Coal processing

Environmental, Health, and Safety Guidelines
COAL PROCESSING
APRIL 30, 2007 1
WORLD BANK GROUP
Environmental, Health and Safety Guidelines
for Coal Processing
Introduction
The Environmental, Health, and Safety (EHS) Guidelines are
technical reference documents with general and industry-
specific examples of Good International Industry Practice
(GIIP)1. When one or more members of the World Bank Group
are involved in a project, these EHS Guidelines are applied as
required by their respective policies and standards. These
industry sector EHS guidelines are designed to be used
together with the General EHS Guidelines document, which
provides guidance to users on common EHS issues potentially
applicable to all industry sectors. For complex projects, use of
multiple industry-sector guidelines may be necessary. A
complete list of industry-sector guidelines can be found at:
www.ifc.org/ifcext/enviro.nsf/Content/EnvironmentalGuidelines
The EHS Guidelines contain the performance levels and
measures that are generally considered to be achievable in
new facilities by existing technology at reasonable costs.
Application of the EHS Guidelines to existing facilities may
involve the establishment of site-specific targets, with an
appropriate timetable for achieving them. The applicability of
the EHS Guidelines should be tailored to the hazards and risks
established for each project on the basis of the results of an
environmental assessment in which site-specific variables,
1 Defined as the exercise of professional skill, diligence, prudence and foresight
that would be reasonably expected from skilled and experienced professionals
engaged in the same type of undertaking under the same or similar
circumstances globally. The circumstances that skilled and experienced
professionals may find when evaluating the range of pollution prevention and
control techniques available to a project may include, but are not limited to,
varying levels of environmental degradation and environmental assimilative
capacity as well as varying levels of financial and technical feasibility.
such as host country context, assimilative capacity of the
environment, and other project factors, are taken into account.
The applicability of specific technical recommendations should
be based on the professional opinion of qualified and
experienced persons. When host country regulations differ
from the levels and measures presented in the EHS
Guidelines, projects are expected to achieve whichever is more
stringent. If less stringent levels or measures than those
provided in these EHS Guidelines are appropriate, in view of
specific project circumstances, a full and detailed justification
for any proposed alternatives is needed as part of the site-
specific environmental assessment. This justification should
demonstrate that the choice for any alternate performance
levels is protective of human health and the environment
Applicability
The EHS Guidelines for Coal Processing cover the processing
of coal into gaseous or liquid chemicals, including fuels. They
apply to the production of Synthetic Gas (SynGas) through
various gasification processes and its subsequent conversion
into liquid hydrocarbons (Fischer-Tropsch synthesis), methanol,
or other oxygenated liquid products, as well as to the direct
hydrogenation of coal into liquid hydrocarbons.
This document is organized according to the following sections:
Section 1.0 — Industry-Specific Impacts and Management
Section 2.0 — Performance Indicators and Monitoring
Section 3.0 — References and Additional Sources
Annex A — General Description of Industry Activities

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1.0 Industry-Specific Impacts
and Management
The following section provides a summary of EHS issues
associated with coal processing, along with recommendations
for their management. Recommendations for the management
of EHS issues common to most large industrial facilities during
the construction and decommissioning phase(s) are provided in
the General EHS Guidelines.
1.1 Environmental
Potential environmental issues associated with coal processing
projects include:
• Air emissions
• Wastewater
• Hazardous materials
• Wastes
• Noise
Air Emissions
Fugitive Particulate Matter and Gaseous Emissions
The main sources of emissions in coal processing facilities
primarily consist of fugitive sources of particulate matter (PM),
volatile organic compounds (VOCs), carbon monoxide (CO),
and hydrogen. Coal transfer, storage, and preparation activities
may contribute significantly to fugitive emissions of coal PM.
Recommendations to prevent and control fugitive coal PM
emissions include the following:
• Design of the plant or facility layout to facilitate emissions
management and to reduce the number of coal transfer
points;
• Use of loading and unloading equipment to minimize the
height of coal drop to the stockpile;
• Use of water spray systems and/or polymer coatings to
reduce the formation of fugitive dust from coal storage (e.g.
on stockpiles) as feasible depending on the coal quality
requirements;
• Capture of coal dust emissions from crushing / sizing
activities and conveying to a baghouse filter or other
particulate control equipment;
• Use of centrifugal (cyclone) collectors followed by high-
efficiency venturi aqueous scrubbers for thermal dryers;
• Use of centrifugal (cyclone) collectors followed by fabric
filtration for pneumatic coal cleaning equipment;
• Use of enclosed conveyors combined with extraction and
filtration equipment on conveyor transfer points; and
• Suppression of dust during coal processing (e.g., crushing,
sizing, and drying) and transfer (e.g., conveyor systems)
using, for example, ware spraying systems with water
collection and subsequent treatment or re-use of the
collected water.
Fugitive emissions of other air pollutants include leaks of volatile
organic compounds (VOC), carbon monoxide (CO), and
hydrogen from various processes such as SynGas production
units; coal storage; methanol and Fischer-Tropsch (F-T)
synthesis units; product upgrading units; and oily sewage
systems and wastewater treatment facilities, particularly
equalization ponds and oil / water separators. Fugitive
emissions may also include leaks from numerous sources
including piping, valves, connections, flanges, gaskets, open-
ended lines, storage and working losses from fixed and floating
roof storage tanks and pump seals, gas conveyance systems,
compressor seals, pressure relief valves, open pits /
containments, and loading and unloading of hydrocarbons.

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Recommendations to prevent and control fugitive sources of air
pollutants include:
• Reduce fugitive emissions from pipes, valves, seals, tanks,
and other infrastructure components by regularly
monitoring with vapor detection equipment and
maintenance or replacement of components as needed in
a prioritized manner;
• Maintain stable tank pressure and vapor space by:
o Coordination of filling and withdrawal schedules and
implementing vapor balancing between tanks, (a
process whereby vapor displaced during filling
activities is transferred to the vapor space of the tank
being emptied or to other containment in preparation
for vapor recovery);
o Use of white or other color paints with low heat
absorption properties on exteriors of storage tanks for
lighter distillates such as gasoline, ethanol, and
methanol to reduce heat absorption. Potential for
visual impacts from reflection of light off tanks should
be considered;
• Based on the tank storage capacity and vapor pressure of
materials being stored, select a specific tank type to
minimize storage and working losses according to
internationally accepted design standards.2
• For fixed roof storage tanks, minimize storage and working
losses by installation of an internal floating roof and seals3;
2 For example, according to API Standard 650: Welded Steel Tanks for Oil
Storage (1998), new, modified, or restructured tanks with a capacity greater or
equal to 40,000 gallons and storing liquids with a vapor pressure greater or
equal than 0.75 psi but less than 11.1 psi, or a capacity greater or equal to
20,000 gallons and storing liquids with a vapor pressure greater or equal than 4
psi but less than 11.1 psi must be equipped with: fixed roof in conjunction with
an internal floating roof with a liquid mounted mechanical shoe primary seal; or
external floating roof with a liquid mounted mechanical shoe primary seal and
continuous rim-mounted secondary seal, with both seals meeting certain
minimum gap requirements and gasketed covers on the roof fittings; or closed
vent system and 95% effective control device.
3 Worker access into tanks should be conducted following permit-required
confined space entry procedures as noted in the General EHS Guidelines.
• For floating roof storage tanks, design and install decks,
fittings, and rim seals in accordance with international
standards to minimize evaporative losses;4
• Consider use of supply and return systems, vapor recovery
hoses, and vapor tight trucks / railcars / vessels during
loading and unloading of transport vehicles;
• Use bottom loading truck / rail car filling systems to
minimize vapor emissions; and
• Where vapor emissions may contribute or result in ambient
air quality levels above health based standards, consider
installation of secondary emissions controls, such as vapor
condensing and recovery units, catalytic oxidizers, gas
adsorption media, refrigeration, or lean oil absorption units.
Greenhouse Gases (GHGs)
Significant amounts of carbon dioxide (CO2) may be produced in
SynGas manufacturing, particularly during the water-gas shift
reaction, in addition to all combustion-related processes (e.g.,
electric power production and by-product incineration or use in
co-generation). Recommendations for energy conservation and
the management of greenhouse gas emissions are project and
site-specific but may include some of those discussed in the
General EHS Guidelines. At integrated facilities, operators
should explore an overall facility approach in the selection of
process and utility technologies.
Particulate Matters, Heavy Oils, and Heavy Metals
Coal preparation activities (e.g., use of dryers), coal gasification
(e.g., feeding and ash removal), and coal liquefaction processes
may generate point-source emissions of dust and heavy oils
(tars). Appropriate technology should be selected to minimize
4 Examples include: API Standard 620: Design and Construction of Large,
Welded, Low-pressure Storage Tanks (2002); API Standard 650: Welded Steel
Tanks for Oil Storage (1998), and; European Union (EU) European Standard
(EN) 12285-2:2005. Workshop fabricated steel tanks for the aboveground
storage of flammable and non-flammable water polluting liquids (2005).

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particulate emissions. Heavy metals present in coal may be
released as air emissions from the coal gasification process.
Most heavy metals can be removed through a wet scrubber.
Absorption technology may be required to remove mercury in
coal with higher mercury content. The particulate matter control
recommendations are addressed in the General EHS
Guidelines.
Acid Gases and Ammonia
Off-gas stack emissions from the Claus Sulfur Recovery Unit
include a blend of inert gases containing sulfur dioxide (SO2)
and are a significant source of air emissions during coal
processing. The gasification process may also generate
pollutants such as hydrogen sulfide (H2S), carbonyl sulfide
(COS), carbon disulfide (CS2), carbon monoxide (CO), ammonia
(NH3), and hydrogen cyanide (HCN). Typically, these gases are
highly recoverable during SynGas purification (>99 percent).
Liquefaction processes, including operations at the slurry mix
tanks, may result in releases of other acid gases and volatile
organics. Recommended acid gas and ammonia emissions
management strategies include:
• Installation of a sulfur recovery process to avoid emissions
of H2S (e.g., Claus);
• Venting of the slurry mix tanks to combustion air supplies
for power or heat generation;
• Installation of scrubbing processes, either oxidation tailgas
scrubbers or reduction tailgas scrubbers, as well as Venturi
scrubbers, to reduce emissions of sulfur dioxides;
• If installing incineration devices for removal of sulfur,
operate the incinerator at temperatures of 650 degrees
Celsius (°C) or higher with proper air-to-fuel ratios in order
to completely combust H2S; and
• Equip stacks with access for the operation of monitoring
devices (e.g., to monitor SO2 emissions from the Claus
process and incinerators).
Exhaust Gases
Combustion of SynGas or gas oil for power and heat generation
at coal processing facilities is a significant source of air
emissions, including CO2, nitrogen oxides (NOX), SO2, and, in
the event of burner malfunction, carbon monoxide (CO).
Guidance for the management of small combustion processes
designed to deliver electrical or mechanical power, steam, heat,
or any combination of these, regardless of the fuel type, with a
total rated heat input capacity of 50 Megawatt thermal (MWth) is
provided in the General EHS Guidelines. Guidance applicable
to processes larger than 50 MWth is provided in the EHS
Guidelines for Thermal Power.
Emissions related to the operation of power sources should be
minimized through the adoption of a combined strategy which
includes a reduction in energy demand, use of cleaner fuels,
and application of emissions controls where required.
Recommendations on energy efficiency are addressed in the
General EHS Guidelines.
Venting and Flaring
Venting and flaring are an important operational and safety
measure used in coal processing facilities to ensure gas is
safely disposed of in the event of an emergency, power or
equipment failure, or other plant upset conditions. Unreacted
raw materials and by-product combustible gases are also
disposed of through venting and flaring. Excess gas should not
be vented but instead sent to an efficient flare gas system for
disposal.

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Recommendations to minimize gas venting and flaring include
the following:
• Optimize plant controls to increase the reaction conversion
rates;
• Utilize unreacted raw materials and by-product combustible
gases for power generation or heat recovery, if possible;
• Provide back-up systems to maximize plant reliability; and
• Locate flaring systems at a safe distance from personnel
accommodations and residential areas and maintain flaring
systems to achieve high efficiency.
Emergency venting may be acceptable under certain conditions
where flaring of the gas stream is not appropriate. Standard risk
assessment methodologies should be utilized to analyze such
situations. Justification for not using a gas flaring system should
be fully documented before an emergency gas venting facility is
considered.
Wastewater
Industrial Process Wastewater
Process wastewater may become contaminated with
hydrocarbons, ammonia and amines, oxygenated compounds,
acids, inorganic salts, and traces of heavy metal ions.
Recommended process wastewater management practices
include:
• Prevention of accidental releases of liquids through
inspections and maintenance of storage and conveyance
systems, including stuffing boxes on pumps and valves and
other potential leakage points, as well as the
implementation of spill response plans;
• Provision of sufficient process fluids let-down capacity to
maximize recovery into the process and to avoid massive
process liquids discharge into the oily water drain system;
and
• Design and construction of wastewater and hazardous
materials storage containment basins with impervious
surfaces to prevent infiltration of contaminated water into
soil and groundwater.
Specific provisions for the management of individual wastewater
streams include the following:
• Amines spills resulting from the carbon dioxide alkaline
removal system downstream of the Gasification Unit should
be collected into a dedicated closed drain system and, after
filtration, recycled back into the process;
• Effluent from the stripping column of the F-T Synthesis
Unit, which contains dissolved hydrocarbons and
oxygenated compounds (mainly alcohols and organic
acids) and minor amounts of ketones, should be re-
circulated inside the F-T Synthesis Unit to recover the
hydrocarbons and oxygenated compounds in a stripping
column;
• Acidic and caustic effluents from demineralized water
preparation, the generation of which depends on the quality
of the raw water supply to the process, should be
neutralized prior to discharge into the facility’s wastewater
treatment system;
• Blow-down from the steam generation systems and cooling
towers should be cooled prior to discharge. Cooling water
containing biocides or other additives may also require
does adjustment or treatment in the facility’s wastewater
treatment plant prior to discharge; and
• Hydrocarbon-contaminated water from scheduled cleaning
activities during facility turn-around (cleaning activities are
typically performed annually and may last for a few weeks),
oily effluents from process leaks, and heavy-metals

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containing effluents from fixed and fluidized beds should be
treated via the facility’s wastewater treatment plant.
Process Wastewater treatment
Techniques for treating industrial process wastewater in this
sector include source segregation and pretreatment of
concentrated wastewater streams. Typical wastewater treatment
steps include: grease traps, skimmers, dissolved air floatation,
or oil / water separators for separation of oils and floatable
solids; filtration for separation of filterable solids; flow and load
equalization; sedimentation for suspended solids reduction
using clarifiers; biological treatment, typically aerobic treatment,
for reduction of soluble organic matter (BOD); chemical or
biological nutrient removal for reduction in nitrogen and
phosphorus; chlorination of effluent when disinfection is
required; and dewatering and disposal of residuals in
designated hazardous waste landfills. Additional engineering
controls may be required for (i) containment and treatment of
volatile organics stripped from various unit operations in the
wastewater treatment system, (ii)advanced metals removal
using membrane filtration or other physical/chemical treatment
technologies, (iii) removal of recalcitrant organics, cyanide and
non biodegradable COD using activated carbon or advanced
chemical oxidation, (iii) reduction in effluent toxicity using
appropriate technology (such as reverse osmosis, ion
exchange, activated carbon, etc.), and (iv) containment and
neutralization of nuisance odors.
Management of industrial wastewater and examples of
treatment approaches are discussed in the General EHS
Guidelines. Through use of these technologies and good
practice techniques for wastewater management, facilities
should meet the Guideline Values for wastewater discharge as
indicated in the relevant table of Section 2 of this industry sector
document. Recommendations to reduce water consumption,
especially where it may be a limited natural resource, are
provided in the General EHS Guidelines.
Other Wastewater Streams & Water Consumption
Guidance on the management of non-contaminated wastewater
from utility operations, non-contaminated stormwater, and
sanitary sewage is provided in the General EHS Guidelines.
Contaminated streams should be routed to the treatment system
for industrial process wastewater. Additional specific guidance is
provided below.
Stormwater: Stormwater may become contaminated as a result
of spills of process liquids as well as migration of leachate
containing hydrocarbons and heavy metals from coal storage
areas. Industry-specific recommendations include:
• Pave process areas, segregate contaminated and non-
contaminated stormwater, and implement spill control
plans. Route stormwater from process areas into the
wastewater treatment unit; and
• Design and locate coal storage facilities and associated
leachate collection systems to prevent impacts to soil and
water resources. Coal stockpile areas should be paved to
segregate potentially contaminated stormwater, which
should be transferred to the facility’s wastewater treatment
unit.
Cooling water: Cooling water may result in high rates of water
consumption, as well as the potential release of high
temperature water, residues of biocides, and residues of other
cooling system anti-fouling agents. Recommended cooling
water management strategies include:
• Adoption of water conservation opportunities for facility
cooling systems as provided in the General EHS
Guidelines;

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• Use of heat recovery methods (also energy efficiency
improvements) or other cooling methods to reduce the
temperature of heated water prior to discharge to ensure
the discharge water temperature does not result in an
increase greater than 3°C of ambient temperature at the
edge of a scientifically established mixing zone that takes
into account ambient water quality, receiving water use,
assimilative capacity, etc.;
• Minimizing use of antifouling and corrosion-inhibiting
chemicals by ensuring appropriate depth of water intake
and use of screens; selection of the least hazardous
alternatives with regards to toxicity, biodegradability,
bioavailability, and bioaccumulation potential; and dosing in
accordance with local regulatory requirements and
manufacturer recommendations; and
• Testing for residual biocides and other pollutants of
concern to determine the need for dose adjustments or
treatment of cooling water prior to discharge.
Hydrostatic testing water: Hydrostatic testing (hydro-test) of
equipment and pipelines involves pressure testing with water
(generally filtered raw water) to verify their integrity and detect
possible leaks. Chemical additives, typically a corrosion
inhibitor, an oxygen scavenger, and a dye, may be added. In
managing hydro-test waters, the following pollution prevention
and control measures should be implemented:
• Reuse water for multiple tests to conserve water and
minimize discharges of potentially contaminated effluent;
• Reduce use of corrosion inhibiting or other chemicals by
minimizing the time that test water remains in the
equipment or pipeline; and
• Select the least hazardous alternatives with regard to
toxicity, biodegradability, bioavailability, and
bioaccumulation potential, and dosing in accordance with
local regulatory requirements and manufacturer
recommendations.
If discharge of hydro-test waters to the sea or to surface water is
the only feasible option for disposal, a hydro-test water disposal
plan should be prepared considering location and rate of
discharge, chemical use and dispersion, environmental risk, and
required monitoring. Hydro-test water disposal into shallow
coastal waters should be avoided.
Hazardous Materials
Coal processing facilities manufacture significant amounts of
hazardous materials, including intermediate / final products and
by-products. The handling, storage, and transportation of these
materials should be managed properly to avoid or minimize the
environmental impacts from these hazardous materials.
Recommended practices for hazardous material management,
including handling, storage, and transport are provided in the
General EHS Guidelines.
Wastes
Non-hazardous wastes include coal bottom ash, slag, fly ash,
and coal storage sludge. Coal bottom ash and slag5 are the
coarse, granular, incombustible by-products that are collected
from the bottom of gasifiers. Fly ash is also captured from the
reactor. The amount of generated slag and ashes is typically
significant and depends on the grade of coal used in the plant.
The physical form of the ash is related to the gasification
process.
Potentially hazardous wastes typically include spent catalysts,
oil, solvents, reactant solutions, filters, saturated filtering beds,
heavy-ends from the synthesis purification, used containers, oily
rags, mineral spirits, used sweetening, spent amines for CO2
5 Recycling Materials Resource Center (RMRC), Coal Bottom Ash/Boiler Slag,
available at http://www.rmrc.unh.edu/Partners/UserGuide/cbabs1.htm

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removal, activated carbon filters and oily sludge from oil water
separators, and spent or used operational and maintenance
fluids such as oils and test liquids, and wastewater treatment
sludge.
General recommendations for the management of hazardous
and non-hazardous waste are presented in the General EHS
Guidelines. Industry-specific waste management practices
include the following.
Coal Bottom Ash, Slag, and Fly Ash
Depending on their toxicity and radioactivity, coal bottom ash,
slag, and fly ash may be recycled, given the availability of
commercially and technical viable options. Recommended
recycling methods include:
• Use of bottom ash as an aggregate in lightweight concrete
masonry units, as raw feed material in the production of
Portland cement, road base and sub-base aggregate, or as
structural fill material, and as fine aggregate in asphalt
paving and flowable fill;
• Use of slag as blasting grit, as roofing shingle granules, for
snow and ice control, as aggregate in asphalt paving, as a
structural fill, and in road base and sub-base applications;
• Use of fly ash in construction materials requiring a
pozzolanic material.
Where due to its toxic / radioactive characteristics or
unavailability of commercially and technically viable alternatives
these materials can not be recycled, they should be disposed of
in a licensed landfill facility designed and operated according to
good international industry practice.6
6 Additional guidance on the disposal of hazardous and non-hazardous
industrial waste is provided in the EHS Guidelines for Waste Management
Facilities.
Coal Storage Sludge
Coal dust sludge generated from coal storage and coal
preparation should be dried and reused or recycled where
feasible. Possible options may include reuse as feedstock in
the gasification process, depending on the gasification
technology selected. Handling, transport, and on-site / off-site
management of all sludge should be conducted according to the
non-hazardous industrial waste management recommendations
included in the General EHS Guidelines.
Spent Catalysts
Spent catalysts result from catalyst bed replacement in
scheduled turnarounds of SynGas desulphurization, Fischer –
Tropsch (F-T) reaction, isomerization, catalytic cracking, and
methanol syntheses. Spent catalysts may contain zinc, nickel,
iron, cobalt, platinum, palladium, and copper, depending on the
particular process.
Recommended waste management strategies for spent
catalysts include the following:
• Appropriate on-site management, including submerging
pyrophoric spent catalysts in water during temporary
storage and transport until they can reach the final point of
treatment to avoid uncontrolled exothermic reactions;
• Return to the manufacturer for regeneration; and
• Off-site management by specialized companies that can
recover the heavy or precious metals, through recovery
and recycling processes whenever possible, or who can
otherwise manage spent catalysts or their non-recoverable
materials according to hazardous and non-hazardous
waste management recommendations presented in the
General EHS Guidelines. Catalysts that contain platinum
or palladium should be sent to a noble metals recovery
facility.

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Heavy Ends
Heavy ends from the purification section of the Methanol
Synthesis Unit are normally burnt in a steam boiler by means of
a dedicated burner.
Noise
The principal sources of noise in coal processing facilities
include the physical processing of coal (e.g. screening,
crushing, sizing and sorting), as well as large rotating machines
(e.g., compressors, turbines, pumps, electric motors, air coolers,
and fired heaters). During emergency depressurization, high
noise levels can be generated due to release of high-pressure
gases to flare and / or steam release into the atmosphere.
General recommendations for noise management are provided
in the General EHS Guidelines.
1.2 Occupational Health and Safety
Facility-specific occupational health and safety hazards should
be identified based on job safety analysis or comprehensive
hazard or risk assessment using established methodologies
such as a hazard identification study [HAZID], hazard and
operability study [HAZOP], or a scenario-based risk assessment
[QRA].
As a general approach, health and safety management planning
should include the adoption of a systematic and structured
system for prevention and control of physical, chemical,
biological, and radiological health and safety hazards described
in the General EHS Guidelines.
The most significant occupational health and safety hazards
occur during the operational phase of a coal processing facility
and primarily include the following:
• Process Safety
• Oxygen-Enriched Gas Releases
• Oxygen-Deficient Atmospheres
• Inhalation hazards
• Fire and explosions
Process Safety
Process safety programs should be implemented due to
industry-specific characteristics, including complex chemical
reactions, use of hazardous materials (e.g., toxic, reactive,
flammable or explosive compounds), and multi-step reactions.
Process safety management includes the following actions:
• Physical hazard testing of materials and reactions;
• Hazard analysis studies to review the process chemistry
and engineering practices, including thermodynamics and
kinetics;
• Examination of preventive maintenance and mechanical
integrity of the process equipment and utilities;
• Worker training; and
• Development of operating instructions and emergency
response procedures.
Oxygen-Enriched Gas Releases
Oxygen-enriched gas may leak from air separation units and
create a fire risk due to an oxygen-enriched atmosphere.
Oxygen-enriched atmospheres may potentially result in the
saturation of materials, hair, and clothing with oxygen, which
may burn vigorously if ignited. Prevention and control measures
to reduce on-site and off-site exposure to oxygen-enriched
atmospheres include:
• Installation of an automatic Emergency Shutdown System
that can detect and warn of the uncontrolled release of
oxygen (including the presence of oxygen enriched

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atmospheres in working areas7) and initiate shutdown
actions thus minimizing the duration of releases, and
elimination of potential ignition sources;
• Design of facilities and components according to applicable
industry safety standards, avoiding the placement of
oxygen-carrying piping in confined spaces, using
intrinsically safe electrical installations, and using facility-
wide oxygen venting systems that properly consider the
potential impact of the vented gas;
• Implementation of hot work and permit-required confined
space entry procedures that specifically take into account
the potential release of oxygen;
• Implementation of good housekeeping practices to avoid
accumulation of combustible materials;
• Planning and implementation of emergency preparedness
and response plans that specifically incorporate
procedures for managing uncontrolled releases of oxygen;
and
• Provision of appropriate fire prevention and control
equipment as described below (Fire and Explosion
Hazards).
Oxygen-Deficient Atmosphere
The potential releases and accumulation of nitrogen gas into
work areas can result in asphyxiating conditions due to the
displacement of oxygen by these gases. Prevention and control
measures to reduce risks of asphyxiant gas release include:
• Design and placement of nitrogen venting systems
according to recognized industry standards;
7 Working areas with the potential for oxygen enriched atmospheres should be
equipped with area monitoring systems capable of detecting such conditions.
Workers also should be equipped with personal monitoring systems. Both types
of monitoring systems should be equipped with a warning alarm set at 23.5
percent concentration of O2 in air.
• Installation of an automatic Emergency Shutdown System
that can detect and warn of the uncontrolled release of
nitrogen (including the presence of oxygen deficient
atmospheres in working areas8), initiate forced ventilation,
and minimize the duration of releases; and
• Implementation of confined space entry procedures as
described in the General EHS Guidelines with
consideration of facility-specific hazards.
Inhalation Hazards
Chemical exposure in coal processing facilities is primarily
related to inhalation of coal dust, coal tar pitch volatiles, carbon
monoxide, and other vapors such as methanol and ammonia.
Workers exposed to coal dust may develop lung damage and
pulmonary fibrosis. Exposure to carbon monoxide results in
formation of carboxyhemoglobin (COHb), which inhibits the
oxygen-carrying ability of the red blood cells. Mild exposure
symptoms may include headache, dizziness, decreased
vigilance, decreased hand-eye coordination, weakness,
confusion, disorientation, lethargy, nausea, and visual
disturbances. Greater or prolonged exposure can cause
unconsciousness and death.
Potential inhalation exposures to chemicals emissions during
routine plant operations should be managed based on the
results of a job safety analysis and industrial hygiene survey,
and according to occupational health and safety guidance
provided in the General EHS Guidelines. Protection measures
include worker training, work permit systems, use of personal
protective equipment (PPE), and toxic gas detection systems
with alarms.
8 Working areas with the potential for oxygen deficient atmospheres should be
equipped with area monitoring systems capable of detecting such conditions.
Workers also should be equipped with personal monitoring systems. Both types
of monitoring systems should be equipped with a warning alarm set at 19.5
percent concentration of O2 in air.

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Fire and Explosion Hazards
Coal Storage and Preparation
Coal is susceptible to spontaneous combustion, most commonly
due to oxidation of pyrite or other sulphidic contaminants in
coal.9, 10 Coal preparation operations also present a fire and
explosion hazard due to the generation of coal dust, which may
ignite depending on its concentration in air and presence of
ignition sources. Coal dust therefore represents a significant
explosion hazard in coal storage and handling facilities where
coal dust clouds may be generated in enclosed spaces. Dust
clouds also may be present wherever loose coal dust
accumulates, such as on structural ledges. Recommended
techniques to prevent and control combustion and explosion
hazards in enclosed coal storage include the following:
• Storing coal piles so as to prevent or minimize the
likelihood of combustion, including:
o Compacting coal piles to reduce the amount of air
within the pile,
o Minimizing coal storage times,
o Avoiding placement of coal piles above heat sources
such as steam lines or manholes,
o Constructing coal storage structures with non-
combustible materials,
o Designing coal storage structures to minimize the
surface areas on which coal dust can settle and
providing dust removal systems, and
o Continuous monitoring for hot spots (ignited coal)
using temperature detection systems. When a hot
spot is detected, the ignited coal should be removed.
Access should be provided for firefighting;
9 National Fire Protection Association (NFPA). Standard 850: Recommended
Practice for Fire Protection for Electric Generating Plants and High Voltage
Direct Current Converter Stations (2000).
10 NFPA. Standard 120: Standard for Fire Prevention and Control in Coal Mines
(2004).
• Eliminating the presence of potential sources of ignition,
and providing appropriate equipment grounding to
minimize static electricity hazards. All machinery and
electrical equipment inside the enclosed coal storage area
or structure should be approved for use in hazardous
locations and provided with spark-proof motors;
• All electrical circuits should be designed for automatic,
remote shutdown; and
• Installation of an adequate lateral ventilation system in
enclosed storage areas to reduce concentrations of
methane, carbon monoxide, and volatile products from coal
oxidation by air, and to deal with smoke in the event of a
fire.
Recommended techniques to prevent and control explosion
risks due to coal preparation in an enclosed area include the
following:
• Conduct dry coal screening, crushing, dry cleaning,
grinding, pulverizing and other operations producing coal
dust under nitrogen blanket or other explosion prevention
approaches such as ventilation;
• Locate the facilities to minimize fire and explosion
exposure to other major buildings and equipment;
• Consider controlling the moisture content of coal prior to
use, depending on the requirements of the gasification
technology;
• Install failsafe monitoring of methane concentrations in air,
and halt operations if a methane concentration of 40
percent of the lower explosion limit is reached;
• Install and properly maintain dust collector systems to
capture fugitive emissions from coal-handling equipment or
machinery.

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Coal Processing
Fire and explosion hazards generated by process operations
include the accidental release of SynGas (containing carbon
monoxide and hydrogen), oxygen, methanol, and ammonia.
High pressure SynGas releases may cause “Jet Fires” or give
rise to a Vapor Cloud Explosion (VCE), “Fireball” or “Flash Fire,”
depending on the quantity of flammable material involved and
the degree of confinement of the cloud. Hydrogen and carbon
monoxide gases may ignite even in the absence of ignition
sources if they temperatures of 500°C and 609°C, respectively.
Flammable liquid spills may cause “Pool Fires.” Recommended
measures to prevent and control fire and explosion risks from
process operations include the following:
• Provide early release detection, such as pressure
monitoring of gas and liquid conveyance systems, in
addition to smoke and heat detection for fires;
• Limit potential releases by isolating process operations
from large storage inventories;
• Avoid potential ignition sources (e.g., by configuring piping
layouts to avoid spills over high temperature piping,
equipment, and / or rotating machines);
• Control the potential effect of fires or explosions by
segregating and using separation distances between
process, storage, utility, and safe areas. Safe distances
can be derived from specific safety analyses for the facility,
and through application of internationally recognized fire
safety standards;11
• Limit areas that may be potentially affected by accidental
releases by:
o Defining fire zones and equipping them with a
drainage system to collect and convey accidental
releases of flammable liquids to a safe containment
11 For example, NFPA Standard 30: Flammable and Combustible Liquids Code
(2003).
area including secondary containment of storage
tanks,
o Strengthening of buildings or installing fire / blast
partition walls in areas where appropriate separation
distances cannot be achieved, and
o Designing the oily sewage system to avoid
propagation of fire.
1.3 Community Health and Safety
Community health and safety impacts during the construction
and decommissioning of coal processing facilities are common
to those of most other industrial facilities and are discussed in
the General EHS Guidelines. The most significant community
health and safety hazards associated with coal processing
facilities occur during the operation phase and include the threat
from major accidents related to potential fires and explosions or
accidental releases of finished products during transportation
outside the processing facility. Guidance for the management of
these issues is presented in relevant sections of the General
EHS Guidelines including: Hazardous Materials Management
(including Major Hazards), Traffic Safety, Transport of
Hazardous Materials, and Emergency Preparedness and
Response. Additional relevant guidance applicable to transport
by sea and rail as well as shore-based facilities can be found in
the EHS Guidelines for Shipping; Railways, Ports and Harbors,
and Crude Oil and Petroleum Products Terminals.

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2.0 Performance Indicators and
Monitoring
2.1 Environment
Emissions and Effluent Guidelines
Tables 1 and 2 present emission and effluent guidelines for this
sector. Guideline values for process emissions and effluents in
this sector are indicative of good international industry practice
as reflected in relevant standards of countries with recognized
regulatory frameworks. These guidelines are achievable under
normal operating conditions in appropriately designed and
operated facilities through the application of pollution prevention
and control techniques discussed in the preceding sections of
this document.
Emissions guidelines are applicable to process emissions.
Combustion source emissions guidelines associated with
steam- and power-generation activities from sources with a
capacity equal to or lower than 50 MWth are addressed in the
General EHS Guidelines with larger power source emissions
addressed in the EHS Guidelines for Thermal Power.
Guidance on ambient considerations based on the total load of
emissions is provided in the General EHS Guidelines.
Effluent guidelines are applicable for direct discharges of treated
effluents to surface waters for general use. Site-specific
discharge levels may be established based on the availability
and conditions in the use of publicly operated sewage collection
and treatment systems or, if discharged directly to surface
waters, on the receiving water use classification as described in
the General EHS Guideline. These levels should be achieved,
without dilution, at least 95 percent of the time that the plant or
unit is operating, to be calculated as a proportion of annual
operating hours. Deviation from these levels due to specific local
project conditions should be justified in the environmental
assessment.
Resource Use, Energy Consumption, Emission
and Waste Generation
Table 3 provides examples of resource consumption indicators
for energy and water in this sector. Table 4 provides examples
of emission and waste generation indicators. Industry
benchmark values are provided for comparative purposes only
and individual projects should target continual improvement in
these areas. Relevant benchmarks for coal processing plants
can be derived from coal gasification for large power plants.
Emissions of gasification plants producing SynGas for Fischer-
Tropsch (F-T) synthesis should be substantially lower, due to
the purity requirements of synthesis catalyst.
Environmental Monitoring
Environmental monitoring programs for this sector should be
implemented to address all activities that have been identified to
have potentially significant impacts on the environment during
normal operations and upset conditions. Environmental
monitoring activities should be based on direct or indirect
indicators of emissions, effluents, and resource use applicable
to the particular project. Monitoring frequency should be
sufficient to provide representative data for the parameter being
monitored. Monitoring should be conducted by trained
individuals following monitoring and record-keeping procedures
and using properly calibrated and maintained equipment.
Monitoring data should be analyzed and reviewed at regular
intervals and compared with the operating standards so that any
necessary corrective actions can be taken. Additional guidance
on applicable sampling and analytical methods for emissions
and effluents is provided in the General EHS Guidelines.

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Table 1. Air Emissions Levels for Coal
Processing Plants
Pollutant Unit
Guideline
Value
Coal Preparation Plant
Thermal Dryer Particulate mg/Nm3 70
Thermal Dryer Gas Opacity % 20
Pneumatic Coal Cleaning Equip.
Particulate
mg/Nm3 40
Pneumatic Coal Cleaning Equip.
Opacity
% 10
Conveying, Storage and Preparation
Gas Opacity
% 10
Overall
SO2 mg/Nm3 150-200
NOx mg/Nm3 200-400(1)
Hg mg/Nm3 1.0
Particulate Matter mg/Nm3 30-50(1)
VOC mg/Nm3 150
Total Heavy Metals mg/Nm3 1.5
H2S mg/Nm3 10(2)
COS + CS2 mg/Nm3 3
Ammonia mg/Nm3 30
Notes:
1. Lower value for plants of >100 MWth equivalent; higher value for plants of
<100 MWth equivalent.
2. Emissions from Claus unit (Austria, Belgium, Germany).
- Process emissions levels should be reviewed in consideration of utility
source emissions to arrive at the lowest overall emission rate for the facility.
- Dry gas 15% O2
Table 3. Resource and Energy Consumption
Parameter Unit
Industry
Benchmark
Electric Power
Electric power
consumption of Coal-
to-Liquid plants
MWhr/ Metric Ton of total
Coal-to-Liquid products
0.05 – 0.1
Electric Power
consumption of
methanol plants
MWhr/Metric Ton of methanol 0.07
Table 2. Effluents Levels for Coal Processing
Plants
Pollutant Unit
Guideline
Value
pH 6 - 9
BOD5 mg/l 30
COD mg/l
150 (40 cooling
water)
Ammoniacal nitrogen (as N) mg/l 5
Total nitrogen mg/l 10
Total phosphorous mg/l 2
Sulfide mg/l 1
Oil and grease mg/l 10
TSS mg/l 35
Total metals mg/l 3
Cadmium mg/l 0.1
Chromium (total) mg/l 0.5
Chromium (hexavalent) mg/l 0.1
Copper mg/l 0.5
Cobalt mg/l 0.5
Zinc mg/l 1
Lead mg/l 0.5
Iron mg/l 3
Nickel mg/l 1
Mercury mg/l 0.02
Vanadium mg/l 1
Manganese mg/l 2
Phenol mg/l 0.5
Cyanides mg/l 0.5

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Table 4. Emissions and Waste Generation(1)
Parameter Unit
Industry
Benchmark
SO2 g/Nm3 of SynGas 0.3 - 0.5
SO2 (Coal-Methanol-
Gasoline)(4)
tons/day 6-14
SO2 (Fischer-Tropsch)(4) tons/day 9-14
NOX g/Nm3 of SynGas 0.35-0.6
NOX (Coal-Methanol-
Gasoline)(4)
tons/day 5-15.5
NOX (Fischer-Tropsch)(4) tons/day 5-23.6
PM10 g/Nm3 of SynGas 0.12
Particulates (Coal-Methanol-
Gasoline)(4)
tons/day 0.5-7.5
Particulates (Fischer-
Tropsch)(4)
tons/day 1-6
CO2(2)(3) kg/kg of coal 1.5
CO2 (Coal-Methanol-Gasoline
and Fischer-Tropsch)(4)
tons/day 21,000
Ammonia g/Nm3 of SynGas 0.004
Solid Waste (ash, slag and
sulfur)(2)
kg/ton of coal 50 – 200
Notes:
1. Production: 1,300 – 1,500 Nm3 of SynGas/t of coal
2. According to rank and grade of coal; calculated for a GHP = 30 GJ/kg
3. Without carbon capture and sequestration (CCS)
4. Reference: Edgar, T.F. (1983). For a 50,000 bbl/day coal liquefaction
facility
2.2 Occupational Health and Safety
Performance
Occupational Health and Safety Guidelines
Occupational health and safety performance should be
evaluated against internationally published exposure guidelines,
of which examples include the Threshold Limit Value (TLV®)
occupational exposure guidelines and Biological Exposure
Indices (BEIs®) published by American Conference of
Governmental Industrial Hygienists (ACGIH),12 the Pocket
Guide to Chemical Hazards published by the United States
National Institute for Occupational Health and Safety (NIOSH),13
Permissible Exposure Limits (PELs) published by the
Occupational Safety and Health Administration of the United
States (OSHA),14 Indicative Occupational Exposure Limit Values
published by European Union member states,15 or other similar
sources.
Accident and Fatality Rates
Projects should try to reduce the number of accidents among
project workers (whether directly employed or subcontracted) to
a rate of zero, especially accidents that could result in lost work
time, different levels of disability, or even fatalities. Facility rates
may be benchmarked against the performance of facilities in this
sector in developed countries through consultation with
published sources (e.g. US Bureau of Labor Statistics and UK
Health and Safety Executive)16.
Occupational Health and Safety Monitoring
The working environment should be monitored for occupational
hazards relevant to the specific project. Monitoring should be
designed and implemented by accredited professionals17 as part
of an occupational health and safety monitoring program.
Facilities should also maintain a record of occupational
accidents and diseases and dangerous occurrences and
accidents. Additional guidance on occupational health and
safety monitoring programs is provided in the General EHS
Guidelines.
12 Available at: http://www.acgih.org/TLV/ and http://www.acgih.org/store/
13 Available at: http://www.cdc.gov/niosh/npg/
14 Available at:
http://www.osha.gov/pls/oshaweb/owadisp.show_document?p_table=STANDAR
DS&p_id=9992
15 Available at: http://europe.osha.eu.int/good_practice/risks/ds/oel/
16 Available at: http://www.bls.gov/iif/ and
http://www.hse.gov.uk/statistics/index.htm
17 Accredited professionals may include Certified Industrial Hygienists,
Registered Occupational Hygienists, or Certified Safety Professionals or their
equivalent.

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3.0 References and Additional Sources
Edgar, T.F. 1983. Coal Processing and Pollution Control. Houston: Gulf
Publishing Company.
European Bank for Reconstruction and Development (EBRD). Sub-sectoral
Environmental Guidelines: Coal Processing. London: EBRD. Available at
http://www.ebrd.com
European Commission. 2006. European Integrated Pollution Prevention and
Control Bureau (EIPPCB). Best Available Techniques(BAT) Reference
Document for Large Combustion Plants. July 2006. Sevilla, Spain: EIPPCB.
Available at http://eippcb.jrc.es/pages/FActivities.htm
European Commission. 2003. European Integrated Pollution Prevention and
Control Bureau (EIPPCB). Best Available Techniques (BAT) Reference
Document for Mineral Oil and Gas Refineries. February 2003. Sevilla, Spain:
EIPPCB. Available at http://eippcb.jrc.es/pages/FActivities.htm
German Federal Ministry of the Environment, Nature Conservation and Nuclear
Safety (BMU). 2002. First General Administrative Regulation Pertaining to the
Federal Emission Control Act (Technical Instructions on Air Quality Control – TA
Luft). Bonn: BMU. Available at
http://www.bmu.de/english/air_pollution_control/ta_luft/doc/36958.php
Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC). 2006. Special Report,
Carbon Dioxide Capture and Storage, March 2006. Geneva: IPCC.
Kirk-Othmer, R.E. 2006. Encyclopedia of Chemical Technology. 5th Edition. New
York: John Wiley and Sons Ltd.
Lockhart, N. 2002. Advances in Coal Preparation. London: World Energy
Council. Available at http://www.worldenergy.org/wec-
geis/publications/default/tech_papers/17th_congress/1_2_02.asp
National Fire Protection Association (NFPA). 2004. Standard 120: Standard for
Fire Prevention and Control in Coal Mines. 2004 Edition. Quincy, MA: NFPA.
NFPA. 2003. Standard 30: Flammable and Combustible Liquids Code. 2003
Edition. Quincy, MA: NFPA.
NFPA. 2000. Standard 850: Recommended Practice for Fire Protection for
Electric Generating Plants and High Voltage Direct Current Converter Stations.
2000 Edition. Quincy, MA: NFPA.
Northeast States for Coordinated Air Use Management (NESCAUM). 2003.
Mercury Emissions from Coal -Fired Power Plants: The Case for Regulatory
Action. October 2003. Boston, MA: NESCAUM
United States (US) Environmental Protection Agency (EPA). 2005. 40 CFR Part
60, Standards of Performance for New and Existing Stationary Sources: Electric
Utility Steam Generating Units, Clean Air Mercury Rule. Washington, DC: US
EPA.
US EPA. 40 CFR Part 60. Standards of Performance for New Stationary
Sources. Subpart Y—Standards of Performance for Coal Preparation Plants.
Washington, DC: US EPA.
US EPA. 40 CFR Part 434—Coal Mining Point Source Category BPT, BAT, BCT
Limitations and New Source Performance Standards. Washington, DC: US EPA.
United States Congress. 2005. Clean Skies Act of 2005. (Inhofe, S.131 in 109th
Congress). Washington, DC: Library of Congress. Available at
http://thomas.loc.gov/cgi-bin/query/z?c109:S.131:
University of New Hampshire Recycled Materials Resource Center (RMRC).
Coal Bottom Ash/Boiler Slag. Available at http://www.rmrc.unh.edu/
Zhu D. and Y. Zhang. Major trends of new technologies for coal mining and
utilization beyond 2000 - Technical scenario of the chinese coal industry. China
Coal Research Institute, Ministry of Coal Industry, Beijing, China. Available at
http://www.worldenergy.org/wec-
geis/publications/default/tech_papers/17th_congress/3_1_11.asp
Ullmann’s Encyclopedia of Industrial Chemistry. 2005. Wiley-VCH Verlag GmbH
& Co. Available at http://www.wiley-
vch.de/vch/software/ullmann/index.php?page=home

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Annex A: General Description of Industry Activities
Coal processing into gaseous or liquid chemicals, including
fuels, involves the following processes and auxiliary facilities:
• Coal gasification to synthesis gas – SynGas (CO + H2)
• Indirect liquefaction, (i.e., Fischer - Tropsch synthesis of
automotive fuels (gasoline and gas oil) from SynGas)
• Ammonia from SynGas
• Methanol from SynGas
• Direct liquefaction, (e.g., coal liquefaction by direct
hydrogenation)
Coal
Coal is one of the world’s most plentiful energy resources, and
its use is likely to increase as technologies for disposal of
greenhouse gases, namely CO2, become available. Coal occurs
in a wide range of forms and qualities. The degree of conversion
of plant matter or coalification is referred to as “rank”. Brown
coal and lignite, sub-bituminous coal, bituminous coal, and
anthracite make up the rank series with increasing carbon
content. The American Society for Testing and Materials
(ASTM) classification is presented in Table A.1.18
Coal with less than 69 percent fixed carbon is classified
according to their Gross Calorific Value (GCV):
• Bituminous if GCV> 24,400 kilojoules per kilogram
(kJ/kg), agglomerating
• Subbituminous if 19,300 kJ/kg<GCV<26,700 kJ/kg, non-
agglomerating
• Lignitic if 14,600 kJ/kg <GCV <19,300 kJ/kg, non-
agglomerating
18 Kirk-Othmer, Encyclopedia of Chemical Technology, 5th Edition (2006).
For international trade and in the European Union, separate
classification systems have been agreed upon for hard coal,
brown coal, and lignite.
The impurities in coals, mainly sulfur, nitrogen, and ash, cause
differences in grade. Most commercial coals contain 0.5 – 4.0
weight (wt) percent sulfur, present as sulfate, pyrite, and organic
sulfur. Nitrogen content typically ranges from 0.5 – 2.0 wt
percent. Because nitrogen is mostly bound to organic
molecules, it is not removable physically. Coal ash is derived
from the mineral content of coal upon combustion or utilization.
Coal ashes may contain trace elements of arsenic, beryllium,
cadmium, chromium, copper, fluorine, lead, manganese, and
mercury.
Coal Gasification
Coal gasification plants widely differ in size according to the final
destination of the produced SynGas. In chemical manufacturing,
typical design capacity is based on a feed rate of 1,500-2,000
tons per day (t/d) of coal. Larger capacities are possible,
especially for methanol production. In the case of liquid fuel
manufacturing, existing facilities use 120,000 t/d (ca. 40
Table A.1. ASTM Coal Classification
Fixed
Carbon (1)
(%)
Volatile
Matter (1)
(%)
min max min max
Meta-anthracite 98 2
Anthracite 92 98 2 8
Anthracitic
Non-
agglomerating Semianthracite 86 92 8 14
Low volatile 78 86 14 22
Medium volatile 69 78 22 31
Bituminous
Commonly
agglomerating High volatile 69 31
Notes:
(1) Dry, mineral-matter-free basis

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megatons per year (Mt/y)) of coal to produce 160,000 barrels
per day (bbl/d) (ca. 10 Mt/y) oil equivalents of liquid fuel.
Coal Logistics and Preparation
Large coal-to-oil plants are typically located near coal mines,
and share storage areas and facilities. The coal is typically fed
to plant bins, bunkers, and hoppers by conveyor belts. Smaller
plants may be located far from mines. In this case, coal is
transported by railway, barge, or slurry pipeline and is stored in
stockpiles. Typically, preparation of coal is necessary prior to
shipping and use, depending on the mine and coal
characteristics as well as the mining technology.19 Coal
preparation is discussed in the EHS Guidelines for Mining.
Prior to utilization, coal stored in the coal processing facilities is
converted into the physical forms needed by the SynGas
production reactor, which differ based on SynGas production
technology. Typical operations include coal drying and size
reduction (crushing, grinding, or pulverization).
SynGas Production Facilities
Coal gasification involves the reaction of coal with oxygen,
steam, and carbon dioxide to form a product gas (SynGas)
containing hydrogen and carbon monoxide. Essentially,
gasification involves incomplete combustion in a reducing
environment. The main operating difference compared to
complete coal combustion is that gasification consumes heat
produced during combustion. Under the reducing environment
of gasification, sulfur in the coal is released as hydrogen sulfide
rather than as sulfur dioxide, and nitrogen in coal is converted
mostly to ammonia rather than nitrogen oxides. These reduced
forms of sulfur and nitrogen are easily isolated, captured, and
utilized.
19 Lockhart, N., World Energy Council. Advances in Coal Preparation (2002).
Depending on the type of gasifier and the operating conditions,
gasification can be used to produce a SynGas suitable for any
number of applications. A simplified version of the gasification
process is outlined in Figure A.1.
Prepared coal is fed to gasification, together with oxygen and
steam. Depending on the specific type of gasifier, SynGas
flowing out from the reactor may be quenched and cooled and
the heat recovered as high pressure steam. Ash is recovered
from the bottom of the reactor, together with tar, either solid or
slagged (depending on the process). SynGas is blended with
steam and fed to the shift reactor to adjust the H2/CO ratio to the
required value. SynGas is later purified of H2S, CO2, COS, NH3,
HCN to the required specifications. Three main types of
gasification reactors are used: fixed-bed reactors, fluidized-bed
reactors, and entrained-flow reactors.
Fixed-Bed Reactors
Countercurrent, fixed-bed gasifiers were among the earlier types
of reactors to be developed. In this process, air and steam are
introduced at the bottom and travel upward through a coal bed.
Coal is fed onto the top of the bed and travels downward
countercurrent to the flow of gases. Fixed beds have several
advantages. The flow of the hot gases up from the combustion
zone preheats the coal leading to heating efficiency gains. High
carbon conversion is achieved by plug flow of solids through the
gasification and combustion zones, and the relatively long
residence times of the fuel in the reactor. The product gas exits
at relatively low temperatures and without contamination of
solids. However, oil and tar may be present, and may cause
fouling of downstream equipment.
The disadvantage of the fixed-bed gasifiers is the inability to
process caking (agglomerating) coals (e.g., bituminous coal
rank), which have a tendency to swell and agglomerate upon

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heating. These coals may disrupt gas and solid flows, leading to
process failure.
Fluidized-Bed Reactors
Fluidized-bed gasifiers enable improved mixing and uniformity of
temperatures, allowing oxygen to react with the devolatilization
products. In dry fluidized-bed gasifiers, temperatures have to be
maintained below the ash melting point, causing incomplete
carbon conversion for unreactive coals. Agglomerating ash
gasifiers operate at higher temperatures (up to 1,150 °C), near
the ash softening point, allowing improved carbon conversion
and gasification of unreactive high rank coals and caking coals.
The higher temperatures increase gasification rates, coal output
and efficiency. The primary advantage of fluid-bed gasifiers is
the flexibility to use caking coals, as well as low quality coals of
high ash content. In addition, a fluid-bed gasifier is able to
operate over a wide range of operating loads or outputs without
significant drop in process efficiency.
Entrained-Flow Reactors
In this type of reactor, gasifiers may be dry-feed, pressurized,
oxygen-blown, entrained-flow slagging type. The coal is dried
and pulverized to particle diameter < 0.1 mm, prior to being fed
into the gasifier with a transport gas, generally nitrogen. Coal,
oxygen, and steam enter the gasifier through horizontally
opposed burners. Raw fuel gas is produced from high-
temperature gasification reactions and flows upwardly, with
some entrained particulates composed of ash and a small
quantity of unreacted carbon.
The high reactor temperature converts the remaining ash into a
molten slag, which flows down the walls of the gasifier and
passes into a slag quench bath. The raw fuel gas can be
quenched at the reactor exit with cooled recycled fuel gas to
lower the temperature below the melting point of the ash, and
avoid sticky solids entering the raw fuel gas cooler. The raw gas
cooler further cools the gas and generates high-pressure steam
which is sent to the steam cycle. Solids are recovered in the
particulate filters and recycled back to the reactor. This type of
reactor can easily manage coal of all ranks.
Indirect Coal Liquefaction
Liquid Hydrocarbon Production
F-T processes can be used to produce a light synthetic crude oil
(syncrude) and light olefins, or heavy waxy hydrocarbons.
Syncrude can be refined to gasoline and gas oil, and the heavy
hydrocarbons to specialty waxes or, if hydrocracked and / or
isomerized, used to produce gas oil, lube oils, and naphtha,
which is a feedstock for cracking to olefins. Iron-based catalysts
promoted with potassium and copper are used.
Typical reactor designs for F-T reaction include low-temperature
reactors (LTFT, slurry-bed reactors) and high-temperature
reactors (HTFT, fluid-bed reactors).
The slurry-bed reactors consist of a vessel containing a slurry
of process-derived wax including a catalyst. SynGas is bubbled
through the slurry bed at typical process conditions of 220–
250°C and 2.5–4.5 megapascals (MPa), and is converted to
hydrocarbons. The heat generated is passed from the slurry to
the cooling coils inside the reactor to generate steam. The light
hydrocarbons, which are in the vapor phase, are removed from
the freeboard at the top of the reactor with the unconverted
reactants and are condensed in the downstream condensing
train. The heavier liquid hydrocarbons are mixed into the slurry
from which they are removed in a solid separation process.
The fluid-bed reactors consist of a vessel containing a fluidized
bed of fused and reduced iron catalyst. SynGas is bubbled by
means of a gas distributor through the bed where it is
catalytically converted to hydrocarbons which, at the process

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conditions of about 340°C and 2.5 MPa, are in the vapor phase.
The products and unconverted gases leave the reactor through
internal cyclones.
Alkylation
The purpose of alkylation is to yield high-quality motor fuel. The
term alkylation is used to describe the reaction of olefins with
isobutane, to form higher molecular-weight isoparaffins with a
high octane number. The process involves low-temperature
reaction conditions conducted in the presence of strong acids
(hydrofluoric acid (HF) or sulphuric acid (H2SO4)).
Isomerization
Isomerization is used to alter the arrangement of a molecule
without altering the composition of the original molecule. Low
molecular weight paraffins (C5 – C6) are converted to
isoparaffins, which have a much higher octane index. Three
distinct types of catalysts are currently used for this process:
chloride promoted alumina, zeolitic, and sulphated zirconia.
Catalytic Cracking
Catalytic cracking is used for upgrading heavier hydrocarbons
into more valuable, lower boiling hydrocarbons. The process
uses heat and a catalyst to break larger hydrocarbon molecules
into smaller, lighter molecules. Fluid catalytic cracking (FCC)
units are commonly used consisting of three distinct sections: a
reactor-regenerator section including air blower and waste heat
boiler; the main fractionator section including a wet gas
compressor; and the unsaturated gas plant section. In the FCC
process, oil and oil vapor preheated to 250 to 425°C is
contacted with hot catalyst (zeolite) at about 680–730°C in the
riser reactor. To enhance vaporization and subsequent cracking,
the feed is atomized with steam. The cracking process takes
place at temperatures between 500 and 540°C and a pressure
of 1.5-2.0 barg. Most catalysts used in catalytic cracking are
zeolites supported by amorphous synthetic silica-alumina with
metals.
Oxygenate Hydrogenation
In this process, oxygenate compounds are hydrogenated to an
alcohol mixture.
Ammonia Production
Ammonia (NH3) production plants may be stand-alone units or
integrated with other plants, typically with urea and methanol
production. Hydrogen and / or carbon monoxide production can
also be integrated with ammonia plants. Ammonia is produced
by an exotermic reaction of hydrogen and nitrogen. This
reaction is carried out in the presence of metal oxide catalysts at
elevated pressure. The raw material source of nitrogen is
atmospheric air and it may be used in its natural state as
compressed air or as pure nitrogen from an air separation unit.
Hydrogen is available from a variety of sources such as natural
gas, crude oil, naphtha, or off gases from coal processing.
Ammonia production from SynGas includes the following
process steps: removal of trace quantities of sulfur in the
feedstock; primary and secondary reforming; carbon monoxide
shift conversion; removal of carbon dioxide; methanation;
compression; ammonia synthesis; and ammonia product
refrigeration. Carbon is removed in the form of concentrated
carbon dioxide (CO2), which may be used for urea manufacture
or other industrial purposes to avoid release to the atmosphere.
Catalysts used in the process may contain cobalt, molybdenum,
nickel, iron oxide / chromium oxide, copper oxide / zinc oxide,
and iron.
Two non-conventional process routes include: the addition of
extra process air to the secondary reformer with cryogenic
removal of the excess nitrogen; and heat-exchange autothermal
reforming. The latter process route has some environmental

COAL PROCESSING
APRIL 30,2007 21
WORLD BANK GROUP
advantage given the reduced need for firing in the primary
reformer and the potential for lower energy consumption.
Methanol Production
The methanol synthesis unit typically involves reaction, gas
recycling, and purification. In the reaction, carbon monoxide and
hydrogen react at about 250°C and 50-80 bar in the presence of
a copper-based catalyst to yield methanol. Commercially
available reactors include fixed bed tubular or multi-beds
adiabatic radial types. Down-stream of the reactor, methanol is
condensed and the unconverted gas is recycled to the SynGas
production unit. The purification section involves two
fractionation towers where both light-ends and heavy-ends (high
molecular weight alcohols) are removed from methanol product.
Light-ends are typically recovered as fuel gas. Heavy-ends are
typically burned in a steam boiler through a dedicated burner.
Direct Coal Liquefaction
Many countries have undertaken research and development into
direct coal liquefaction. Most processes under development are
based on catalytic hydrogenation of coal dispersed and partially
dissolved in an organic solvent. The reaction is strongly
dependent on the rank, the grade, and the ageing of coal. For
low rank coals, blends of water, hydrogen and CO (SynGas) are
more effective hydrogenation agents. Catalyst poisoning by coal
impurities is a problem, along with waste water treatment. Large
pilot plants and demonstration plants have been successfully
operated.

COAL PROCESSING
APRIL 30, 2007 22
WORLD BANK GROUP
Vent gas
Figure A.1: Block Flow Diagram of Coal Gasification
Air
Raw SynGas
Oxygen Steam
Coal
preparation
Gasification
Coal
Air
separation
unit
Cooler
Water-gas
shift
SynGas
purification
Hydrogen
sulfide
oxydation
Ashes
and tar
HP-BFW HP
steam
Steam
SulfurWastewater
SynGas
Nitrogen

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