sexual attention based on racial stereotypes
or physical features believed to be racially distinctive
(Buchanan & Ormerod, 2002; Cortina, 2001). To ask re-
spondents to rate the extent to which such an experience
was separately determined by gender and by race/ethnicity
reflects an invalid conceptualization of how membership in
social categories is experienced, essentially asking respon-
dents to fit their experiences onto a procrustean bed.
A study showing that Black women’s ratings of per-
sonal general discrimination were a function of their re-
ports of race rather than gender discrimination illustrates
this problem (Levin, Sinclair, Veniegas, & Taylor, 2002).
The authors concluded that the combined effects of racism
and sexism did not determine Black women’s perceptions
of general discrimination. However, respondents were not
instructed how to report experiences they perceived as
having elements of both racism and sexism. Black women
may view such experiences as one aspect of racism, be-
cause Black men have also been subject to gendered racism
(Collins, 2004). In this case, the use of interaction effects
also assumes that the effect of multiple category member-
ships is to influence the quantity of outcomes, rather than

interacting to influence the outcome qualitatively: As Levin
et al. (2002) concluded, “types of discrimination perceived
by various ethnic and gender groups may be qualitatively
different and may not necessarily ‘add up’ or ‘interact’ in
a statistical quantitative sense” (p. 560).
Testing intersectional research questions by looking at
interactions between categories can undertheorize the pro-
cesses that create the categories represented as independent
variables. Put another way, treating race and gender as
independent variables suggests that these social categories
are primarily properties of individuals rather than reflec-
tions of macrolevel social practices linked to inequality
(Weber & Parra-Medina, 2003). For example, sociologists
have found meaningful differences between White and
Black Americans’ experiences of being middle class. Pri-
marily because of many years of redlining practices in
mortgage lending, Black families with middle-class in-
comes have less than half the net worth of White families
with comparable incomes (Conley, 1999); because of on-
going residential segregation, Black middle-class commu-
nities are more likely to be geographically surrounded by
poor communities and to have higher rates of crime (Pat-
tillo-McCoy, 1999). Compared to middle-class Whites,
middle-class Blacks are more likely to have a sibling in
poverty (Pattillo-McCoy & Heflin, 1999), and thus the poor
may seem less distant than they do to members of the
White middle class. For these and other reasons, the psy-
chological experience of middle-class status may differ by
race in important ways. Of course, it is possible to address
some of these discrepancies by controlling for covariates in
statistical models. However, to the extent that the meaning
of one independent variable (e.g., class) varies depending
on the level of the other independent variable (e.g., race) is
neither acknowledged nor measured—that is, whether a
given status is experienced in different ways depending on

the other statuses held—an important aspect of intersec-
tionality remains unaddressed and invisible. These obser-
vations suggest that the inclusion of statistical interactions
among race, gender, and other social categories in multi-
variate analyses is not, in and of itself, sufficient to develop
what Smith and Stewart (1983) called a “truly interactive
model of racism and sexism” (p. 6) without reconceptual-
izing the ways researchers use race, gender, and other
social categories.
These problems are not intrinsic to a research design
(or statistical model) in which social categories are treated
as independent variables; rather, they arise from the ways
that statistical interactions between variables based on cat-
egory membership are often interpreted in the literature.
Rather than prescribing— or proscribing—any particular
research or data analysis technique, the concept of inter-
sectionality entails a conceptual shift in the way researchers
understand social categories.
For example, experiments often examine two or more
independent variables both in terms of main effects and
interactions. Nevertheless, experimental methods are not
antithetical to intersectional analysis. For example, Shih,
Pittinsky, and Ambady (1999) looked at how the intersect-
ing identities of Asian American women affected math
performance, considering that this group is stereotyped
positively in this domain by virtue of ethnicity and is
stereotyped negatively because of gender. Participants
whose femaleness was made salient performed worse,
whereas the performance of those whose ethnicity was
primed was enhanced. In a second study, the ethnicity
effect was not replicated in a sample of Asian American
women in Vancouver, where the stereotype of Asians as
especially skilled at math is less prevalent. This article,
which made only within-group comparisons, provides an

intersectional analysis in at least two respects. Obviously, it
looks at an underrepresented group defined by multiple
social locations. More subtly, it situates the intersection of
ethnic and gender identities in different contexts, both
through the priming manipulation and the cross-cultural
approach. In these ways, it transcends a simple categorical
conceptualization of the intersection of race and gender.
This example highlights the ways that an intersectional
analysis hinges on the conceptualization of race, gender,
and other social categories, rather than the use (or avoid-
ance) of particular methods.
Conclusion
The three questions I have posed suggest that an intersec-
tional analysis requires a conceptual shift, even a paradigm
shift, in the ways psychologists understand social catego-
ries, such that they take seriously the cultural and political
history of groups, as well as the ways these socially con-
structed categories depend on one another for meaning and
are jointly associated with outcomes. This shift is consis-
tent with recent calls in psychology (Helms, Jernigan, &
Mascher, 2005; Smedley & Smedley, 2005) and other
social sciences (e.g., Hancock, 2005; McCall, 2005).
At the same time, the examples I have chosen dem-
onstrate that many of psychology’s familiar tools can be
pressed into service to address research questions through
an intersectional lens and that this type of framework
neither requires, privileges, nor excludes multigroup com-
parisons. Clearly, this work is already being undertaken in
some parts of the discipline, such as feminist psychology.
However, the application of the three intersectional ques-
tions I have outlined here does require that researchers
rethink the relationship between their conceptualization of

social categories and their methodological choices, as de-
scribed in Table 1.
The skeptical reader may ask what the critical lens of
intersectionality can add to his or her research program,
particularly if the work is not focused on members of
subordinated groups. Although grounded in the lived ex-
perience and critique of those at the convergence of mul-
tiple stigmatized identities, the implications of the concept
of intersectionality are more expansive. As Hancock
(2007b) has argued, intersectionality does not simply de-
scribe a content specialization addressing issues germane to
specific populations. Rather, it also is a paradigm for theory
and research offering new ways of understanding the com-
plex causality that characterizes social phenomena. The
examples in this article illustrate the ways this analytic
framework can help psychologists to look for causes of
human behavior both upstream and downstream, to notice
and hypothesize about the multiple paths that may lead
individuals to the same or similar outcomes, and to under-
stand the ways that different social categories depend on
each other for meaning and, thus, mutually construct one
another and work together to shape outcomes.
Intersectionality makes plain that gender, race, class,
and sexuality simultaneously affect the perceptions, expe-
riences, and opportunities of everyone living in a society
stratified along these dimensions. To understand any one of
these dimensions, psychologists must address them in com-
bination; intersectionality suggests that to focus on a single
dimension in the service of parsimony is a kind of false
economy. This insight invites us to approach the study of
social categories with more complexity and suggests ways

to bring more nuance and context to our research on the
social categories that matter most in a stratified society.
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