![Midsummer Eve, two men appeared at Glastonbury saying they were
going to help the Scots in a battle next day; and a single knight in
bright armour rode into Aberdeen on the afternoon of the battle and
was seen to pass over into the Orkneys in the evening.[9]
9. For this modern instance I have to thank my friend Mr. R. A.
Neil, of Pembroke College.](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/98053-250324205744-efeaa35b/85/CompTIA-Project-PK0-005-Cert-Guide-2nd-Edition-Robin-Abernathy-Ann-Lang-61-320.jpg)
![XCI. The Gods in Battle.—Apollo,
Artemis, and Athena are said to have appeared in person fighting
for the Greeks against the Gauls. The heroes Theseus and Echetlus
were seen combating on the Greek side at Marathon. In the great
sea-fight of Salamis phantoms of armed men were perceived
stretching out their hands from Aegina to protect the Greek ships;
they were believed to be the Aeacids, who had been prayed to for
help before the battle. The spirit of Aristomenes was said to have
fought for the Thebans against his old foes the Spartans at Leuctra.
The Mantineans fancied they saw Poseidon warring on their side
against the Lacedaemonians. In a battle between the people of
Crotona and the people of Locri, two unknown youths, of wondrous
stature, in strange armour, clad in scarlet and riding white horses,
were seen fighting on the wings of the Locrian army; after the battle
they disappeared. These two youths were probably regarded as
Castor and Pollux, whose reported appearance at the battle of the
Lake Regillus, charging with lances in rest at the head of the Roman
cavalry, is well known. It is said that when Alaric approached Athens
he beheld Athena in full armour patrolling the walls, and Achilles
guarding them with the same fiery valour with which he had
avenged the death of Patroclus; terrified by the vision, the fierce
barbarian gave up all thought of attacking the city. Similarly in the
battles between the Spaniards and the Indians of Mexico it is
affirmed by grave historians that St. James, the patron Saint of
Spain, was seen tilting on his milk-white steed at the head of the
Christian chivalry. In one of these battles a lady robed in white,
supposed to be the Virgin, was visible by the side of St. James,
throwing dust in the eyes of the infidels. The stout old chronicler
Bernal Diaz, who fought in these wars, confesses that for his sins he
was not found worthy to behold the glorious Apostle.[10]](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/98053-250324205744-efeaa35b/85/CompTIA-Project-PK0-005-Cert-Guide-2nd-Edition-Robin-Abernathy-Ann-Lang-62-320.jpg)
CompTIA Project+ PK0-005 Cert Guide, 2nd Edition Robin Abernathy & Ann Lang
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- 8. CompTIA Project+ PK0-005 Cert Guide Robin Abernathy, Ann Lang Pearson IT Certification
- 9. Contents at a Glance Part I: Project Management Concepts Chapter 1. Project Characteristics, Methodologies, and Frameworks Chapter 2. Team and Resource Management Chapter 3. Change Control Process Throughout the Project Life Cycle Chapter 4. Risk and Issue Management Chapter 5. Schedule Development and Management Chapter 6. Quality, Cost, and Performance Management Chapter 7. Communication and Meeting Management Chapter 8. Project Procurement and Vendor Selection Part II: Project Life Cycle Phases Chapter 9. Project Life Cycles, Discovery/Concept Preparation Phase, and Initiating Phase Activities Chapter 10. Planning Phase Activities Chapter 11. Executing Phase Activities Chapter 12. Closing Phase Activities Part III: Project Tools and Documentation Chapter 13. Project Management Tools Chapter 14. Quality and Performance Charts
- 10. Part IV: IT and Governance Chapter 15. Environmental, Social, and Governance (ESG) Factors and Compliance, Data Security, and Privacy Considerations Chapter 16. Foundational IT Concepts and Operational Change Control for IT Project Management Part V: Getting Ready for the Exam Chapter 17. Final Preparation Appendix A: Answers to the “Do I Know This Already?”Questions and Review Quizzes Appendix B: Master Table of Project Management Artifacts, Documents, and Plans Appendix C: Memory Tables Appendix D: Memory Tables Answers Appendix E: Study Planner Glossary
- 11. Contents Part I: Project Management Concepts Chapter 1. Project Characteristics, Methodologies, and Frameworks “Do I Know This Already?” Quiz Foundation Topics Characteristics of a Project Methodologies and Frameworks Used in IT Projects Exam Preparation Tasks Chapter 2. Team and Resource Management Chapter 3. Change Control Process Throughout the Project Life Cycle Chapter 4. Risk and Issue Management Chapter 5. Schedule Development and Management “Do I Know This Already?” Quiz Foundation Topics Overview of Project Schedule Development Story Estimation/Story Points Upcoming Milestones and Activity Identification Sequencing Resource Loading Estimating Techniques
- 12. Schedule Baselining Schedule Maintenance Revise Baseline vs. Rebaseline Exam Preparation Tasks Chapter 6. Quality, Cost, and Performance Management “Do I Know This Already?” Quiz Foundation Topics Overview of Quality, Cost, and Performance Management Key Performance Indicators and Objectives and Key Results Cost and Schedule Performance Verification and Validation Sprint Review Retrospective/Lessons Learned Audits and Inspections Test Plan and Testing Cycles Post-Implementation Support/Warranty Period Service Level Agreement Exam Preparation Tasks Chapter 7. Communication and Meeting Management Chapter 8. Project Procurement and Vendor Selection “Do I Know This Already?” Quiz Foundation Topics Resource Procurement Overview
- 13. Resource Procurement Methods Exploratory Documents Vendor Evaluation Techniques Contract Considerations and Types Exam Preparation Tasks Part II: Project Life Cycle Phases Chapter 9. Project Life Cycles, Discovery/Concept Preparation Phase, and Initiating Phase Activities Chapter 10. Planning Phase Activities Chapter 11. Executing Phase Activities “Do I Know This Already?” Quiz Foundation Topics Execute Tasks According to the Project Management Plan Monitor and Control Project Work Manage Vendors Conduct Project Meetings and Updates Tracking/Reporting Update the Project Budget Update the Project Timeline Manage Conflict Coordinate a Phase-Gate Review Implement Organizational Change Management Exam Preparation Tasks Chapter 12. Closing Phase Activities
- 14. “Do I Know This Already?” Quiz Foundation Topics Project Evaluation Deliverable Validation Contract Closure Access Removal Resource Release Project Closure Meeting Project Closeout Report Stakeholder Feedback Collection Documentation Archival Budget Reconciliation Rewards and Celebration Project Sign-Off Exam Preparation Tasks Part III: Project Tools and Documentation Chapter 13. Project Management Tools Chapter 14. Quality and Performance Charts Part IV: IT and Governance Chapter 15. Environmental, Social, and Governance (ESG) Factors and Compliance, Data Security, and Privacy Considerations “Do I Know This Already?” Quiz Foundation Topics
- 15. Environmental, Social, and Governance (ESG) Factors Corporate IT Security Policies and Restrictions Physical Security Operational Security Digital Security Data Security Data Confidentiality Impact of Compliance and Privacy Considerations on Project Management Chapter 16. Foundational IT Concepts and Operational Change Control for IT Project Management “Do I Know This Already?” Quiz Foundation Topics Infrastructure Cloud Models Software IT Infrastructure Change Control Software Change Control Cloud Versus On-Premises Change Control Continuous Integration/Continuous Deployment (CI/CD) Process Tiered Architecture in Software Development Exam Preparation Tasks Part V: Getting Ready for the Exam Chapter 17. Final Preparation
- 16. Take Advantage of the Tools in This Book Practice with Pearson Test Prep Ready, Set, Test! Appendix A: Answers to the “Do I Know This Already?”Questions and Review Quizzes Appendix B: Master Table of Project Management Artifacts, Documents, and Plans Appendix C: Memory Tables Table C-1: What Is a Project? Table C-2: Project Phases Table C-3: Documents and Activities by Project Phase Table C-4: Earned Value Management (EVM) Value Calculations Table C-5: Estimate at Completion (EAC) Value Calculations Table C-6: Key Performance Indicators/Key Performance Parameters Appendix D: Memory Tables Answers Table D-1: What Is a Project? Table D-2: Project Phases Table D-3: Documents and Activities by Project Phase Table D-4: Earned Value Management (EVM) Value Calculations Table D-5: Estimate at Completion (EAC) Value Calculations Table D-6: Key Performance Indicators/Key Performance Parameters
- 17. Appendix E: Study Planner Glossary
- 18. Part I: Project Management Concepts
- 19. Chapter 1. Project Characteristics, Methodologies, and Frameworks This chapter covers the following topics: • Characteristics of a Project: Covers project characteristics, including start and finish, unique, reason/purpose, project as part of a program, and project as part of a portfolio. • Methodologies and Frameworks Used in IT Projects: Covers methodologies and frameworks, including Software Development Life Cycle (SDLC), Waterfall, PRojects IN Controlled Environments (PRINCE2), DevOps, DevSecOps, Agile, Kanban, scrum, Scaled Agile Framework (SAFe), and Extreme Programming (XP). Also compares Agile to Waterfall, including the criteria for selecting a method and composing a team. Every industry has projects. Contractors build buildings. IT companies launch new services. Hospitals revise processes to conform with new standards or regulations. Retail businesses launch new mobile apps for their customers. All of these activities are projects, even if the organization does not expressly call them “projects” or complete the formal project management phases. A project is temporary in that it has a defined beginning and end, scope, budget, and resources. If all of these parameters are not defined at the beginning of the project, you have no way of measuring the success or failure of the project. For this reason, all
- 20. types of organizations should employ professionals with project management knowledge. Project management knowledge involves understanding the properties of all projects and understanding projects as part of an organization’s overall program and portfolio. Projects are completed based on project management methodologies and frameworks. Project managers must understand the types of development approaches and the specific IT project methodologies and frameworks that are available. This allows project managers to guide organizations in developing an approach that works both for the organization and for the type of project being undertaken. This chapter covers the following objectives for the CompTIA Project+ exam: 1.1 Explain the basic characteristics of a project and various methodologies and frameworks used in IT projects. 1.2 Compare and contrast Agile vs. Waterfall concepts. “Do I Know This Already?” Quiz The “Do I Know This Already?” quiz allows you to assess whether you should read this entire chapter thoroughly or jump to the “Exam Preparation Tasks” section. If you are in doubt about your answers to these questions or your own assessment of your knowledge of the topics, read the entire chapter. Table 1-1 lists the major headings in this chapter and their corresponding “Do I Know This Already?” quiz questions. You can find the answers in Appendix A, “Answers to the ‘Do I Know This Already?’ Questions and Review Quizzes.” Table 1-1 “Do I Know This Already?” Section-to-Question Mapping
- 21. Caution The goal of self-assessment is to gauge your mastery of the topics in this chapter. If you do not know the answer to a question or are only partially sure of the answer, you should mark that question as wrong for purposes of the self-assessment. Giving yourself credit for an answer you correctly guess skews your self- assessment results and might provide you with a false sense of security. 1. Which of the following is not a quality of a project? a. Start and finish b. Permanent c. Unique d. Reason 2. Which of the following statements regarding programs and portfolios is true? a. All projects are part of the portfolio. b. Only certain programs are part of the portfolio. c. Each project must be part of a program.
- 22. d. Each program within a project is managed in a coordinated method. 3. Which quality of Agile projects allows a project to meet changing conditions? a. Incremental b. Predictive c. Iterative d. Adaptive 4. Which of the following statements describes the iterative quality of an Agile project? a. It breaks the project into smaller components. b. It provides a linear development plan that is structured around the desired result. c. Each incomplete area is refined until the result is satisfactory. d. Completed work is delivered throughout the project life cycle. 5. What tool is used in Agile planning to help with requirements gathering? a. Burndown charts b. User stories c. Scrum retrospectives d. Questionnaires 6. What key component is required for an Agile project to succeed? a. Burndown charts b. Continuous feedback
- 23. c. Scrum master d. Scrum retrospective 7. Which of the following is not one of the questions answered in the daily scrum meeting? a. What did the team member do yesterday? b. What will the team member do today? c. Are any obstacles in the way? d. What went wrong during this sprint? 8. Which description best fits Agile teams? a. Centrally organized and directed b. Self-organized and self-directed c. Centrally organized but self-directed d. Self-organized but centrally directed 9. Which of the following is a predictive model? a. SDLC b. XP c. Scrum d. Kanban 10. Which four steps of the DevOps model are the responsibility of the operations team? a. Plan, Code, Build, and Test b. Release, Deploy, Operate, and Monitor c. Plan, Code, Operate, and Monitor d. Build, Test, Release, and Deploy
- 24. Foundation Topics Characteristics of a Project The Project Management Institute (PMI) defines a project as “a temporary endeavor undertaken to create a unique product, service, or result.” A project is based on the needs of the project sponsor or customer and may be terminated by the same entity. Every project creates a unique product, service, or result. Once the project is complete, the project’s product, service, or result may continue to affect society, the economy, the sponsor, and the environment. Projects are undertaken at all levels and in all departments of an organization. No matter which levels or departments are involved, the project team will be responsible for completing the project within budget and on schedule. EXAMPLE: Upper management has a project to analyze the organization for Lean practices. The human resources (HR) department has a project to deploy a new employment application. All departments are involved in a project to redesign the network infrastructure, with the IT department heading the project. Projects happen all around us every day and involve every industry. To ensure project success, organizations should employ personnel who understand project management and grasp the difference between projects and day-to-day operations. To fully comprehend the distinction, compare the examples in the two columns in Table 1- 2. Table 1-2 Projects Versus Day-to-Day Operations
- 26. Projects may produce tangible and/or intangible outcomes. Tangible outcomes are physical assets that can be measured, such as land, vehicles, equipment, machinery, furniture, inventory, and cash. Intangible outcomes are nonphysical assets such as patents, trademarks, franchises, good will, and copyrights. All projects are temporary, have a defined start and finish, have a unique outcome, and have a reason or purpose. The following sections describe these project characteristics. Start and Finish The temporary nature of projects indicates that a project is undertaken for a set time period and will finish at some point. Being temporary has nothing to do with the length of the project—just that it has initiation and completion dates. The result of the project is not necessarily temporary—only the project itself. Defined start and finish dates for a project are critical. Without defined start and finish dates, a project is not constrained by time and can become part of the day-to-day operations. Defining start and finish dates helps personnel to ensure that the project is completed. Project management professionals must be able to analyze the scope of the project to determine the amount of time needed to complete the project. To complete a project within a set time limit, you may also need to trim back other aspects of the project, such as its scope or budget. Setting the start and finish dates should be completed during the early phases of the project. Unique The result of the project should be unique. Although some projects may contain repetitive elements, each project remains unique, with different design, location, circumstance, stakeholders, or other elements. Most projects result in a lasting outcome. Outcomes from the projects in Table 1-2 include a web server, a backup process and
- 27. procedure, a help desk process, a new building, a new jewelry line, video recorders in a fleet of automobiles, and a training program. EXAMPLE: A construction company builds many types of buildings. Most of the buildings have the same elements, such as the foundation, framing, plumbing, electrical, and so on. However, no two buildings are exactly alike. Even if two buildings follow the same building plan, the buildings will not be built in exactly the same location with exactly the same team members and supplies. Reason/Purpose The project’s reason or purpose should be stated clearly to ensure that the project sponsor and all other stakeholders understand it. Projects should provide business value to the sponsoring organization. Value may be created by a new physical asset or process. It can even be created through effective redesign of ongoing operations. However, the project must have a reason or purpose to ensure that this business value is provided. The outcome of the project is intended to provide value to the project sponsor or customer until the result is no longer needed or no longer meets the sponsor’s or customer’s needs. Project as Part of a Program A program is a grouping of related projects or activities that are managed in coordination to obtain benefits not available if they were managed individually. The projects within a program are related because they have a common outcome. EXAMPLE: An organization’s program includes several projects that involve the renovation of multiple facilities. Each facility renovation
- 28. or each facet of renovation (plumbing, electrical, and so on) is a project, with all the projects together comprising the program. Tip A project does not have to be part of a program, but a program always includes projects. Because the primary benefit from a program is coordination, a program should be used to ensure that each project’s resources, conflicts, goals, objectives, and changes are managed from a program perspective. Projects within a program must focus on the interdependence between the projects. Tip If projects do not share an outcome but are related through a shared client, seller, technology, or resource, they are part of the same portfolio—not the same program. Project as Part of a Portfolio A portfolio includes all of the projects, programs, and operations managed by an organization to allow it to reach strategic objectives. The projects and programs included in a portfolio do not necessarily depend on each other. To fully understand the relationship between projects, programs, and the portfolio, keep these points in mind:
- 29. • All projects are part of the portfolio. • All programs are part of the portfolio. • Each project may be part of a program or be independent. • Each project within a program is managed in a coordinated method. • All projects and programs within the portfolio are linked to the organization’s strategic plan. Methodologies and Frameworks Used in IT Projects Methodologies and frameworks are often used by organizations to guide the way a project is completed. Often these terms are used interchangeably in the real world, but they are actually two different but closely related terms. A project manager should understand the differences between the two terms and why both are important to projects. Note A methodology is prescriptive and defines steps to be completed. Methodologies explain why the steps are essential and how each step should be accomplished. A framework is much more flexible and is intended to be adapted to fit the problem. Frameworks are more skeletal in nature and act more as guidelines. In some circles both methodologies and frameworks may be referred to as development approaches. It does not really matter which term you use—it is important that you understand the basic tenets and conditions under which each may be chosen.
- 30. No matter which term is used, there are some basic facets of project development methodologies and frameworks that project managers need to understand. Terms used to describe methodologies and frameworks include predictive, adaptive, hybrid, iterative, and incremental. Predictive approaches provide a linear development plan with a known outcome. A structured process is used for producing a pre- determined result within a specific time frame. Predictive approaches have very little uncertainty and are often used when there is a significant investment being made or a high level of risk. Predictive projects strive to reduce uncertainty. Predictive planning uses historical data to provide a linear development plan structured around the desired result. For example, the process to build most homes is generally the same: ground preparation, foundation, framing, and so on. Predictive planning works well for these types of projects. Adaptive approaches break a project into small components over an undetermined timeline, thereby allowing flexibility throughout the project. Adaptive projects produce an end result that is not very clear at product initiation and can have surprising outcomes. Each component that is produced can be referred to as a sprint, iteration, or increment. Adaptive approaches are used when requirements may change over the project life cycle because of uncertainty and volatility. Requirements and project scope are refined or changed as the project progresses. Adaptive approaches use iterative and incremental methods, which are explained later in this chapter. Adaptive planning allows a project to evolve as needed to face changing conditions. By breaking the project into small components created over an undetermined timeline, adaptive planning gives the
- 31. project flexibility. Results from one project task can cause the project to be changed to adapt to the changing environment. A hybrid approach combines both predictive and adaptive methods within the same project. This approach is often used when certain features or functions can be easily defined during project planning, while other features and functions are not fully understood. An iterative method is an adaptive method wherein the product team builds up the features and functions of the product over time. Each feature or function is usually released separately without waiting on other features or functions. These features or functions are referred to as iterations. When each iteration starts, the scope, approach, and requirements of that iteration are defined, with each iteration adding functionality to the previous iterations. EXAMPLE: To understand an iterative approach, think of a sculpture. The sculptor starts with the raw material and carves it into a general shape. The earliest tasks are roughing out the form and removing excess material from all areas of the piece. During the next stages, the sculptor refines the work, adding details to each area that was previously roughed out. However, the sculpture is not finished until the entire work is complete. The sculptor may need to return to certain areas to refine and revise the work before the final product reflects the sculptor’s intended design. An incremental method is one wherein the product team divides the product into fully operational features or functions. Like the iterative method, each feature or function is released separately without
- 32. waiting on others. The features or functions are referred to as increments. Each increment completes the plan/design/build process until the project is complete. EXAMPLE: To understand an incremental approach, think of a suburban housing development. The developer hires an architect to produce concept drawings of the homes and plan the lot lines, roads, and utilities for the new community. Once the concept is approved, the architect creates blueprints that can be used to estimate costs and construct the buildings. After the blueprints are final, the developer builds a model home that home buyers can tour during the sales process. When the lots are sold to buyers, the developer constructs the final homes. An incremental approach does not revisit previous steps in the process. In this example, once the utility lines are installed, the developer would not return to the first step to redraw the lot lines or move the home sites. To be able to better understand the difference between iterative and incremental, consider the following example: EXAMPLE: You are managing a project that is tasked with producing a new application. This application includes four basic parts. In an iterative method, an early edition of all four parts would be developed and released. Then each part would be refined over time to improve or enhance the capabilities of the part. In an incremental method, each part is built and released. Then each of the other parts are added to the application as they are ready. With an iterative project, the application may initially have all the parts of the application but not all the functionality of each part. With an incremental project, the application may initially have a single part of the application but not all the parts. Figure 1-1 is a graphical representation of how an iterative approach versus an incremental approach works.
- 33. Figure 1-1 Iterative Versus Incremental All methodologies or frameworks based on Agile are iterative and incremental, while most predictive approaches such as Waterfall are not. The methodology or framework implemented may vary based on your organization’s needs, project type, and even industry. As a project manager, it is important that you understand the different methodologies and frameworks available to help your organization determine the approach the organization will use. For the Project+ exam, project managers need to understand the following methodologies and frameworks: Software Development Life Cycle (SDLC), PRojects IN Controlled Environments (PRINCE2), Waterfall, Agile, scrum, Kanban, DevOps and DevSecOps, Scaled Agile Framework (SAFe), and Extreme Programming (XP). In addition, project managers will need to be able to compare and contrast Agile versus Waterfall qualities, including criteria for selecting a method and team composition. Software Development Life Cycle The Software Development Life Cycle (SDLC) is more of a process framework than a methodology. The specific methodology chosen to
- 34. execute the software development process can be an Agile model, a Waterfall model, or a hybrid approach. The goal of the SDLC is to provide predictable procedures to identify all requirements with regard to functionality, cost, reliability, and delivery schedule and ensure that each is met in the final solution. As a result, the SDLC is considered to be a predictive model. However, some companies alter the SDLC process to make it adaptive. The steps in the SDLC can vary based on the provider, and this section covers one popular example. The steps in the Software Development Life Cycle are as follows: 1. Plan/Initiate Project 2. Gather Requirements 3. Design 4. Develop 5. Test/Validate 6. Release/Maintain 7. Certify/Accredit 8. Change Management and Configuration Management/Replacement In the Plan/Initiate Project phase of the SDLC, the organization decides to initiate a new software development project and formally plans the project. In the Gather Requirements phase, both the functionality and the security requirements of the solution are identified. These requirements could be derived from a variety of sources, such as evaluating competitor products or surveying the needs of users for an internal solution. In some cases, these
- 35. requirements could come from a direct request from a current customer. From a security perspective, an organization must identify potential vulnerabilities and threats. When this assessment is performed, the intended purpose of the software and the expected environment must be considered. In the Design phase, an organization develops a detailed description of how the software will satisfy all functional and security goals. It attempts to map the internal behavior and operations of the software to specific requirements to identify any requirements that have not been met prior to implementation and testing. During this process, the state of the application is determined in every phase of its activities. The state of the application refers to its functional and security posture during each operation it performs. Therefore, all possible operations must be identified. Identifying the attack surface is also a part of this analysis. The amount of attack surface might change at various states of the application, but at no time should the attack surface provided violate the security needs identified in the Gather Requirements phase. The Develop phase involves writing the code or instructions that make the software work. The emphasis of this phase is strict adherence to secure coding practices. Many security issues with software are created through insecure coding practices, such as lack of input validation or data type checks. Identifying these issues in a code review that attempts to assume all possible attack scenarios and their impact on the code is needed. In the Test/Validate phase, several types of testing should occur, including ways to identify both functional errors and security issues. Software is typically developed in pieces or modules of code that are later assembled to yield the final product. Each module should be tested separately. Having development staff carry out this testing is critical, but using a group of engineers different from the ones who
- 36. wrote the code can ensure that an impartial process occurs. This is a good example of the concept of separation of duties. Note Software testing methods are covered in detail in Chapter 6, “Quality, Cost, and Performance Management.” The Release/Maintain phase includes the implementation of the software into the live environment and the continued monitoring of its operation. Finding additional functional and security problems at this point, as the software begins to interface with other elements of the network, is not unusual. In the Certify/Accredit phase, the organization needs to evaluate software security and obtain formal acceptance of the software. Certification is the process of evaluating software for its security effectiveness with regard to the customer’s needs. Accreditation is the formal acceptance of the adequacy of a system’s overall security by the management. Provisional accreditation is given for a specific amount of time and lists required changes to applications, systems, or accreditation documentation. Full accreditation grants accreditation without any required changes. Provisional accreditation becomes full accreditation once all the changes are completed, analyzed, and approved by the certifying body. After a solution is deployed in a live environment, there will inevitably be additional changes that must be made to the software due to security issues that occur in the Change Management phase. In some cases, the software might be altered to enhance or increase its functionality. In either case, changes must be handled through a formal change and configuration management process. Keep in mind that the change management being discussed at the end of the SDLC occurs after the software project is completed and the software is deployed.
- 37. Note Change control within a project (discussed in Chapter 2, “Team and Resource Management”) involves changes to the application that are identified and resolved during the project. The purpose of this process is to ensure that all changes to the source code itself are approved by the proper personnel and are implemented in a safe and logical manner. This process should always ensure continued functionality in the live environment, and changes should be documented fully, including all changes to hardware and software. In some cases, it may be necessary to completely replace applications or systems. While some failures may be fixed with enhancements or changes, a failure may occur that can only be solved by completely replacing the application. PRojects IN Controlled Environments PRojects IN Controlled Environments (PRINCE2) is a predictive, process-based project management methodology. With a focus on organization and control over the entire project, PRINCE2 ensures that projects are thoroughly planned before kickoff, with all project stages being very structured. There are seven phases in the PRINCE2 methodology: 1. Start the project. 2. Direct the project.
- 38. 3. Initiate the project. 4. Control a stage. 5. Manage product delivery. 6. Manage stage boundaries. 7. Close the project. The Start phase entails a request for a new project, called the project mandate. The project mandate is very brief, covering only why the project is necessary and what it will ideally accomplish. An assessment is performed for the mandate. If the project is approved, the original requestor then submits a detailed project brief covering the actions and resources needed to execute the project. During the Direct phase, the project board evaluates project briefs based on business justification and viability. The project board then approves or disapproves the project. If the project is approved, the project board decides what is needed to organize and execute the project and what powers will be delegated to the project manager. The Direct phase continues throughout the project. In the Initiate phase, the project manager creates all initiation documentation, including the project management plans and the time, cost, quality, scope, risk, and benefits baselines. The project board approves the documentation (once the documents are completed to the board’s satisfaction) and approves the project. The project then moves into the Control phase, where the project manager splits the project into work packages, which are then turned over to team managers and teams to complete. The project manager oversees the work package progress during each stage and helps the teams to overcome roadblocks or correct any mistakes. Team managers coordinate the teams’ daily work and act as a liaison between the project manager and individual team members. The Manage Product Delivery stage involves checking project progress against the project brief and ensuring deliverables meet
- 39. PRINCE2 quality expectations. The project board either approves work packages or requests changes to them. During the Manage Stage Boundaries phase, the project manager and project board review each stage to make sure the project is progressing according to plan and meeting requirements. Each stage review includes a decision by the project board on whether to continue or abandon the project. Retrospectives led by the project manager are conducted to document lessons learned, which are used to improve the next stage. The Close phase ensures that the project documentation, outcomes, and reporting are completed according to PRINCE2 procedures. PRINCE2 does have an Agile version, called PRINCE2 Agile. It follows the same phases in PRINCE2 and includes stages, releases, and iterations. Each stage contains one or more releases, and each release contains one or more iterations. Iterations are usually called timeboxes in PRINCE2 Agile. Note Agile is discussed later in this chapter. Waterfall The original Waterfall model breaks the development process into distinct phases. This model is predictive, with the basic process being a sequential series of steps that are followed without going back to earlier steps. Figure 1-2 is a representation of the Waterfall process.
- 40. Figure 1-2 Waterfall Model In the modified Waterfall model, each phase in the development process is considered its own milestone in the project management process. Unlimited backward iteration (returning to earlier stages to address problems) is not allowed in this model. However, product verification and validation are performed in this model. Problems that are discovered during the project do not initiate a return to earlier stages but rather are dealt with after the project is complete. During the Idea stage, developers document the requirements. The requirements document defines what the software should do but not necessarily how it will work. The requirements document acts as the basis for all future project work.
- 41. In the Analysis stage, developers use the requirements document to determine system design. The project progresses into the Design stage, where developers alter the design of the system to ensure it works with the available hardware and software. Once the design is finalized, the project enters the Development (or Coding) stage. In this stage, developers write the actual code needed for the system to operate. After the system has been coded, the Testing stage occurs, where testers provide bug reports and developers patch the most urgent issues. In the final stage, Deployment, developers release the system to users, provide support, perform system maintenance, and deploy system upgrades as needed. Agile Agile development is a special way of managing teams and projects. Although Agile is used mostly to manage information technology development projects, this methodology is suitable for any project in which uncertainties exist. The term Agile is derived from the Agile manifesto (see agilemanifesto.org), which describes four important value comparisons that are as relevant today as they were when the manifesto was published in 2001: Individuals and interactions over processes and tools Working software over comprehensive documentation Customer collaboration over contract negotiation Responding to change over following a plan By seeking alternatives to traditional project management, Agile development helps teams respond to unpredictability through incremental, iterative work and feedback. Agile is an adaptive model. Agile development is both iterative and incremental, changing in response to feedback while it is still in process:
- 42. • Iterative: Agile development is iterative in that the project team plans to improve on the work of one iteration during subsequent iterations. • Incremental: Agile development is incremental in that completed work is delivered throughout the project’s life cycle. Constant feedback from stakeholders, users, and the sponsor allows the project team to change the project requirements over time. As one of the most popular approaches to IT projects, Agile has spawned numerous variants. Scrum, Kanban, Scaled Agile Framework (SAFe), and Extreme Programming (XP) all fall within the Agile family. Agile principles can be incorporated into other frameworks to add flexibility in key areas. DevOps and DevSecOps, while not strictly Agile, incorporate Agile principles. DevOps and DevSecOps Two modern application development approaches, DevOps and DevSecOps, have three main areas where they are similar: collaboration, automation, and active monitoring. But there are differences in the two approaches. Collaboration helps the team achieve development goals without jeopardizing application safety and security. With collaboration, teams that were separated in other approaches now converge together. Automation is shared by them in that both approaches can utilize artificial intelligence (AI) to automate steps in the application development process. For DevOps, developers use auto-completed code and anomaly detection. Developers in DevSecOps perform automated and continuous security checks and anomaly detection to proactively identify vulnerabilities and threats. Active monitoring plays an important role in both DevOps and DevSecOps. Developers capture and analyze application data to
- 43. provide improvements. Using real-time data allows the developers to optimize the application’s performance, minimize the application’s attack surface, and improve the organization’s security posture overall. DevOps increases the frequency of deployments and ensures the predictability and efficiency of the application, but because the focus is more on speed, DevOps teams do not prioritize security threat prevention, leading to vulnerabilities that can jeopardize the application, data, and company assets. On the other hand, DevSecOps integrates security management earlier throughout the development process. Application security is a focus from the beginning of the build process, rather than at the end of the development pipeline. With DevSecOps, developers create code with security in mind, thereby solving the issues with security that DevOps doesn’t address. DevOps has two teams: development and operations. The development team plans, codes, builds, and tests the application. Then the operations team releases, deploys, operates, and monitors the application. The processes flow in this manner: 1. Plan 2. Code 3. Build 4. Test 5. Release 6. Deploy 7. Operate
- 44. 8. Monitor Those are the eight processes of the DevOps approach. The 6 Cs of DevOps processes are shown in Figure 1-3. Figure 1-3 The 6 Cs of DevOps DevSecOps takes the same eight processes as DevOps and weaves security into every one. By including security in every process, the team produces a product with fewer security vulnerabilities and threats. Kanban
- 45. Another Random Document on Scribd Without Any Related Topics
- 46. LXXXI. Panopeus.—The space enclosed by the fortification walls and by the rocky crests shows but few signs of habitation. On the highest point of the hill, among some holly-oaks, are the scanty tumble-down ruins of a mediaeval tower, built in the usual way of small stones with bricks and mortar in the chinks. A little lower down, and farther to the east, is a small chapel with remains of faded paintings on the walls. Scattered about the hill, especially round the chapel, is a good deal of broken pottery. A fine grove of beautiful holly-oaks now shades part of the summit, growing on a grassy slope amid low plants and shrubs. It is pleasant in the heat of the day to rest in the shade of these trees, to smell the wild thyme which grows abundantly on the hill, and to enjoy the distant prospects. To the north, across the broad Chaeronean plain, we look straight into the defile through which the Cephisus flows from Phocis into Boeotia; at the northern end of the defile the low hill is visible on which are the scanty ruins of Parapotamii. To the west Parnassus lifts his mighty head at no great distance from us, his middle slopes darkened by pine-forests that look like the shadows of clouds resting on the mountain-side.
- 47. LXXXII. Near Hyampolis.—From the ledge of rocks which bounds the plateau on the south, near a ruined chapel, a spring of beautifully clear water gushes forth. Some ancient blocks lie tumbled about the spring, and a tall poplar-tree grows opposite it. The day was very hot when I passed it on my way to and from the ruins of Hyampolis; but the leaves of the poplar rustled in the breeze, and the water flowed from under the rocks with a soothing murmur. Parnassus loomed dim in the distance through a haze of heat. On my return from the ruins I found a shepherd boy at the spring who offered to share his bread with me. This picturesque spot, on which a poet of the Anthology might have written an epigram, is perhaps the site of the temple of Artemis mentioned by Pausanias.
- 48. LXXXIII. Tithorea.—The site of Tithorea, first identified by Clarke in 1801, is occupied by the modern village of Velitsa, which stands very picturesquely among trees on the north-eastern slopes of Parnassus, overlooking the broad valley of the Cephisus. About two-thirds of the village are enclosed within the ancient ivy-mantled walls, which rank with those of Messene and Eleutherae as among the finest existing specimens of Greek fortifications. At the back of the village to the south rises a huge mountainous cliff of grey rock, its ledges tufted with pines. Between the foot of this great cliff and the village there intervenes a very steep slope, mostly overgrown with holly-oak bushes. On the east the village as well as the site of the ancient city is bounded by a very deep rocky ravine, which winds southward into the heart of the mountains. At the bottom of the ravine a torrent flows from Parnassus over a broad gravelly bed to join the Cephisus in the plain below. This torrent, now called Kakorevma or Evil Stream, is the ancient Cachales. In the time of Pausanias, the townspeople, he tells us, had to fetch their water in buckets from the depths of the lyn. Nowadays a portion of the water of the stream is diverted higher up the glen and brought in a conduit to the village, where it turns two mills and waters the gardens and orchards. As Tithorea was thus naturally defended on two sides, namely by the great cliff on the south and by the deep ravine on the east, it needed walls on two sides only, the west and the north. These walls, starting from the foot of the cliff, first descend the steep slope in a straight line above the village, then follow the gentler slope within the village, still in a direction due north, till they turn round at an obtuse angle and run eastward to the brink of the ravine. Here they stop. Along the edge of the ravine a number of ancient blocks may be observed, but whether they are the remains of an ancient fortification wall is not clear. Perhaps the deep
- 49. precipitous side of the ravine may have been considered a sufficient defence by itself. The walls so far as they exist are finely and solidly built of regular ashlar masonry, and are flanked by massive square towers constructed in the same style. Walls and towers are best preserved in the lower ground among the houses and gardens of the village, but on the steep slope above the village the remains are also considerable. The investigation of the ruined fortifications on this slope, it may be observed, is a matter of some difficulty, for the slope is not only very steep but overgrown with prickly shrubs and cumbered with huge fallen blocks. The antiquary who picks his way painfully among these obstacles is mortified by the contrast between his own slow progress and that of the village urchins who accompany him; for they climb and skip like goats on the top of the walls, now appearing suddenly on the highest pinnacles and then again leaping from stone to stone with wonderful confidence and agility. The remains of the walls in the village, on the other hand, can be examined without discomfort, and they better repay study. Here on the north and north-west the wall, flanked by square towers, is standing in an unbroken line for a considerable distance. As a whole, the masonry of the walls and towers is splendid, massive, and almost quite regular, without being absolutely so. The beauty of these venerable walls is much enhanced by the thick green veil of ivy and other creepers which clothes their sides and droops in graceful festoons from their summits. Such a mantle of clinging verdure is very rare in Greece, where the ancient temples and fortresses, unlike the ivy-clad abbeys and castles of England, remain for the most part to this day as bare as when they were built, without even a patch of moss to soften their hard outlines and to tell of the lapse of ages. Distant views complete the charm of Tithorea. From its ivied walls, rising among the gardens and houses of the village, we look up at the huge grey crag that hides the higher slopes of Parnassus, or down the long gradual declivity to the wide valley of the Cephisus and across it to the hills, somewhat low and tame, at whose foot lie the scanty ruins of Elatea.
- 50. LXXXIV. From Amphissa to Gravia.—The smiling verdure of Amphissa and its neighbourhood forms a striking contrast to the stern, arid, and rocky scenery of Delphi, which is only ten miles off. At Amphissa, indeed, we are on the borders of almost Swiss scenery. For the fir-clad and torrent-rent mountains of Locris and Doris, which rise to the north-west, are the loftiest in the present kingdom of Greece. Two of the peaks exceed eight thousand feet in height. A fine specimen of this Alpine scenery may be obtained by following the mule-path which leads north from Amphissa over the mountains to the village of Gravia in the ancient canton of Doris. With the exception of the village of Topolia, which we leave on the right, and here and there a small farm far up on the mountain-side, not a human dwelling is to be seen. At first the path ascends the western declivities of Parnassus. Looking down to the left we see below us a narrow dale, where in early summer the course of the stream, now nearly dried up, is marked by the red oleander blossoms. Beyond the dale Mount Kiano rears its snowy head, the loftiest mountain in Greece; and behind it the long and almost equally lofty ridge of Vardousia is seen stretching north and south. The finest point on the route is at a clear spring which bubbles up at the top of the pass, just where the road surmounts the ridge that joins Parnassus to the mountains of Locris. Hitherto we have been ascending from the south; from this point the road begins to descend to the north. The valley now contracts. The snowy peaks in the west disappear, but their lower spurs form, with the western declivities of Parnassus, a narrow pass, down which a brook babbles over rocks and stones, its banks overhung with plane-trees. Pines and oaks of various kinds contrast pleasantly with the steep cliffs and bushy slopes; and now and then we come to a little grassy glade or a patch of corn. “It is,” says the Swiss traveller Vischer, whose description of the road I have
- 51. borrowed, “almost a Swiss region, and I might have fancied myself transported to my native land, if the holly-oaks and oriental plane- trees had not reminded me that I was in the south.” Thus descending by a steep and rugged path we reach the village of Gravia at the northern end of the pass, in five or six hours from Amphissa.
- 52. LXXXV. Daulis.—The situation of ancient Daulis is exceedingly beautiful. It occupied the broad but somewhat uneven summit of a fine massive hill, which rises abruptly from the glens at the eastern foot of Parnassus. Everywhere the sides of the hill—which in the grandeur of its outlines deserves almost to rank as a mountain—are high and steep, except at a single point on the west where a narrow ridge connects it with the main mass of Parnassus. On the south the hill falls away in sheer and lofty precipices of grey rock into a deep romantic glen, the sides of which, where they are not precipitous, are mantled with dark green shrubbery. Beyond the ridge to the west soar the immense grey precipitous slopes of Parnassus, mottled here and there with dark pines. High up on its side is seen a white monastery at the mouth of a dark gorge, through which a path ascends to the summit. In the hollow between the hill of Daulis and these great slopes, a mill nestles picturesquely among trees; the water is led to it in a mill-race. Northward the ruined walls of Daulis, here thickly overgrown with ivy and holly-oak, look across a deep dell to the pretty village of Davlia, embowered among trees and gardens on the opposite hill-side. The descent to the valley on this side is steep and bushy, but not precipitous, except where a line of rocks runs obliquely up it on the north-west. Here and there in the valley the last slopes of the hill are terraced and planted with vines. At the eastern foot of the hill begins the great plain—the scene of so many famous battles—which stretches away for miles past the ruins of Panopeus and Chaeronea until at Orchomenus it melts into the still vaster expanse of the Copaic plain. To the south-east, beyond an intervening range of low hills, appears the sharp outline of Helicon. In this direction, at the southern end of the narrow valley which divides these low hills from the mighty steeps of Parnassus, is the
- 53. famous Cleft Way, where Oedipus is said to have done the dark deed that was the beginning of all his woes. Altogether few places in Greece surpass Daulis in romantic beauty of situation and the wealth of historical and legendary memories which the landscape, both near and far, is fitted to evoke. Standing on the brow of its precipices we feel that this mountain fastness, frowning on the rich champaign country below, was well fitted to be the hold of a wild wicked lord like Tereus, of whose bad deeds the peasants might tell tales of horror to their children’s children. But now all is very peaceful and solitary in Daulis, for the tide of life has long rolled away from it. Parnassus still looks down on it as of old; but ivy mantles the ruins, the wild thyme smells sweet on the hill, and the tinkle of goat-bells comes up musically from the glen. Only the shadow of ancient crime and sorrow rests on the fair landscape.
- 54. LXXXVI. The Cleft Way.—About five miles to the south-west of Daulis the road, after skirting the eastern foot of the mighty mass of Mount Parnassus, turns sharply to the west and begins to ascend through the long, narrow, and profound valley which leads to Delphi. Just at the point where the road turns westward and before it begins the long ascent it is joined from the south-east by the direct road from Lebadea and Thebes. The meeting of the three roads—the road from Daulis, the road from Delphi, and the road from Thebes— is the Cleft Way or Triple Road, the scene of the legendary murder of Laius by Oedipus. It is now known as the Cross Road of Megas, after the gallant Johannes Megas, who met his death here in July 1856, while exterminating a band of brigands with a small troop of soldiers. His monument, on a rock at the meeting of the roads, bears a few verses in modern Greek. Apart from any legendary associations the scene is one of the wildest and grandest in Greece, recalling in its general features, though on a vastly greater scale, the mouth of Glencoe. On both sides of the valley the mountains tower abruptly in huge precipices; the cliffs of Parnassus on the northern side of the valley are truly sublime. Not a trace of human habitation is to be seen. All is desolation and silence. A more fitting spot could hardly be found for the scene of a memorable tragedy.
- 55. LXXXVII. Delphi.—The site of Delphi, till lately occupied by the modern village of Kastri, is in the highest degree striking and impressive. The city lay at the southern foot of the tremendous cliffs of Parnassus, which form a sheer wall of rock, about eight hundred feet high. Over these frightful precipices Philomelus drove some of the defeated Locrians. Just at the angle where this vast wall of rock bends round towards the south it is rent from top to bottom by a deep and gloomy gorge, some twenty feet wide, where there is a fine echo. Facing each other across this narrow chasm rise two stupendous cliffs, whose peaked summits tower considerably above the rest of the line of cliffs. They are nearly perpendicular in front, and perfectly so where they fall sheer down into the gorge. The eastern of the two cliffs was called Hyampia in antiquity; from its top Aesop is said to have been hurled by the Delphians. It has been suggested, though perhaps without sufficient reason, that when the later writers of antiquity, especially the Roman poets, speak of the two summits of Parnassus, they are really referring to these two cliffs. In point of fact the cliffs are far indeed from being near the summit of Parnassus; but seen from Delphi they completely hide the higher slopes of the mountain. In winter or wet weather a torrent comes foaming down the gorge in a cascade about two hundred feet high, bringing down the water from the higher slopes of the mountain. At the mouth of the gorge, under the eastern cliff, is the rock-cut basin of the perennial Castalian spring, a few paces above the highway. The water from the spring joins the stream from the gorge, which, after passing over the road, plunges into a deep rocky lyn or glen, which it has scooped out for itself in the steep side of the mountain. Down this glen the stream descends to join the Plistus, which flows along the bottom of the Delphic valley from east to west, at a great depth below the town.
- 56. From the cliffs at the back of Delphi the ground slopes away so steeply to the bed of the Plistus that it is only by means of a succession of artificial terraces, rising in tiers above each other, that the soil can be cultivated and made fit for habitation. There are about thirty of these terraces, supported by stone walls, mostly of polygonal masonry. The sanctuary of Apollo occupies only the five or six highest terraces at the foot of the cliffs, on the western side of the Castalian gorge. So high does it stand above the bottom of the valley that twenty minutes are needed to descend the steep terraced slope to the bed of the Plistus. Corn is grown on the terraces below the sanctuary; and the slopes on the eastern side of the Castalian gorge are wooded with fine olive and mulberry trees. Across the valley, on the southern side of the Plistus, rise the bare precipitous cliffs of Mount Cirphis, capped with fir-woods. From the western end of the precipices which rise at the back of Delphi a high rocky ridge projects southward toward the bed of the Plistus. This ridge closes the valley of Delphi on the west, shutting out all view of the Crisaean plain and the gulf of Corinth, though a glimpse of the waters of the gulf is obtained from the stadium, the highest part of Delphi. Thus, enclosed by a rocky ridge on the west, by tremendous precipices on the north and east, and faced on the south, across the valley of the Plistus, by the lower but still precipitous sides of Mount Cirphis, Delphi lay in a secluded mountain valley; and rising on terraces in a semicircular shape, it resembled an immense theatre, to which it has justly been compared by ancient and modern writers. The whole scene is one of stern and awful majesty, well fitted to be the seat of a great religious capital. In respect of natural scenery no contrast could well be more striking than that between the two great religious capitals of ancient Greece, Delphi and Olympia—Delphi clinging to the rugged side of barren mountains, with frowning precipices above and a profound glen below; Olympia stretched out on the level margin of a river that winds in stately curves among the corn-fields and vineyards of a smiling valley set between soft wooded hills.
- 57. LXXXVIII. Aeschines at Delphi.—That the place of assembly of the Amphictyonic Council at Delphi must have been situated near the chapel of St. Elias is shown by a passage of Aeschines, in which he says that the Cirrhaean plain lay spread beneath and in full view of the meeting-place of the Amphictyonic Council. The orator himself, he tells us, was one of the Athenian representatives at a meeting of the Council. Addressing it he pointed to the smiling and peaceful plain stretched at their feet, with its olive-groves and corn-fields, its cottages and potteries, and in the distance the shining waters of the gulf, with the port-town visible beside it. “You see,” he cried, “yonder plain tilled by the men of Amphissa and the potteries and cottages they have built. You see with your eyes the fortifications of the cursed and execrated port. You know for yourselves that these men levy tolls and take money from the sacred harbour.” He then reminded his hearers of the oath sworn by their ancestors that this fair plain should lie a wilderness for ever. His words were received with a tumult of applause, and next day at dawn the men of Delphi, armed with shovels and mattocks, marched down into the plain, razed the fortifications of the port to the ground, and gave the houses to the flames. It is refreshing to know that on their way back they were hotly pursued by the Amphissaeans in arms and had to run for their lives. This was the beginning of the chain of events which in a few months more brought Philip at the head of a Macedonian army into Greece and ended in the overthrow of Greek freedom at Chaeronea. The view described by the orator, whose ill-omened eloquence brought all these miseries and disasters in its train, is to be obtained, not from the platform on which the chapel of St. Elias stands, but from a point a little way to the south-west of it, where the traveller coming from Delphi reaches the end of the high ridge that shuts in
- 58. the valley of Delphi on the west. Here as he turns the corner the whole Crisaean plain, now covered with luxuriant olive-woods, comes suddenly into sight. The scene is again as rich and peaceful as it was before Aeschines raised his voice, like the scream of some foul bird snuffing the carrion afar off, and turned it into a desert. We may suppose either that in his time the Amphictyonic Council met at this point, or, what is far likelier, that the orator’s description of that day’s doings is more graphic than correct.
- 59. LXXXIX. The Pythian Tune.—Sacadas was said to be the first who played the Pythian air on the flute at Delphi. The tune has been described for us by Pollux and Strabo. The melody, intended to represent musically Apollo’s combat with the dragon, was played by a single flute, but now and then the trumpets and fifes struck in. First Apollo was heard preparing for the fight and choosing his ground. Then followed the challenge to the dragon, then the battle, indicated by an iambic measure. Here probably the music imitated the twanging of the silver bow and the swish of the arrows as they sped to their mark. It is expressly said that the gnashing of the monster’s teeth was heard, as he ground them together in his agony. Here the trumpets came in, not in long-drawn winding bouts, but in short single blasts, one perhaps for each arrow-shot, every flourish marking a hit. The shrill wailing notes of the fifes mimicked the dragon’s dying screams. Then the flute broke into a light lilting air, beating time to the triumphal measure trodden by the victorious god.
- 60. XC. The Lacedaemonian Trophy at Delphi.—The many statues of gods, admirals, and generals which formed the proud trophy of the Lacedaemonians at Delphi appear to have stood like soldiers in stiff formal rows at different heights on the steps of the pedestal, scowling at the Athenian trophy which probably faced them on the opposite side of the road. This Lacedaemonian trophy, commemorative of the great naval victory of Aegospotami, is repeatedly referred to by Plutarch. He says that from the spoils of the battle Lysander set up bronze statues of himself and of all the admirals, together with golden stars of the Dioscuri; and elsewhere he tells us that in his time these old bronze statues of the admirals were covered with a beautiful blue patina, the growth of ages, so that people spoke of them as being true blue salts. Cicero specially mentions the statue of Lysander at Delphi. The reason for dedicating golden stars of the Dioscuri would seem to have been that Castor and Pollux were said to have appeared on the side of the Lacedaemonians at the battle of Aegospotami, just as they appeared on the Roman side at the battle of Lake Regillus. It is related that after the battle of Leuctra, which gave the death-blow to Spartan prestige and power, the golden stars disappeared from Delphi and were never seen again, as if in token that the star of Sparta’s fortunes had set. The dedication of the stars in memory of the appearance of the Dioscuri is an interesting confirmation of the view that the twins Castor and Pollux were the Morning and Evening Star, the equivalents of the Sanscrit Aśvins. It is notable that in Roman history the appearances of the Dioscuri as messengers of victory seem always to have taken place in the same season of the year, namely at the summer solstice or the first full moon after it. By a curious coincidence the old chronicler Holinshed reports that on the eve of the battle of Bannockburn, which was also
- 61. Midsummer Eve, two men appeared at Glastonbury saying they were going to help the Scots in a battle next day; and a single knight in bright armour rode into Aberdeen on the afternoon of the battle and was seen to pass over into the Orkneys in the evening.[9] 9. For this modern instance I have to thank my friend Mr. R. A. Neil, of Pembroke College.
- 62. XCI. The Gods in Battle.—Apollo, Artemis, and Athena are said to have appeared in person fighting for the Greeks against the Gauls. The heroes Theseus and Echetlus were seen combating on the Greek side at Marathon. In the great sea-fight of Salamis phantoms of armed men were perceived stretching out their hands from Aegina to protect the Greek ships; they were believed to be the Aeacids, who had been prayed to for help before the battle. The spirit of Aristomenes was said to have fought for the Thebans against his old foes the Spartans at Leuctra. The Mantineans fancied they saw Poseidon warring on their side against the Lacedaemonians. In a battle between the people of Crotona and the people of Locri, two unknown youths, of wondrous stature, in strange armour, clad in scarlet and riding white horses, were seen fighting on the wings of the Locrian army; after the battle they disappeared. These two youths were probably regarded as Castor and Pollux, whose reported appearance at the battle of the Lake Regillus, charging with lances in rest at the head of the Roman cavalry, is well known. It is said that when Alaric approached Athens he beheld Athena in full armour patrolling the walls, and Achilles guarding them with the same fiery valour with which he had avenged the death of Patroclus; terrified by the vision, the fierce barbarian gave up all thought of attacking the city. Similarly in the battles between the Spaniards and the Indians of Mexico it is affirmed by grave historians that St. James, the patron Saint of Spain, was seen tilting on his milk-white steed at the head of the Christian chivalry. In one of these battles a lady robed in white, supposed to be the Virgin, was visible by the side of St. James, throwing dust in the eyes of the infidels. The stout old chronicler Bernal Diaz, who fought in these wars, confesses that for his sins he was not found worthy to behold the glorious Apostle.[10]
- 63. 10. For these Spanish parallels I am indebted to my lamented friend the late W. Robertson Smith. Niebuhr had previously made exactly the same comparison.
- 64. XCII. The Sibyl’s Wish.—The author of the Exhortation to the Greeks was shown at Cumae a bronze bottle in which the remains of the Sibyl were said to be preserved. Trimalchio in Petronius says: “At Cumae I saw with my own eyes the Sibyl hanging in a jar, and when the children said to her, ‘Sibyl, what do you wish?’ she used to answer, 'I wish to die.'” Ampelius tells us that the Sibyl was said to be shut up in an iron cage which hung from a pillar in an ancient temple of Hercules at Argyrus. It has been pointed out by Dr. M. R. James that parallels to the story of the Sibyl’s wish are to be found in German folk-tales. One of these tales runs as follows: “Once upon a time there was a girl in London who wished to live for ever, so they say: ‘London, London is a fine town. A maiden prayed to live for ever.’ And still she lives and hangs in a basket in a church, and every St. John’s Day about noon she eats a roll of bread.” Another story tells of a lady who resided at Danzig and was so rich and so blest with all that life can give that she wished to live always. So when she came to her latter end, she did not really die but only looked like dead, and very soon they found her in a hollow of a pillar in the church, half standing and half sitting, motionless. She stirred never a limb, but they saw quite plainly that she was alive, and she sits there down to this blessed day. Every New Year’s Day the sacristan comes and puts a morsel of the holy bread in her mouth, and that is all she has to live on. Long, long has she rued her fatal wish who set this transient life above the eternal joys of heaven. A third story relates how a noble damsel cherished the same foolish wish for immortality. So they put her in a basket and hung her up in a church, and there she hangs and never dies, though many, many a year has come and
- 65. gone since they put her there. But every year on a certain day they give her a roll and she eats it and cries out “For ever! for ever! for ever!” And when she has so cried she falls silent again till the same time next year, and so it will go on for ever and for ever. A fourth story, taken down, near Oldenburg in Holstein, tells of a jolly dame that ate and drank and lived right merrily and had all that heart could desire, and she wished to live always. For the first hundred years all went well, but after that she began to shrink and shrivel up till at last she could neither walk nor stand nor eat nor drink. But die she could not. At first they fed her as if she were a little child, but when she grew smaller and smaller they put her in a glass bottle and hung her up in the church. And there she still hangs, in the church of St. Mary at Lübeck. She is as small as a mouse, but once a year she stirs.
- 66. XCIII. Orpheus in Hell.—Why in his picture of hell the painter Polygnotus should have depicted Orpheus touching the branches of a willow-tree is not clear. Pausanias has himself rightly pointed out that willows grew in the grove of Proserpine, but that does not suffice to explain the gesture of Orpheus in the picture. Mr. J. Six ingeniously suggests that when Orpheus went to hell to fetch the soul of his lost Eurydice he may have carried in his hand a willow- branch, just as Aeneas carried the Golden Bough, to serve as a passport or ‘open Sesame’ to unlock the gates of Death to a living man, and that in memory of this former deed the painter may have depicted the bard touching the willow. Virgil tells how at sight of the Golden Bough, “not seen for long,” the surly Charon turned his crazy bark to shore and received Aeneas on board. Mr. Six surmises that here the words “not seen for long” refer to the time when Orpheus, like Aeneas, had passed the ferry with the Golden Bough in his hand. If he is right, Polygnotus took a different view of that mystic branch from Virgil, who certainly regarded it as a glorified mistletoe. Professor C. Robert accepts Mr. Six’s explanation. Formerly he held that Pausanias had misinterpreted the gesture of Orpheus. The bard, on Professor Robert’s earlier view, was depicted merely holding the lyre with one hand and playing on it with the other, and a branch of the willow under which he sat drooped down and touched the hand that swept the strings. This view, which Professor Robert has wisely abandoned, is open to several objections. It substitutes a commonplace gesture, which Pausanias could hardly have so grossly mistaken, for a remarkable one which, however it is to be explained, had clearly struck Pausanias as unusual and significant. Again, if Orpheus had been depicted playing, would not some one have been represented listening? But, so far as appears from Pausanias’s description, not a soul was paying any heed to the magic strains of
- 67. the great minstrel. It seems better, therefore, to suppose that, like blind Thamyris, he sat sad and silent, dreaming of life in the bright world, of love and music.
- 68. XCIV. The Acheron.—The Acheron is the river now known as the Suliotiko or Phanariotiko which comes down from the mountains of the once famous Suli and winds, a sluggish, turbid, and weedy stream, through the wide plain of Phanari, traversing some swamps or meres before it reaches the sea. These swamps, which extend nearly to the sea, and never dry up though they shrink in summer, are the Acherusian lake. The plain, where it is not too marshy, is covered with fields of maize and rice and meadows where herds of buffaloes browse. A few plane-trees and low tamarisks fringe the margin of the winding river. Otherwise the plain is mostly treeless. On its eastern side rise, like a huge grey wall, the wild and barren mountains of Suli. Before entering the plain, on its passage from these rugged highlands, the Acheron flows through a profound and gloomy gorge, one of the darkest and deepest of the glens of Greece. On either side precipices rise sheer from the water’s edge to a height of hundreds of feet, their ledges and crannies tufted with dwarf oaks and shrubs. Higher up, where the sides of the glen recede from the perpendicular, the mountains rise to a height of over three thousand feet, the black pine-woods which cling to their precipitous sides adding to the sombre magnificence of the scene. A precarious footpath leads along a perilous ledge high up on the mountain-side, from which the traveller gazes down into the depths of the tremendous ravine, where the deep and rapid river may be seen rushing and foaming along, often plunging in a cascade into a dark abyss, but so far below him that even the roar of the waterfall is lost in mid-air before it can reach his ear. At the point where the river emerges from the defile into the plain, there are a few cottages with some ruins of a church and fortress on the right bank. The place is called Glyky. The church seems to have
- 69. occupied the site of an ancient temple; some fragments of granite columns and pieces of a white marble cornice, adorned with a pattern of acanthus leaves, may be seen lying about. Here, perhaps, was the seat of that Oracle of the Dead where the envoys of Periander, tyrant of Corinth, summoned up the ghost of his murdered wife Melissa, and where Orpheus vainly sought to bring back his lost Eurydice from the world of shades.