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James F. Kurose
University of Massachusetts, Amherst
Keith W. Ross
Polytechnic Institute of NYU
COMPUTER
NETWORKING
A Top-Down Approach
SIXTH EDITION
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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Kurose, James F.
Computer networking : a top-down approach / James F. Kurose, Keith W. Ross.—6th ed.
p. cm.
Includes bibliographical references and index.
ISBN-13: 978-0-13-285620-1
ISBN-10: 0-13-285620-4
1. Internet. 2. Computer networks. I. Ross, Keith W., 1956- II. Title.
TK5105.875.I57K88 2012
004.6—dc23
2011048215
10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1
ISBN-13: 978-0-13-285620-1
ISBN-10: 0-13-285620-4
This book was composed in Quark. Basal font is Times. Display font is Berkeley.

iii
About the Authors
Jim Kurose
Jim Kurose is a Distinguished University Professor of Computer Science at the
University of Massachusetts, Amherst.
Dr. Kurose has received a number of recognitions for his educational
activities including Outstanding Teacher Awards from the National
Technological University (eight times), the University of Massachusetts, and
the Northeast Association of Graduate Schools. He received the IEEE Taylor
Booth Education Medal and was recognized for his leadership of
Massachusetts’ Commonwealth Information Technology Initiative. He has
been the recipient of a GE Fellowship, an IBM Faculty Development Award,
and a Lilly Teaching Fellowship.
Dr. Kurose is a former Editor-in-Chief of IEEE Transactions on
Communications and of IEEE/ACM Transactions on Networking. He has
been active in the program committees for IEEE Infocom, ACM SIGCOMM,
ACM Internet Measurement Conference, and ACM SIGMETRICS for a
number of years and has served as Technical Program Co-Chair for those
conferences. He is a Fellow of the IEEE and the ACM. His research interests
include network protocols and architecture, network measurement, sensor
networks, multimedia communication, and modeling and performance
evaluation. He holds a PhD in Computer Science from Columbia University.
Keith Ross
Keith Ross is the Leonard J. Shustek Chair Professor and Head of the Computer
Science Department at Polytechnic Institute of NYU. Before joining NYU-Poly in
2003, he was a professor at the University of Pennsylvania (13 years) and a
professor at Eurecom Institute (5 years). He received a B.S.E.E from Tufts
University, a M.S.E.E. from Columbia University, and a Ph.D. in Computer and
Control Engineering from The University of Michigan. Keith Ross is also the
founder and original CEO of Wimba, which develops online multimedia
applications for e-learning and was acquired by Blackboard in 2010.
Professor Ross’s research interests are in security and privacy, social networks,
peer-to-peer networking, Internet measurement, video streaming, content distribution
networks, and stochastic modeling. He is an IEEE Fellow, recipient of the Infocom
2009 Best Paper Award, and recipient of 2011 and 2008 Best Paper Awards
for Multimedia Communications (awarded by IEEE Communications Society). He
has served on numerous journal editorial boards and conference program commit-
tees, including IEEE/ACM Transactions on Networking, ACM SIGCOMM, ACM
CoNext, and ACM Internet Measurement Conference. He also has served as an
advisor to the Federal Trade Commission on P2P file sharing.

This page intentionally left blank

To Julie and our three precious
ones—Chris, Charlie, and Nina
JFK
A big THANKS to my professors, colleagues,
and students all over the world.
KWR

Preface
Welcome to the sixth edition of Computer Networking: A Top-Down Approach. Since
the publication of the first edition 12 years ago, our book has been adopted for use at
many hundreds of colleges and universities, translated into 14 languages, and used
by over one hundred thousand students and practitioners worldwide. We’ve heard
from many of these readers and have been overwhelmed by the positive response.
What’s New in the Sixth Edition?
We think one important reason for this success has been that our book continues to offer
a fresh and timely approach to computer networking instruction. We’ve made changes
in this sixth edition, but we’ve also kept unchanged what we believe (and the instruc-
tors and students who have used our book have confirmed) to be the most important
aspects of this book: its top-down approach, its focus on the Internet and a modern
treatment of computer networking, its attention to both principles and practice, and its
accessible style and approach toward learning about computer networking. Neverthe-
less, the sixth edition has been revised and updated substantially:
• The Companion Web site has been significantly expanded and enriched to
include VideoNotes and interactive exercises, as discussed later in this Preface.
• In Chapter 1, the treatment of access networks has been modernized, and the
description of the Internet ISP ecosystem has been substantially revised, account-
ing for the recent emergence of content provider networks, such as Google’s. The
presentation of packet switching and circuit switching has also been reorganized,
providing a more topical rather than historical orientation.
• In Chapter 2, Python has replaced Java for the presentation of socket program-
ming. While still explicitly exposing the key ideas behind the socket API, Python
code is easier to understand for the novice programmer. Moreover, unlike Java,
Python provides access to raw sockets, enabling students to build a larger variety
of network applications. Java-based socket programming labs have been
replaced with corresponding Python labs, and a new Python-based ICMP Ping
lab has been added. As always, when material is retired from the book, such as
Java-based socket programming material, it remains available on the book’s
Companion Web site (see following text).
• In Chapter 3, the presentation of one of the reliable data transfer protocols has
been simplified and a new sidebar on TCP splitting, commonly used to optimize
the performance of cloud services, has been added.
• In Chapter 4, the section on router architectures has been significantly updated,
reflecting recent developments and practices in the field. Several new integrative
sidebars involving DNS, BGP, and OSPF are included.

• Chapter 5 has been reorganized and streamlined, accounting for the ubiquity of
switched Ethernet in local area networks and the consequent increased use of
Ethernet in point-to-point scenarios. Also, a new section on data center network-
ing has been added.
• Chapter 6 has been updated to reflect recent advances in wireless networks, par-
ticularly cellular data networks and 4G services and architecture.
• Chapter 7, which focuses on multimedia networking, has gone through a major
revision. The chapter now includes an in-depth discussion of streaming video,
including adaptive streaming, and an entirely new and modernized discussion of
CDNs. A newly added section describes the Netflix, YouTube, and Kankan video
streaming systems. The material that has been removed to make way for these
new topics is still available on the Companion Web site.
• Chapter 8 now contains an expanded discussion on endpoint authentication.
• Significant new material involving end-of-chapter problems has been added. As
with all previous editions, homework problems have been revised, added, and
removed.
Audience
This textbook is for a first course on computer networking. It can be used in both
computer science and electrical engineering departments. In terms of programming
languages, the book assumes only that the student has experience with C, C++, Java,
or Python (and even then only in a few places). Although this book is more precise
and analytical than many other introductory computer networking texts, it rarely
uses any mathematical concepts that are not taught in high school. We have made a
deliberate effort to avoid using any advanced calculus, probability, or stochastic
process concepts (although we’ve included some homework problems for students
with this advanced background). The book is therefore appropriate for undergradu-
ate courses and for first-year graduate courses. It should also be useful to practition-
ers in the telecommunications industry.
What Is Unique about This Textbook?
The subject of computer networking is enormously complex, involving many
concepts, protocols, and technologies that are woven together in an intricate
manner. To cope with this scope and complexity, many computer networking texts
are often organized around the “layers” of a network architecture. With a layered
organization, students can see through the complexity of computer networking—
they learn about the distinct concepts and protocols in one part of the architecture
while seeing the big picture of how all parts fit together. From a pedagogical
perspective, our personal experience has been that such a layered approach
viii Preface

Preface ix
indeed works well. Nevertheless, we have found that the traditional approach of
teaching—bottom up; that is, from the physical layer towards the application
layer—is not the best approach for a modern course on computer networking.
A Top-Down Approach
Our book broke new ground 12 years ago by treating networking in a top-down
manner—that is, by beginning at the application layer and working its way down
toward the physical layer. The feedback we received from teachers and students
alike have confirmed that this top-down approach has many advantages and does
indeed work well pedagogically. First, it places emphasis on the application layer
(a “high growth area” in networking). Indeed, many of the recent revolutions in
computer networking—including the Web, peer-to-peer file sharing, and media
streaming—have taken place at the application layer.An early emphasis on application-
layer issues differs from the approaches taken in most other texts, which have only a
small amount of material on network applications, their requirements, application-layer
paradigms (e.g., client-server and peer-to-peer), and application programming inter-
faces. Second, our experience as instructors (and that of many instructors who have
used this text) has been that teaching networking applications near the beginning of
the course is a powerful motivational tool. Students are thrilled to learn about how
networking applications work—applications such as e-mail and the Web, which most
students use on a daily basis. Once a student understands the applications, the student
can then understand the network services needed to support these applications. The
student can then, in turn, examine the various ways in which such services might be
provided and implemented in the lower layers. Covering applications early thus pro-
vides motivation for the remainder of the text.
Third, a top-down approach enables instructors to introduce network appli-
cation development at an early stage. Students not only see how popular applica-
tions and protocols work, but also learn how easy it is to create their own
network applications and application-level protocols. With the top-down
approach, students get early exposure to the notions of socket programming, serv-
ice models, and protocols—important concepts that resurface in all subsequent
layers. By providing socket programming examples in Python, we highlight the
central ideas without confusing students with complex code. Undergraduates in
electrical engineering and computer science should not have difficulty following
the Python code.
An Internet Focus
Although we dropped the phrase “Featuring the Internet” from the title of this book
with the fourth edition, this doesn’t mean that we dropped our focus on the Internet!
Indeed, nothing could be further from the case! Instead, since the Internet has
become so pervasive, we felt that any networking textbook must have a significant

focus on the Internet, and thus this phrase was somewhat unnecessary. We continue
to use the Internet’s architecture and protocols as primary vehicles for studying fun-
damental computer networking concepts. Of course, we also include concepts and
protocols from other network architectures. But the spotlight is clearly on the Inter-
net, a fact reflected in our organizing the book around the Internet’s five-layer archi-
tecture: the application, transport, network, link, and physical layers.
Another benefit of spotlighting the Internet is that most computer science and
electrical engineering students are eager to learn about the Internet and its protocols.
They know that the Internet has been a revolutionary and disruptive technology and
can see that it is profoundly changing our world. Given the enormous relevance of
the Internet, students are naturally curious about what is “under the hood.” Thus, it
is easy for an instructor to get students excited about basic principles when using the
Internet as the guiding focus.
Teaching Networking Principles
Two of the unique features of the book—its top-down approach and its focus on the
Internet—have appeared in the titles of our book. If we could have squeezed a third
phrase into the subtitle, it would have contained the word principles. The field of
networking is now mature enough that a number of fundamentally important issues
can be identified. For example, in the transport layer, the fundamental issues include
reliable communication over an unreliable network layer, connection establishment/
teardown and handshaking, congestion and flow control, and multiplexing. Two fun-
damentally important network-layer issues are determining “good” paths between
two routers and interconnecting a large number of heterogeneous networks. In the
link layer, a fundamental problem is sharing a multiple access channel. In network
security, techniques for providing confidentiality, authentication, and message
integrity are all based on cryptographic fundamentals. This text identifies fundamen-
tal networking issues and studies approaches towards addressing these issues. The
student learning these principles will gain knowledge with a long “shelf life”—long
after today’s network standards and protocols have become obsolete, the principles
they embody will remain important and relevant. We believe that the combination of
using the Internet to get the student’s foot in the door and then emphasizing funda-
mental issues and solution approaches will allow the student to quickly understand
just about any networking technology.
The Web Site
Each new copy of this textbook includes six months of access to a Companion Web site
for all book readers at http://www.pearsonhighered.com/kurose-ross, which includes:
• Interactive learning material. An important new component of the sixth edition
is the significantly expanded online and interactive learning material. The
book’s Companion Web site now contains VideoNotes—video presentations of
x Preface

Preface xi
important topics thoughout the book done by the authors, as well as walk-
throughs of solutions to problems similar to those at the end of the chapter.
We’ve also added Interactive Exercises that can create (and present solutions
for) problems similar to selected end-of-chapter problems. Since students can
generate (and view solutions for) an unlimited number of similar problem
instances, they can work until the material is truly mastered. We’ve seeded the
Web site with VideoNotes and online problems for chapters 1 through 5 and will
continue to actively add and update this material over time. As in earlier edi-
tions, the Web site contains the interactive Java applets that animate many key
networking concepts. The site also has interactive quizzes that permit students
to check their basic understanding of the subject matter. Professors can integrate
these interactive features into their lectures or use them as mini labs.
• Additional technical material. As we have added new material in each edition of
our book, we’ve had to remove coverage of some existing topics to keep the
book at manageable length. For example, to make room for the new material in
this edition, we’ve removed material on ATM networks and the RTSP protocol
for multimedia. Material that appeared in earlier editions of the text is still of
interest, and can be found on the book’s Web site.
• Programming assignments. The Web site also provides a number of detailed
programming assignments, which include building a multithreaded Web
server, building an e-mail client with a GUI interface, programming the sender
and receiver sides of a reliable data transport protocol, programming a distrib-
uted routing algorithm, and more.
• Wireshark labs. One’s understanding of network protocols can be greatly deep-
ened by seeing them in action. The Web site provides numerous Wireshark
assignments that enable students to actually observe the sequence of messages
exchanged between two protocol entities. The Web site includes separate Wire-
shark labs on HTTP, DNS, TCP, UDP, IP, ICMP, Ethernet, ARP, WiFi, SSL, and
on tracing all protocols involved in satisfying a request to fetch a web page.
We’ll continue to add new labs over time.
Pedagogical Features
We have each been teaching computer networking for more than 20 years.
Together, we bring more than 50 years of teaching experience to this text, during
which time we have taught many thousands of students. We have also been active
researchers in computer networking during this time. (In fact, Jim and Keith first
met each other as master’s students in a computer networking course taught by
Mischa Schwartz in 1979 at Columbia University.) We think all this gives us a
good perspective on where networking has been and where it is likely to go in the
future. Nevertheless, we have resisted temptations to bias the material in this book

towards our own pet research projects. We figure you can visit our personal Web
sites if you are interested in our research. Thus, this book is about modern com-
puter networking—it is about contemporary protocols and technologies as well as
the underlying principles behind these protocols and technologies. We also believe
that learning (and teaching!) about networking can be fun. A sense of humor, use
of analogies, and real-world examples in this book will hopefully make this mate-
rial more fun.
Supplements for Instructors
We provide a complete supplements package to aid instructors in teaching this course.
This material can be accessed from Pearson’s Instructor Resource Center
(http://www.pearsonhighered.com/irc). Visit the Instructor Resource Center or send
e-mail to computing@aw.com for information about accessing these instructor’s
supplements.
• PowerPoint® slides. We provide PowerPoint slides for all nine chapters. The
slides have been completely updated with this sixth edition. The slides cover
each chapter in detail. They use graphics and animations (rather than relying
only on monotonous text bullets) to make the slides interesting and visually
appealing. We provide the original PowerPoint slides so you can customize them
to best suit your own teaching needs. Some of these slides have been contributed
by other instructors who have taught from our book.
• Homework solutions. We provide a solutions manual for the homework problems
in the text, programming assignments, and Wireshark labs. As noted earlier, we’ve
introduced many new homework problems in the first five chapters of the book.
Chapter Dependencies
The first chapter of this text presents a self-contained overview of computer net-
working. Introducing many key concepts and terminology, this chapter sets the stage
for the rest of the book. All of the other chapters directly depend on this first chap-
ter. After completing Chapter 1, we recommend instructors cover Chapters 2
through 5 in sequence, following our top-down philosophy. Each of these five chap-
ters leverages material from the preceding chapters. After completing the first five
chapters, the instructor has quite a bit of flexibility. There are no interdependencies
among the last four chapters, so they can be taught in any order. However, each of
the last four chapters depends on the material in the first five chapters. Many
instructors first teach the first five chapters and then teach one of the last four chap-
ters for “dessert.”
xii Preface

Preface xiii
One Final Note: We’d Love to Hear from You
We encourage students and instructors to e-mail us with any comments they might
have about our book. It’s been wonderful for us to hear from so many instructors
and students from around the world about our first four editions. We’ve incorporated
many of these suggestions into later editions of the book. We also encourage instructors
to send us new homework problems (and solutions) that would complement the
current homework problems. We’ll post these on the instructor-only portion of the
Web site. We also encourage instructors and students to create new Java applets that
illustrate the concepts and protocols in this book. If you have an applet that you
think would be appropriate for this text, please submit it to us. If the applet (including
notation and terminology) is appropriate, we’ll be happy to include it on the text’s
Web site, with an appropriate reference to the applet’s authors.
So, as the saying goes, “Keep those cards and letters coming!” Seriously,
please do continue to send us interesting URLs, point out typos, disagree with
any of our claims, and tell us what works and what doesn’t work. Tell us what
you think should or shouldn’t be included in the next edition. Send your e-mail
to kurose@cs.umass.edu and ross@poly.edu.
Acknowledgments
Since we began writing this book in 1996, many people have given us invaluable
help and have been influential in shaping our thoughts on how to best organize and
teach a networking course. We want to say A BIG THANKS to everyone who has
helped us from the earliest first drafts of this book, up to this fifth edition. We are also
very thankful to the many hundreds of readers from around the world—students, fac-
ulty, practitioners—who have sent us thoughts and comments on earlier editions of
the book and suggestions for future editions of the book. Special thanks go out to:
Al Aho (Columbia University)
Hisham Al-Mubaid (University of Houston-Clear Lake)
Pratima Akkunoor (Arizona State University)
Paul Amer (University of Delaware)
Shamiul Azom (Arizona State University)
Lichun Bao (University of California at Irvine)
Paul Barford (University of Wisconsin)
Bobby Bhattacharjee (University of Maryland)
Steven Bellovin (Columbia University)
Pravin Bhagwat (Wibhu)
Supratik Bhattacharyya (previously at Sprint)
Ernst Biersack (Eurécom Institute)

Shahid Bokhari (University of Engineering & Technology, Lahore)
Jean Bolot (Technicolor Research)
Daniel Brushteyn (former University of Pennsylvania student)
Ken Calvert (University of Kentucky)
Evandro Cantu (Federal University of Santa Catarina)
Jeff Case (SNMP Research International)
Jeff Chaltas (Sprint)
Vinton Cerf (Google)
Byung Kyu Choi (Michigan Technological University)
Bram Cohen (BitTorrent, Inc.)
Constantine Coutras (Pace University)
John Daigle (University of Mississippi)
Edmundo A. de Souza e Silva (Federal University of Rio de Janeiro)
Philippe Decuetos (Eurécom Institute)
Christophe Diot (Technicolor Research)
Prithula Dhunghel (Akamai)
Deborah Estrin (University of California, Los Angeles)
Michalis Faloutsos (University of California at Riverside)
Wu-chi Feng (Oregon Graduate Institute)
Sally Floyd (ICIR, University of California at Berkeley)
Paul Francis (Max Planck Institute)
Lixin Gao (University of Massachusetts)
JJ Garcia-Luna-Aceves (University of California at Santa Cruz)
Mario Gerla (University of California at Los Angeles)
David Goodman (NYU-Poly)
Yang Guo (Alcatel/Lucent Bell Labs)
Tim Griffin (Cambridge University)
Max Hailperin (Gustavus Adolphus College)
Bruce Harvey (Florida A&M University, Florida State University)
Carl Hauser (Washington State University)
Rachelle Heller (George Washington University)
Phillipp Hoschka (INRIA/W3C)
Wen Hsin (Park University)
Albert Huang (former University of Pennsylvania student)
Cheng Huang (Microsoft Research)
Esther A. Hughes (Virginia Commonwealth University)
Van Jacobson (Xerox PARC)
Pinak Jain (former NYU-Poly student)
Jobin James (University of California at Riverside)
Sugih Jamin (University of Michigan)
Shivkumar Kalyanaraman (IBM Research, India)
Jussi Kangasharju (University of Helsinki)
Sneha Kasera (University of Utah)
Parviz Kermani (formerly of IBM Research)
xiv Preface

Preface xv
Hyojin Kim (former University of Pennsylvania student)
Leonard Kleinrock (University of California at Los Angeles)
David Kotz (Dartmouth College)
Beshan Kulapala (Arizona State University)
Rakesh Kumar (Bloomberg)
Miguel A. Labrador (University of South Florida)
Simon Lam (University of Texas)
Steve Lai (Ohio State University)
Tom LaPorta (Penn State University)
Tim-Berners Lee (World Wide Web Consortium)
Arnaud Legout (INRIA)
Lee Leitner (Drexel University)
Brian Levine (University of Massachusetts)
Chunchun Li (former NYU-Poly student)
Yong Liu (NYU-Poly)
William Liang (former University of Pennsylvania student)
Willis Marti (Texas A&M University)
Nick McKeown (Stanford University)
Josh McKinzie (Park University)
Deep Medhi (University of Missouri, Kansas City)
Bob Metcalfe (International Data Group)
Sue Moon (KAIST)
Jenni Moyer (Comcast)
Erich Nahum (IBM Research)
Christos Papadopoulos (Colorado Sate University)
Craig Partridge (BBN Technologies)
Radia Perlman (Intel)
Jitendra Padhye (Microsoft Research)
Vern Paxson (University of California at Berkeley)
Kevin Phillips (Sprint)
George Polyzos (Athens University of Economics and Business)
Sriram Rajagopalan (Arizona State University)
Ramachandran Ramjee (Microsoft Research)
Ken Reek (Rochester Institute of Technology)
Martin Reisslein (Arizona State University)
Jennifer Rexford (Princeton University)
Leon Reznik (Rochester Institute of Technology)
Pablo Rodrigez (Telefonica)
Sumit Roy (University of Washington)
Avi Rubin (Johns Hopkins University)
Dan Rubenstein (Columbia University)
Douglas Salane (John Jay College)
Despina Saparilla (Cisco Systems)
John Schanz (Comcast)

Henning Schulzrinne (Columbia University)
Mischa Schwartz (Columbia University)
Ardash Sethi (University of Delaware)
Harish Sethu (Drexel University)
K. Sam Shanmugan (University of Kansas)
Prashant Shenoy (University of Massachusetts)
Clay Shields (Georgetown University)
Subin Shrestra (University of Pennsylvania)
Bojie Shu (former NYU-Poly student)
Mihail L. Sichitiu (NC State University)
Peter Steenkiste (Carnegie Mellon University)
Tatsuya Suda (University of California at Irvine)
Kin Sun Tam (State University of New York at Albany)
Don Towsley (University of Massachusetts)
David Turner (California State University, San Bernardino)
Nitin Vaidya (University of Illinois)
Michele Weigle (Clemson University)
David Wetherall (University of Washington)
Ira Winston (University of Pennsylvania)
Di Wu (Sun Yat-sen University)
Shirley Wynn (NYU-Poly)
Raj Yavatkar (Intel)
Yechiam Yemini (Columbia University)
Ming Yu (State University of New York at Binghamton)
Ellen Zegura (Georgia Institute of Technology)
Honggang Zhang (Suffolk University)
Hui Zhang (Carnegie Mellon University)
Lixia Zhang (University of California at Los Angeles)
Meng Zhang (former NYU-Poly student)
Shuchun Zhang (former University of Pennsylvania student)
Xiaodong Zhang (Ohio State University)
ZhiLi Zhang (University of Minnesota)
Phil Zimmermann (independent consultant)
Cliff C. Zou (University of Central Florida)
We also want to thank the entire Addison-Wesley team—in particular, Michael Hirsch,
Marilyn Lloyd, and Emma Snider—who have done an absolutely outstanding job on
this sixth edition (and who have put up with two very finicky authors who seem con-
genitally unable to meet deadlines!). Thanks also to our artists, Janet Theurer and
Patrice Rossi Calkin, for their work on the beautiful figures in this book, and to Andrea
Stefanowicz and her team at PreMediaGlobal for their wonderful production work on
this edition. Finally, a most special thanks go to Michael Hirsch, our editor at Addison-
Wesley, and Susan Hartman, our former editor at Addison-Wesley. This book would
not be what it is (and may well not have been at all) without their graceful manage-
ment, constant encouragement, nearly infinite patience, good humor, and perseverance.
xvi Preface

xvii
Table of Contents
Chapter 1 Computer Networks and the Internet 1
1.1 What Is the Internet? 2
1.1.1 A Nuts-and-Bolts Description 2
1.1.2 A Services Description 5
1.1.3 What Is a Protocol? 7
1.2 The Network Edge 9
1.2.1 Access Networks 12
1.2.2 Physical Media 18
1.3 The Network Core 22
1.3.1 Packet Switching 22
1.3.2 Circuit Switching 27
1.3.3 A Network of Networks 32
1.4 Delay, Loss, and Throughput in Packet-Switched Networks 35
1.4.1 Overview of Delay in Packet-Switched Networks 35
1.4.2 Queuing Delay and Packet Loss 39
1.4.3 End-to-End Delay 42
1.4.4 Throughput in Computer Networks 44
1.5 Protocol Layers and Their Service Models 47
1.5.1 Layered Architecture 47
1.5.2 Encapsulation 53
1.6 Networks Under Attack 55
1.7 History of Computer Networking and the Internet 60
1.7.1 The Development of Packet Switching: 1961–1972 60
1.7.2 Proprietary Networks and Internetworking: 1972–1980 62
1.7.3 A Proliferation of Networks: 1980–1990 63
1.7.4 The Internet Explosion: The 1990s 64
1.7.5 The New Millennium 65
1.8 Summary 66
Homework Problems and Questions 68
Wireshark Lab 78
Interview: Leonard Kleinrock 80

Chapter 2 Application Layer 83
2.1 Principles of Network Applications 84
2.1.1 Network Application Architectures 86
2.1.2 Processes Communicating 88
2.1.3 Transport Services Available to Applications 91
2.1.4 Transport Services Provided by the Internet 93
2.1.5 Application-Layer Protocols 96
2.1.6 Network Applications Covered in This Book 97
2.2 The Web and HTTP 98
2.2.1 Overview of HTTP 98
2.2.2 Non-Persistent and Persistent Connections 100
2.2.3 HTTP Message Format 103
2.2.4 User-Server Interaction: Cookies 108
2.2.5 Web Caching 110
2.2.6 The Conditional GET 114
2.3 File Transfer: FTP 116
2.3.1 FTP Commands and Replies 118
2.4 Electronic Mail in the Internet 118
2.4.1 SMTP 121
2.4.2 Comparison with HTTP 124
2.4.3 Mail Message Format 125
2.4.4 Mail Access Protocols 125
2.5 DNS—The Internet’s Directory Service 130
2.5.1 Services Provided by DNS 131
2.5.2 Overview of How DNS Works 133
2.5.3 DNS Records and Messages 139
2.6 Peer-to-Peer Applications 144
2.6.1 P2P File Distribution 145
2.6.2 Distributed Hash Tables (DHTs) 151
2.7 Socket Programming: Creating Network Applications 156
2.7.1 Socket Programming with UDP 157
2.7.2 Socket Programming with TCP 163
2.8 Summary 168
Socket Programming Assignments 179
Wireshark Labs: HTTP, DNS 181
Interview: Marc Andreessen 182
xviii Table of Contents

Table of Contents xix
Chapter 3 Transport Layer 185
3.1 Introduction and Transport-Layer Services 186
3.1.1 Relationship Between Transport and Network Layers 186
3.1.2 Overview of the Transport Layer in the Internet 189
3.2 Multiplexing and Demultiplexing 191
3.3 Connectionless Transport: UDP 198
3.3.1 UDP Segment Structure 202
3.3.2 UDP Checksum 202
3.4 Principles of Reliable Data Transfer 204
3.4.1 Building a Reliable Data Transfer Protocol 206
3.4.2 Pipelined Reliable Data Transfer Protocols 215
3.4.3 Go-Back-N (GBN) 218
3.4.4 Selective Repeat (SR) 223
3.5 Connection-Oriented Transport: TCP 230
3.5.1 The TCP Connection 231
3.5.2 TCP Segment Structure 233
3.5.3 Round-Trip Time Estimation and Timeout 238
3.5.4 Reliable Data Transfer 242
3.5.5 Flow Control 250
3.5.6 TCP Connection Management 252
3.6 Principles of Congestion Control 259
3.6.1 The Causes and the Costs of Congestion 259
3.6.2 Approaches to Congestion Control 265
3.6.3 Network-Assisted Congestion-Control Example:
ATM ABR Congestion Control 266
3.7 TCP Congestion Control 269
3.7.1 Fairness 279
3.8 Summary 283
Programming Assignments 300
Wireshark Labs: TCP, UDP 301
Interview: Van Jacobson 302
Chapter 4 The Network Layer 305
4.1 Introduction 306
4.1.1 Forwarding and Routing 308
4.1.2 Network Service Models 310
4.2 Virtual Circuit and Datagram Networks 313
4.2.1 Virtual-Circuit Networks 314
4.2.2 Datagram Networks 317
4.2.3 Origins of VC and Datagram Networks 319

4.3 What’s Inside a Router? 320
4.3.1 Input Processing 322
4.3.2 Switching 324
4.3.3 Output Processing 326
4.3.4 Where Does Queuing Occur? 327
4.3.5 The Routing Control Plane 331
4.4 The Internet Protocol (IP): Forwarding and Addressing in the Internet 331
4.4.1 Datagram Format 332
4.4.2 IPv4 Addressing 338
4.4.3 Internet Control Message Protocol (ICMP) 353
4.4.4 IPv6 356
4.4.5 A Brief Foray into IP Security 362
4.5 Routing Algorithms 363
4.5.1 The Link-State (LS) Routing Algorithm 366
4.5.2 The Distance-Vector (DV) Routing Algorithm 371
4.5.3 Hierarchical Routing 379
4.6 Routing in the Internet 383
4.6.1 Intra-AS Routing in the Internet: RIP 384
4.6.2 Intra-AS Routing in the Internet: OSPF 388
4.6.3 Inter-AS Routing: BGP 390
4.7 Broadcast and Multicast Routing 399
4.7.1 Broadcast Routing Algorithms 400
4.7.2 Multicast 405
4.8 Summary 412
Programming Assignments 429
Wireshark Labs: IP, ICMP 430
Interview: Vinton G. Cerf 431
Chapter 5 The Link Layer: Links, Access Networks, and LANs 433
5.1 Introduction to the Link Layer 434
5.1.1 The Services Provided by the Link Layer 436
5.1.2 Where Is the Link Layer Implemented? 437
5.2 Error-Detection and -Correction Techniques 438
5.2.1 Parity Checks 440
5.2.2 Checksumming Methods 442
5.2.3 Cyclic Redundancy Check (CRC) 443
5.3 Multiple Access Links and Protocols 445
5.3.1 Channel Partitioning Protocols 448
5.3.2 Random Access Protocols 449
5.3.3 Taking-Turns Protocols 459
5.3.4 DOCSIS: The Link-Layer Protocol for Cable Internet Access 460
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Table of Contents xxi
5.4 Switched Local Area Networks 461
5.4.1 Link-Layer Addressing and ARP 462
5.4.2 Ethernet 469
5.4.3 Link-Layer Switches 476
5.4.4 Virtual Local Area Networks (VLANs) 482
5.5 Link Virtualization: A Network as a Link Layer 486
5.5.1 Multiprotocol Label Switching (MPLS) 487
5.6 Data Center Networking 490
5.7 Retrospective: A Day in the Life of a Web Page Request 495
5.7.1 Getting Started: DHCP, UDP, IP, and Ethernet 495
5.7.2 Still Getting Started: DNS and ARP 497
5.7.3 Still Getting Started: Intra-Domain Routing to the DNS Server 498
5.7.4 Web Client-Server Interaction: TCP and HTTP 499
5.8 Summary 500
Wireshark Labs: Ethernet and ARP, DHCP 510
Interview: Simon S. Lam 511
Chapter 6 Wireless and Mobile Networks 513
6.1 Introduction 514
6.2 Wireless Links and Network Characteristics 519
6.2.1 CDMA 522
6.3 WiFi: 802.11 Wireless LANs 526
6.3.1 The 802.11 Architecture 527
6.3.2 The 802.11 MAC Protocol 531
6.3.3 The IEEE 802.11 Frame 537
6.3.4 Mobility in the Same IP Subnet 541
6.3.5 Advanced Features in 802.11 542
6.3.6 Personal Area Networks: Bluetooth and Zigbee 544
6.4 Cellular Internet Access 546
6.4.1 An Overview of Cellular Network Architecture 547
6.4.2 3G Cellular Data Networks: Extending the Internet to Cellular
Subscribers 550
6.4.3 On to 4G: LTE 553
6.5 Mobility Management: Principles 555
6.5.1 Addressing 557
6.5.2 Routing to a Mobile Node 559
6.6 Mobile IP 564
6.7 Managing Mobility in Cellular Networks 570
6.7.1 Routing Calls to a Mobile User 571
6.7.2 Handoffs in GSM 572

6.8 Wireless and Mobility: Impact on Higher-Layer Protocols 575
6.9 Summary 578
Wireshark Lab: IEEE 802.11 (WiFi) 583
Interview: Deborah Estrin 584
Chapter 7 Multimedia Networking 587
7.1 Multimedia Networking Applications 588
7.1.1 Properties of Video 588
7.1.2 Properties of Audio 590
7.1.3 Types of Multimedia Network Applications 591
7.2 Streaming Stored Video 593
7.2.1 UDP Streaming 595
7.2.2 HTTP Streaming 596
7.2.3 Adaptive Streaming and DASH 600
7.2.4 Content Distribution Networks 602
7.2.5 Case Studies: Netflix, YouTube, and Kankan 608
7.3 Voice-over-IP 612
7.3.1 Limitations of the Best-Effort IP Service 612
7.3.2 Removing Jitter at the Receiver for Audio 614
7.3.3 Recovering from Packet Loss 617
7.3.4 Case Study: VoIP with Skype 620
7.4 Protocols for Real-Time Conversational Applications 623
7.4.1 RTP 624
7.4.2 SIP 627
7.5 Network Support for Multimedia 632
7.5.1 Dimensioning Best-Effort Networks 634
7.5.2 Providing Multiple Classes of Service 636
7.5.3 Diffserv 648
7.5.4 Per-Connection Quality-of-Service (QoS) Guarantees:
Resource Reservation and Call Admission 652
7.6 Summary 655
Programming Assignment 666
Interview: Henning Schulzrinne 668
Chapter 8 Security in Computer Networks 671
8.1 What Is Network Security? 672
8.2 Principles of Cryptography 675
8.2.1 Symmetric Key Cryptography 676
8.2.2 Public Key Encryption 683
xxii Table of Contents

Table of Contents xxiii
8.3 Message Integrity and Digital Signatures 688
8.3.1 Cryptographic Hash Functions 689
8.3.2 Message Authentication Code 691
8.3.3 Digital Signatures 693
8.4 End-Point Authentication 700
8.4.1 Authentication Protocol ap1.0 700
8.5 Securing E-Mail 705
8.5.1 Secure E-Mail 706
8.5.2 PGP 710
8.6 Securing TCP Connections: SSL 711
8.6.1 The Big Picture 713
8.6.2 A More Complete Picture 716
8.7 Network-Layer Security: IPsec and Virtual Private Networks 718
8.7.1 IPsec and Virtual Private Networks (VPNs) 718
8.7.2 The AH and ESP Protocols 720
8.7.3 Security Associations 720
8.7.4 The IPsec Datagram 721
8.7.5 IKE: Key Management in IPsec 725
8.8 Securing Wireless LANs 726
8.8.1 Wired Equivalent Privacy (WEP) 726
8.8.2 IEEE 802.11i 728
8.9 Operational Security: Firewalls and Intrusion Detection Systems 731
8.9.1 Firewalls 731
8.9.2 Intrusion Detection Systems 739
8.10 Summary 742
Wireshark Lab: SSL 752
IPsec Lab 752
Interview: Steven M. Bellovin 753
Chapter 9 Network Management 755
9.1 What Is Network Management? 756
9.2 The Infrastructure for Network Management 760
9.3 The Internet-Standard Management Framework 764
9.3.1 Structure of Management Information: SMI 766
9.3.2 Management Information Base: MIB 770

9.3.3 SNMP Protocol Operations and Transport Mappings 772
9.3.4 Security and Administration 775
9.4 ASN.1 778
9.5 Conclusion 783
Interview: Jennifer Rexford 786
References 789
Index 823
xxiv Table of Contents

Discovering Diverse Content Through
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The command of Hood's army was later given back to General
Joseph E. Johnston.

BATTLE OF CLOYD MOUNTAIN
In the early spring of 1864 the command of the Union forces in
the Shenandoah Valley was given to General Hunter, who made
ready to march upon Lynchburg, with the object of taking possession
of the city and to capture large stores of provisions and munitions of
war which belonged to the Confederates and were stored at
Lynchburg. He also laid waste to the country over which his army
passed so as to render the same of little value as a source for
supplies to the Confederacy.
A division of his army under General Crooks fought a desperate
battle on the 9th day of May, 1864, with the Confederates,
commanded by General Jenkins, at Cloyd's farm, near Dublin depot,
in southwestern Virginia. This was one of the most severe short
engagements of the entire war, in which General Jenkins was killed
and the total loss to the Confederates in killed and wounded and
missing was about 900, and that of the Federals somewhat less.
During this short engagement the grim monster Death was on every
side, and whose threatening shrieks howled in the air around them.
Hunter's main army finally reached the vicinity of Lynchburg on
the 17th day of June, after fighting a battle with Imboden and
McCausland a few miles away from Lynchburg, the Confederates
falling back within the breastworks which they had hastily thrown
up. The city was defended by a portion of Breckinridge's division, but
their numbers were far inferior to that of the Federals, who had by
this time arrived before the city. Hunter halted his army and brought
up his artillery and did some cannonading, but went into camp with
the expectation of taking the city without much opposition the next
morning. It is thought that he could have easily taken the city on the

evening of his arrival, but during the night General Gordon arrived
with his division and the Confederates were reënforced by other
arrivals next morning from the army of General Early, then on its
way to the Shenandoah Valley. On the morning of the 18th General
Hunter found Lynchburg full of Confederate soldiers, and more
arriving on every train, which on the arrival the bands playing could
plainly be heard by the Federal soldiers as they came upon the field.
Hunter soon found, in his opinion, the capture of Lynchburg an
impossibility, and his raid was to terminate in a dismal failure. During
the 18th there was some cannonading and several skirmishes
between the cavalry of the two contending armies.
On the night of the 19th he broke camp and marched away to
the westward. Why he retreated without giving battle was not
understood. General Gordon said that in his opinion that conscience
was harrowing General Hunter and causing him to see an avenger
wrapped in every gray jacket before him. The Confederates took up
the pursuit of Hunter's retreating army, but Hunter succeeded in
getting back across the mountains into western Virginia, after hard
marches over mountain roads with little or no supplies for his army,
and with a large amount of straggling.
General Lee dispatched General Early with an army of 20,000
men to threaten Washington, in the hope of drawing part of Grant's
army away from before Richmond. Early was to go by the way of
Shenandoah Valley. This route was given him partly in order to help
defend Lynchburg and to get supplies for his army in the valley. He
reached Winchester on the 3d of July, and moved rapidly down the
valley and crossed into Maryland, and was at Hagerstown on the
6th. He turned about and moved boldly upon Washington. He met
and defeated General Wallace on the Monocacy on July 9th, and on
the next day he was within six miles of the capitol at Washington. An
immediate assault might have given him possession of the city,
which was weakly defended, but he delayed for a day, and in the
meantime two divisions under General Wright from Grant's army
from before Petersburg arrived and Early was forced to retreat, after

spending the 12th in threatening the city. This was considered one
of the boldest raids of the entire war.
This attack on Washington by General Early created considerable
excitement in the city, for no other Confederate army had ever been
so near to the capital before. The government employees of all
kinds, the sailors from the navy yard, and the convalescents from
the hospitals, were all rushed out to the forts around the city. Even
President Lincoln himself went out to the defenses of the city.
Early recrossed the Potomac at Snickers' Ferry on the 18th. Here
he was overtaken by the pursuing Federals, at which place a battle
was fought in which Early was the victor. He fought another battle at
Winchester with General Averell's cavalry.
Grant decided to give the command of the army in the
Shenandoah to General Philip H. Sheridan, to whom he gave
instructions to drive the Confederates out of the valley once for all,
and to destroy all growing crops and everything that would be of
any advantage to the Confederacy in the way of supplies for their
army or otherwise. This he finally did, and Sheridan afterwards said
that he believed a crow could fly over the entire valley without
getting even a mouthful to eat.
September found the two armies near Winchester, and on the
19th a severe battle was fought which was kept up the entire day,
the advantage being first with one side and then the other. Finally
the Confederates, being outnumbered, retreated back through
Winchester. This was a bloody day, in which the loss of the Federals
was about 5,000, and that of the Confederates about 4,000.
The next day the Confederates were overtaken at Fisher's Hill, at
which place Early was making preparations for a great battle, which
engagement did not occur until the 22d. This engagement proved to
be disastrous to Early, his army being flanked by the Federals with
superior numbers. He began a stubborn retreat, which finally
became a rout. He was closely followed up by the Federals, and
fought several small engagements on his retreat.

On about the middle of October he received reënforcements
from Longstreet, and on the 19th he attacked Sheridan's army at
Cedar Creek, under the immediate command of General Wright,
Sheridan having gone to Washington, but returned in time to take
part in the battle. This took place about twenty miles from
Winchester, the attack being made by General Gordon, who fell upon
General Sheridan's men while they were yet sleeping early in the
morning. Gordon was immediately supported by the army; Early
himself came up to the attack. The Federals were completely
surprised and retreated, which became a rout, leaving their entire
camp equipment, together with some prisoners, in the hands of the
Confederates. The Confederates thought they had gained a signal
victory, and gave up the pursuit of the retreating Federals, and
turned their attention to pillaging the Federal camp.
General Sheridan was on his way from Winchester to his army
headquarters at Cedar Creek when he heard the roar of the cannon
which convinced him that a great battle was being fought. He at
once made haste to take charge of his army, this being Sheridan's
famous ride. He first met stragglers of his army, and then passed
through brigade after brigade of his retreating army, which so
blocked the highway that he was compelled to leave the same and
take to the fields. He at length succeeded in stopping the retreat and
turned it into an attacking column. In this retreat were two divisions
commanded by two future presidents, viz.: President Hayes and
McKinley. This attack on the Confederates completely surprised
them, and they were utterly routed and so badly defeated that
Early's army was never completely reorganized, this being the last
principal engagement in the Shenandoah Valley.
Previous to these battles in the valley, Early had dispatched
General McCausland with his division of cavalry to go into
Pennsylvania to levy large sums of money on the towns in reprisal
for Hunter's depredations in the Shenandoah Valley. This cavalry
party burned the town of Chambersburg.

THE SIEGE AND FALL OF
PETERSBURG
After the battle of Cold Harbor Grant remained a few days trying
to find a weak place in the Confederate lines. This he abandoned
and resolved to move his army across the James and to Petersburg,
which place is about twenty miles from Richmond, and was
defended by General Beauregard with a small division of the
Confederate army.
Petersburg was at the junction of three railroads, and was a
place of great importance to the Confederacy, as all the supplies of
Lee's army, as well as to Richmond, came by the way of Petersburg,
and for these reasons General Grant resolved to destroy the
railroads, and if possible to capture the city, and thus destroy the
Confederates' source of supplies.
These conditions being well known to Lee, he resolved to defend
Petersburg, and to save it from capture if possible, and thus began
the greatest struggle of its kind known in modern times.
The advance divisions of Grant's army, under Hancock and W. F.
Smith, appeared before Petersburg June 15, 1864. Beauregard
managed to hold the entrenchments with his small force until Lee's
main army arrived, which came by a shorter route than the one
which the Federals had taken. Both armies were in full force before
Petersburg by the evening of the 18th, and the great struggle had
now begun. The Confederate entrenchments extended for thirty
miles, and the whole country was a network of fortifications. Grant
at once began to extend his lines of entrenchments, and thus the
two armies were pitted against each other for their last great

struggle, the army of General Grant numbering more than 100,000
men, while that of General Lee was about half that number.
General Grant turned his attention to trying to destroy the
railroads, and made several attempts with much hard fighting to do
so. But this, having been anticipated by General Lee, he had given to
A. P. Hill the defense and the protection of the railroads, which was
his source of supplies. They were ably protected by General Hill, and
Grant's attacking parties in every instance were repulsed, and these
plans were at length abandoned by him for the present.
The two armies lay facing each other before Petersburg the
entire summer and fall, with several small engagements during the
summer and a few very severe ones.
A severe cavalry engagement was fought at Trevilian Station,
north of Richmond, on June 11th, between the Confederates,
commanded by Generals Hampton and Fitzhugh Lee, and the
Federals, commanded by General Sheridan.
During the latter days of July the Federals were engaged in
digging a mammoth tunnel, beginning in the rear of their
entrenchments and to extend under the Confederate fortifications
before Petersburg, at the completion of which they expected to fill
the same with large quantities of gunpowder which was to be
exploded and was expected to blow up the Confederate
fortifications.
Of all the schemes employed by either army this was the
greatest, and one in which Grant had great faith, and the progress
of which was watched with great anxiety. The Confederates were
apprised of this undertaking, and had made ready by placing several
batteries within their lines so that the fire from the same would
sweep the opening which would be made by the blowing up of the
"crater." At a few minutes past five on the morning of July 30th this
mine was exploded, which was a sight to behold. The Federal troops
who were in waiting to march through the opening were somewhat
delayed from the shock and horror of the explosion, but at length

marched in the opening in great numbers, and by this time the
Confederate batteries were brought into action, which so horribly
swept their ranks, and they were charged by General Mahone with
several divisions of Georgia troops, and the Federal loss became so
great, and their ranks in so much confusion, that they were ordered
to retire within their entrenchments, thus bringing to a dismal failure
the capture of Petersburg by this plan.
BATTLE OF SPOTTSYLVANIA COURT-HOUSE
During the last days of August Grant renewed his plan to destroy
the Weldon railroad. This task was given to General Warren, with a
large force who, after fighting several hard battles with the dashing
Mahone, whose numbers were greatly inferior to that of Warren, and
from his reputation for strategy it is thought that he was very worthy

to wear the mantle of "Stonewall" Jackson, the Federals succeeded
in destroying this railroad in several places.
Grant continued to extend his lines, and by the end of October
he was very near the Southside railroad, and on the 27th fought a
desperate battle with A. P. Hill at Hatcher's Run, in which the
Federals were defeated and retired within their entrenchments
before Petersburg, this being the last engagement of importance
until the coming spring.
The suffering and privation endured by Lee's army during the
winter of 1864 and 1865, while they lay within the defenses of
Petersburg and Richmond with scant clothing and food, can scarcely
be imagined by anyone excepting those who were there. Their
numbers were depleted by sickness and other causes so by the
coming of spring Lee had within his ranks less than 50,000 men.
Lee's lines had been extended until they were so thin that there
was danger of breaking. A. P. Hill held the right, Gordon and
Anderson the center, and Longstreet the left. Late in February
Grant's army was reënforced by General Sheridan from the valley,
and in the last days of March it was further reënforced from General
Butler's army from down the James River.
General Lee began to see the position that he was in with his
army against superior numbers and equipment, and felt that he
must sooner or later evacuate Petersburg, and began to plan a
junction of his army with General Johnston's in North Carolina.
General Grant anticipated this plan of Lee's and began to extend
his lines westward so if possible to cut off Lee's chances of retreat.
Lee determined to make a bold attack on Grant's right, the
objective point being Fort Stedman. This plan was given to General
Gordon to be carried out, which he gallantly did, and captured the
fort, but was unable to hold the same, and retired within the
Confederate lines. His attack and capture of Fort Stedman was
carefully planned and well supported by the main Confederate army.

The battle at Fort Stedman did not interfere with Grant's plan in
extending his lines along the front of the Confederate army, under
General Warren. Lee had sent General Anderson to hold the road
over which he would retreat in the event he was compelled to
evacuate Petersburg.
On the 31st a large Confederate force was at Dinwiddie Court
House, and during that night they took a strong position at Five
Forks, and here on April 1st a hard battle was fought, the Federals
being commanded by Generals Sheridan and Warren. The
Confederates were finally defeated with a loss of 5,000 prisoners.
The Confederates' defeat at Five Forks was a great blow to Lee,
and he immediately began preparations for the evacuation of
Petersburg and Richmond.
On the night of April 1st Grant began his attack all along his
lines, which he kept up the entire night. His cannon threw shells into
the doomed city, and at dawn on April 2d the assault began. The
Federal troops went forward in an impetuous charge through a
storm of grape and canister which was poured into their ranks. The
Confederates fell back within their inner breastworks and the
Federals pushed on the left as far as Hatcher's Run, where they had
a severe engagement in which the Confederate General Pegram was
killed, and another engagement near the Southside railroad in which
General A. P. Hill was killed. His death was an irreparable loss to the
Confederacy. He was one of their able corps commanders, and had
been in all the principal engagements in the East. He played a
distinctive part in the Seven Days' Battles before Richmond; his
timely arrival on the field saved Lee's army from utter rout at
Antietam Creek and turned defeat into partial victory; he was a great
favorite of "Stonewall" Jackson, and took a distinctive part in the
battles of Fredericksburg and Chancellorsville, in which last-named
battle he was near by when "Stonewall" Jackson was mortally
wounded; with his corps was first on the field at Gettysburg; his
corps received the first onslaught of the Federals at the Battle of the
Wilderness; was too sick to command his corps at Spottsylvania

Court House, which was temporarily commanded by General Early;
played a distinctive part at Cold Harbor, and here at Petersburg, on
Sunday, April 2d, the end. He was buried in the cemetery at
Petersburg on the night of April 2d, while the whole country was
being lit up by bursting shells and the hurrying and noise of the
progress of a great battle.
On Sunday morning, April 2d, General Lee notified the
authorities at Richmond that he must evacuate Petersburg at once,
and to notify President Davis of the situation. President Davis was at
St. Paul's Church with several of his cabinet listening to a sermon by
Dr. Minnegerode, speaking of a supper before Gethsemane. The
sexton walked up the isle and handed the President the message,
which he read, and quietly retired from the church, this being
noticeable on account of it being somewhat out of the ordinary,
although they were accustomed to the roar of the cannon at
Petersburg. However, it was soon known that Petersburg and
Richmond were soon to be evacuated, and the service was
dismissed at the church without further announcement.
The city of Richmond was in a state of excitement as the officers
of the government departed from the city on their way to Danville,
and during the night the arsenals were set on fire by the evacuating
troops. The flames spread to a large portion of the city, which was
burned. The next day the city was taken charge of by the Federals.

THE SURRENDER AT APPOMATTOX
We are now to the closing scenes of the greatest civil war of
modern times.
Lee evacuated Petersburg early on the third morning of April,
1865, and retreated toward Amelia Court House.
With the evacuation of Petersburg also fell the city of Richmond.
For nine months Lee's invincible forces had kept a foe more than
twice their numbers from invading their capital.
Lee had ordered supplies for his army to Amelia Court House, for
which they were in sore need, as they had been on little or no
rations for several days, but by some mistake of orders the train of
supplies had been sent on to Richmond. This serious mistake was a
crushing blow to Lee's army, for when his troops reached Amelia
Court House and found no supplies, which had been promised them,
their hopes sank within them. Lee, as well as his officers, had come
to realize that the end of the great war could not be far distant.
Grant's army was hastening in pursuit of that of Lee's, Grant had
sent General Sheridan to flank around Lee's army and get in his
front, so if possible to cut off his chance of escape.
Lee had intended to concentrate his forces at Amelia Court
House, but his whole army did not come up until the evening of the
5th, and on the discovery of his inadequate supplies he began the
march anew toward Farmville, dividing his army so as to secure
supplies from the country over which he passed. In the afternoon of
April 6th Lee's army was overtaken by the Federals and a hard battle
was fought at Sailor's Creek, in which General Richard Ewell, who

was on the rear of Lee's army, was captured with his entire corps,
numbering about 6,000 men.
Lee's main army reached Farmville on the night of the 6th of
April, where they received their first rations within two days, and
near which place a hard battle was fought, in which the
Confederates, under General Mahone, gained a temporary victory.
The retreat was again renewed in the hope of breaking through
the Federal lines, which were rapidly enveloping around them.
During these marches the soldiers were so worn out from hunger,
fatigue, and lack of sufficient clothing in the early spring weather,
that there was much straggling from the army, and many had
thrown their arms away until scarcely one-third of Lee's army was
equipped for battle.
Lee's army reached Appomattox Court House late in the evening
of April 8th, and here found the Federals in their front, and were
compelled to stop and prepare for battle. General Lee and his
officers held a council of war that night and decided to make a
desperate effort to cut through the Federal lines the next morning.
This task was assigned to General Gordon.
On Sunday, the 9th, Gordon made a fierce attack upon the
Federals in his front, but was finally repulsed by overwhelming
numbers, and sent word to General Lee that he could do nothing
further unless he was heavily supported from Longstreet's corps.
With the repulse of Gordon on that morning sank Lee's last hope
of breaking through the Federal lines, and he said there is nothing to
do but see Grant.
Grant had proposed to Lee at Farmville, on the evening of the
7th, terms for the surrender of Lee's army, to which Lee replied that
as much as he desired peace, yet the time certainly had not arrived
for the surrender of the Army of Northern Virginia.
After the repulse of Gordon, on April 9th, Lee soon arranged a
meeting with Grant and a truce was ordered pending negotiations
for the surrender of Lee's army. This meeting took place at the

house of Wilmer McLean at Appomattox Court House, at which place
the terms were finally agreed upon by the two world famous
commanders and were put in writing in the form of a letter from
General Grant to General Lee, and the acceptance of the terms were
written by Lee to Grant in the same form.
It is interesting to know that Wilmer McLean had lived on the
battlefield of Bull Run during the progress of the first battle fought
there, and after the battle moved to Appomattox Court House, and
at his house was negotiated the terms of the surrender of Lee's
army, thus around his premises was fought the first and the last
great battle of the war.
The Confederate officers were allowed to retain their side arms,
and the Confederate soldiers to retain their horses. This was a
welcome concession.
Lee's army numbered less than 28,000 men, which he
surrendered. Of these less than one-third were bearing arms on the
day of surrender.
The Confederate soldiers for some time did not realize that
negotiations for their surrender was on and were expecting and
seemed to be anxious for another battle with General Sheridan in
their front, and were greatly surprised on learning of the
negotiations that had been completed for their surrender.
It was at once apparent to all that the great war was practically
ended.
On the next day the surrender of the army was completed, and
when Lee made his farewell address to his soldiers, who had so
faithfully defended their faith in the Confederacy in all the hard
battles in which they had been engaged, and especially since the
Wilderness campaign, and in the defense of Petersburg and
Richmond in the closing days, where their endurance was the
greatest, and had now come down to the closing scenes at
Appomattox, they were all deeply moved. General Lee, in broken

accents, admonished them to be as brave citizens as they had been
soldiers.
Thus practically ended the greatest civil war in history. Soon
after Lee's surrender the other Confederate forces arranged for their
surrender in quick succession.
It had been a long, bloody and devastating war, and it is said
that there were more Confederate prisoners at Point Lookout alone
than the number with Lee's army at the surrender.
The war closed on a spectacle of ruin the greatest yet known in
America. While the smoke had cleared away, and the roar of the
cannon had ceased, yet there could be heard the wailing of mothers,
widows and orphans throughout both North and South, which is the
greatest costs of so great and devastating war.
The Southern states lay prostrate; their resources gone; their
fields desolate; their cities ruined; the fruits of the toil of generations
all swept to destruction.
The total number of Union soldiers engaged were about a million
and a half. Of this number, 275,000 were either killed in battle, died
of mortal wounds or from disease in camp, and the loss to the
Confederates was approximately the same. In both armies about
400,000 were disabled for life, thus making a grand total loss of
about a million able-bodied men to the country.
At the close of the war over 60,000 Confederate prisoners were
released. The records of the war department shows that 220,000
Confederates were made prisoners in the war. This includes, of
course, the surrender of the armies at the close. Of this number
25,000 died of wounds and disease during their captivity. The
estimated number of Union captives were about 200,000, of whom
40,000 died in captivity.
THE END

Transcribers' Notes
Punctuation and spelling were made consistent when a
predominant preference was found in this book; otherwise they
were not changed.
Simple typographical errors were corrected; occasional
unbalanced quotation marks retained.
Ambiguous hyphens at the ends of lines were retained.
Each page in the chapters of the original book contained
one of the illustrations shown above these notes.
Page 42: "Thoughfare Gap" should be "Thoroughfare Gap".
Page 46: "Court Marshal" was printed that way.
Page 57: "as they shown through the groves" was printed
that way.
Page 58: "in front of its back" probably should be "it".
Page 93: "John Biglow" may be a misprint for "John
Bigelow".

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