COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT.pdf
- 2. LESSON 1: BEHAVIORISM • Learning Outcomes: 1. Explain the different kinds of behaviorism; 2. Compare the different kinds of behaviorism with one another; 3. Analyze the application of behaviorism in teaching.
- 3. Introduction • Cognition – is the process by which we acquire knowledge and understanding through thought, experience, and through our senses. ―Includes knowing, remembering, understanding, communicating, and learning. • Cognitive development includes neurological and psychological development, or the growth in one’s ability to think and to reason. ―Assessed by measuring the levels of the ff: concept formation, perception, information processing, and language acquisition and application as an indicator of brain development.
- 4. Behaviorism (1897 – 1902) • Before behaviorism, there were studies on how people think unconsciously in a subjective manner by interpreting their thoughts and dreams. • Behaviorism deals with measurable, observable behavior. • Behaviorist did not test for thinking because it was not possible to measure those things at that time. For them, control of behavior is in the environment (external), and learning (conditioning) occurs when there is a change in behavior. • Behaviorism – assumes that the learner is essentially passive and, like a blank slate, simply responds to environmental stimuli.
- 5. Classical Conditioning • This involves association or pairing of stimuli and involuntary behavior. • Ivan Pavlov (1897): ➢ Pavlov was conducting a research about the digestive system, using dogs as his subjects. ➢ He notices that dogs salivate when they smell food. He figured that this is a form of learning. ➢ Learning – process of acquiring, via experience, new and enduring information or behaviors. ― This can be done through association, observation, or thinking. This allows us to adapt to our environment and to survive.
- 7. Classical Conditioning • While the conditioning is going on, the dog will eventually learn to expect food when it hears a bell sound and this is called the “acquisition phase.” • In the “after conditioning phase,” the old neutral stimulus (bell) becomes a conditioned stimulus, because it now elicits the conditioned response of salivation. • Associative learning – when a subject associates or links a certain stimuli, events, or behaviors together in the process of conditioning. ― This was later known as “classical conditioning,” which is a type of learning in which one learns to link two or more stimuli and anticipate events to happen. ― This is an adaptive form of learning that helps human and animals to survive. • Classical conditioning is all about forming associations between stimuli.
- 8. John B. Watson (1920) • He conditioned a child (Little Albert) to fear a white rat. This was done by pairing the rat with a loud scary noise. • Psychologists wonder if adults have conditioned emotions, since many has some sort of phobia for certain things. • He focused on the causes and control of human behavior. • Classical conditioning deals with involuntary behavior –pairing or associating an unconditioned stimulus that elicits an unconditioned or involuntary response with neutral stimulus, until the neutral stimulus elicits the same response.
- 9. The Little Albert Experiment • It was a controlled experiment showing empirical evidence of classical conditioning in humans. The study also provides an example of stimulus generalization. • It was carried out by John B. Watson and his Doctoral student, Rosalie Rayner, at Johns Hopkins University. • It demonstrates two additional concepts, originally outlined by Pavlov. 1. Extinction: Although a conditioned association can be incredibly strong initially, it begins to fade if not reinforced - until it disappears completely. 2. Generalization: Conditioned associations can often widen beyond the specific stimuli presented.
- 10. ▪ Watson and Raynor presented Little Albert with a white rat and he showed no fear. ▪ Watson then presented the rat with a loud bang that startled Little Albert and made him cry. ▪ After the continuous association of the white rat and loud noise, Little Albert was classically conditioned to experience fear at the sight of the rat. ▪ Albert's fear generalized to other stimuli that were similar to the rat, including a fur coat, some cotton wool, and a Father Christmas mask. Little Albert Experiment Summary:
- 11. Operant Conditioning • This type of conditioning involves voluntary behavior. • Burrhus Frederic Skinner (1948) – proposed that children “operate in their environment seek out rewards, and avoid punishment. • This type of associative learning is about associating our behavior with consequences. • This is a type of learning in which behavior is strengthened if followed by a reinforcement (reward) or decreases if followed by a punishment.
- 12. History of Operant Conditioning • As a behaviorist, Skinner believed that it was not really necessary to look at internal thoughts and motivations in order to explain behavior. Instead, he suggested, we should look only at the external, observable causes of human behavior. • His theory was heavily influenced by the work of psychologist Edward Thorndike, who had proposed what he called the law of effect. • According to this principle, actions that are followed by desirable outcomes are more likely to be repeated while those followed by undesirable outcomes are less likely to be repeated.
- 13. Operant Conditioning • B. F. Skinner designed the “operant chamber” or “Skinner box,” which is a confined space containing a lever or button that an animal (rat) could touch to get some kind of reward (usually food). • Behaviors are goal-driven, seeking rewards. • Learning can be broken down into smaller tasks, offering immediate rewards for accomplishments that will stimulate further learning. • Success breeds more success!
- 15. An example of Skinner box.
- 16. Operant Conditioning ❑Reinforcement increases behavior. ▪ Positive Reinforcement – is any stimulus that, when presented after a response, strengthen the response. ― E.g. Getting a bonus for a good job at work ▪ Negative Reinforcement – is any stimulus that, when removed after a response, strengthen a response. It removes the aversive or annoying event to increase desired behavior. ― E.g. wearing seatbelt to get rid of annoying sound
- 17. Reinforcement
- 18. Operant Conditioning ❑Punishment decreases behavior. ▪ Positive Punishment - sometimes referred to as punishment by application, presents an unfavorable event or outcome in order to weaken the response it follows. ― E.g. Spanking for misbehavior is an example of punishment by application. ▪ Negative Punishment - also known as punishment by removal, occurs when a favorable event or outcome is removed after a behavior occurs. ― E.g. Taking away a child's video game following misbehavior is an example of negative punishment
- 19. Operant Conditioning • Reinforcement – stands for something that increases desired behavior. • Punishment – decreases unwanted behavior. • Positive – means adding or giving something • Negative – removing or taking away something
- 20. Operant Conditioning • Primary reinforcer – is an innately reinforcing stimulus; it occurs naturally like salivation in the sight of food. It is something that would satisfy a biological need. • The salary of a working person is a conditioned reinforcer, which gains its effectiveness as a reinforcer through its association with a primary reinforcer. We learn to want money to meet our basic needs. • Shaping – is a procedure in operant conditioning which reinforcers guide behaviors closer and closer to successive approximations of the desired behavior. • Extinction – is when the conditioned stimulus and the unconditioned stimulus are repeatedly not paired until the conditioned stimulus no longer elicits the conditioned response. ― E.g. when you are trying to get rid of phobias
- 21. Operant Conditioning • Partial or intermittent reinforcement – is when reinforcement is given only part of the time. This results in a slower acquisition of a response or behavior. ― E.g. When getting a cashback or voucher in any online app store.
- 22. ❖ Lee Canter (1976) - speaks of classroom behavior management. He explains how to implement a behavior management cycle in the classroom. Gives clear directions Behavioral narration Corrective Action (if behavior is inappropriate) Student Model (if behavior is appropriate) Behavior Management Cycle
- 23. ❖ According to Canter, teachers can effectively teach if they use three levels of structure. ▪ Level 1 :“Teacher-managed Level” (highly teacher-directed) – is used a the beginning of the school year, or when trying to turn around a disruptive classroom. ― Its primary focus is teaching students responsible behavior. ― Teachers give explicit directions on how to behave and he/she checks if students to understand that. ― The teacher will narrate student behavior every minute, and, when appropriate, will use a class-wide reinforcement programs. ― If any student disrupt the class, the teacher will stop the lesson and provide consequences to discipline students.
- 24. ▪ This is done when around 90% of the class have mastered the teacher’s behavioral expectations for appropriate behavior. ▪ By this time, teachers can focus on both teaching and behavior and academic achievement. Level 2: “Transitioning to Student Self-Management”
- 25. ▪ In other words, this is self-regulation, which is the ultimate goal of any behavior management program. ▪ Students rarely need behavioral direction, and the teacher can now focus only on teaching academic content. ▪ The teacher will monitor and narrate student behavior. Level 3: “Student Self-Management Level”
- 26. Behavior modification operant conditioning • It is used to change human behavior. This is commonly applied in psychotherapy and in special education classrooms. • Token economy can be used as reinforcement. • Children may be given chips, stars, privileges, or other reward for doing a great job in school.
- 27. Direct Instruction • A method of academic teaching which is based on operant conditioning. • Teachers follow a certain sequence of events starting with (a) stating the goals of the lesson, (b) reviewing the previous topic or prerequisite, (c) presenting new material in small chunks, accompanied by drills for practice, (d) giving clear instructions and explanations, (e) checking for understanding by giving plenty of questions, and (f) giving feedback to let the students know if they are doing it correctly. • When to use: This is effective in teaching basic skills and concepts, especially for children with disabilities or at-risk students.
- 28. Cognitive Behaviorism • Edward C. Tolman (1929, 1930, 1948) – he suggested that the effect of reinforcement is not on learning but on the motivation to engage in a certain behavior, which was learned by other means. • He was starting to introduce memory and representation , which he called “intervening variables.” These variables cannot be measured directly, but can be measured indirectly by deducing behavior. • Experiment on latent learning.
- 29. Experiment on Latent Learning • The rats were placed in a maze, in which they seemingly memorized where to go and where not to go, in order to get the food at the end of the maze. • Tolman’s rats had late rewards. The food rewards affected performance, but not learning. • Rats had already developed a cognitive map; a mental representation of the environment (the maze.) They had developed it naturally, without reinforcement.
- 30. ❖Latent Learning - Learning that occurs but is not apparent until there is an incentive to demonstrate it.
- 32. Latent Learning • Latent learning is the learning that shows up later. • Learning can happen without reinforcement and learning does not necessarily mean a change of behavior. • Tolman believed that organisms can create “cognitive maps” or “representations” of their world.
- 33. Implications of Behaviorism for Teaching 1. Teachers can model correct behaviors and provide extrinsic motivation to increase or maintain classroom engagement or participation of students. 2. Teachers could set boundaries, offer incentives, use token economies, tickets, stars, points, and so on for reading books, class participation, or other desired behaviors. 3. Teachers should consistently use consequences or corrections when students are not doing tasks or not doing them correctly. 4. In language learning, behaviorism can be used by providing practice, rehearsal, correction when not done correctly, and reinforcement when done correctly. 5. Behaviorism can be used in teaching some life skills.
- 34. Identify what component of operant conditioning: After performing in a community theater play, you receive applause from the audience. Positive Reinforcement This acts as a positive reinforcer, inspiring you to try out for more performance roles.
- 35. Identify what component of operant conditioning: A professor tells students that if they have perfect attendance all semester, then they do not have to take the final comprehensive exam. Negative Reinforcement By removing an unpleasant stimulus (the final test), students are negatively reinforced to attend class regularly.
- 36. Identify what component of operant conditioning: A teen girl does not clean up her room as she was asked, so her parents take away her phone for the rest of the day. Negative Punishment This is an example of a negative punishment in which a positive stimulus is taken away.
- 37. Identify what component of operant conditioning: If you fail to hand in a project on time, your boss becomes angry and berates your performance in front of your co-workers. Positive Punishment This acts as a positive punisher, making it less likely that you will finish projects late in the future.