Computer networks and its components by narender singh sandhu

Computer Network
Presented By
Mr. Narender Singh Sandhu
(PGDCA, APGDCA, MSc-IT, MCA, M.Phil)
P.G.COLLEGE CHAMBA (H.P)
Email- nssandhumca@gmail.com
whereisnarendersingh@gmail.com
Contact- 7018626528, 09418333592

Introduction
 A computer network is a group of
computers that are connected to each
other for the purpose of communication.
Networks may be classified according
to a wide variety of characteristics. This
article provides a general overview of
types and categories and also presents
the basic components of a network.

 A computer network allows sharing of
resources and information among devices
connected to the network. The Advanced
Research Projects Agency (ARPA) funded
the design of the "Advanced Research
Projects Agency Network" (ARPANET) for
the United States Department of Defense.
It was the first operational computer
network in the world.[1] Development of
the network began in 1969, based on
designs developed during the 1960s. For
a history see ARPANET, the first network.

Connection Method
 Computer networks can be classified according
to the hardware and software technology that is
used to interconnect the individual devices in the
network, such as Optical fiber, Ethernet,
Wireless LAN, HomePNA, Power line
communication or G.hn. Ethernet uses physical
wiring to connect devices. Frequently deployed
devices include hubs, switches, bridges and/or
routers. Wireless LAN technology is designed to
connect devices without wiring. These devices
use radio waves or infrared signals as a
transmission medium.
 ITU-T G.hn technology uses existing home
wiring (coaxial cable, phone lines and power
lines) to create a high-speed (up to 1 Gigabit/s)
local area network.

Wired Technologies
 Twisted-Pair Wire - This is the most widely used medium for
telecommunication. Twisted-pair wires are ordinary telephone wires
which consist of two insulated copper wires twisted into pairs and are
used for both voice and data transmission. The use of two wires twisted
together helps to reduce crosstalk and electromagnetic induction. The
transmission speed ranges from 2 million bits per second to 100 million
bits per second.
 Coaxial Cable – These cables are widely used for cable television
systems, office buildings, and other worksites for local area networks.
The cables consist of copper or aluminum wire wrapped with insulating
layer typically of a flexible material with a high dielectric constant, all of
which are surrounded by a conductive layer. The layers of insulation
help minimize interference and distortion. Transmission speed range
from 200 million to more than 500 million bits per second.
 Fiber Optics – These cables consist of one or more thin filaments of
glass fiber wrapped in a protective layer. It transmits light which can
travel over long distance and higher bandwidths. Fiber-optic cables are
not affected by electromagnetic radiation. Transmission speed could go
up to as high as trillions of bits per second. The speed of fiber optics is
hundreds of times faster than coaxial cables and thousands of times
faster than twisted-pair wire.

Wireless Technologies
 Terrestrial Microwave – Terrestrial microwaves use Earth-based transmitter and
receiver. The equipment look similar to satellite dishes. Terrestrial microwaves
use low-gigahertz range, which limits all communications to line-of-sight. Path
between relay stations spaced approx. 30 miles apart. Microwave antennas are
usually placed on top of buildings, towers, hills, and mountain peaks.
 Communications Satellites – The satellites use microwave radio as their
telecommunications medium which are not deflected by the Earth's atmosphere.
The satellites are stationed in space, typically 22,000 miles above the equator.
These Earth-orbiting systems are capable of receiving and relaying voice, data,
and TV signals.
 Cellular and PCS Systems – Use several radio communications technologies.
The systems are divided to different geographic area. Each area has low-power
transmitter or radio relay antenna device to relay calls from one area to the next
area.
 Wireless LANs – Wireless local area network use a high-frequency radio
technology similar to digital cellular and a low-frequency radio technology.
Wireless LANS use spread spectrum technology to enable communication
between multiple devices in a limited area. Example of open-standard wireless
radio-wave technology is IEEE 802.11b.
 Bluetooth – A short range wireless technology. Operate at approx. 1Mbps with
range from 10 to 100 meters. Bluetooth is an open wireless protocol for data
exchange over short distances.
 The Wireless Web – The wireless web refers to the use of the World Wide Web
through equipments like cellular phones, pagers,PDAs, and other portable
communications devices. The wireless web service offers anytime/anywhere
connection.

Scale
 Networks are often classified as Local Area
Network (LAN), Wide Area Network (WAN),
Metropolitan Area Network (MAN), Personal Area
Network (PAN), Virtual Private Network (VPN),
Campus Area Network (CAN), Storage Area
Network (SAN), etc. depending on their scale,
scope and purpose. Usage, trust levels and access
rights often differ between these types of network -
for example, LANs tend to be designed for internal
use by an organization's internal systems and
employees in individual physical locations (such as
a building), while WANs may connect physically
separate parts of an organization to each other and
may include connections to third parties.

Functional Relationship (Network Architecture)
 Computer networks may be
classified according to the
functional relationships which
exist among the elements of the
network, e.g., Active
Networking, Client-server and
Peer-to-peer (workgroup)
architecture.

Network Topology
 Computer networks may be classified according to the
network topology upon which the network is based, such as
bus network, star network, ring network, mesh network, star-
bus network, tree or hierarchical topology network. Network
topology signifies the way in which devices in the network
see their logical relations to one another. The use of the
term "logical" here is significant. That is, network topology is
independent of the "physical" layout of the network. Even if
networked computers are physically placed in a linear
arrangement, if they are connected via a hub, the network
has a Star topology, rather than a bus topology. In this
regard the visual and operational characteristics of a
network are distinct; the logical network topology is not
necessarily the same as the physical layout. Networks may
be classified based on the method of data used to convey
the data, these include digital and analog networks.

Personal Area Network
 A personal area network (PAN) is a computer
network used for communication among
computer devices close to one person. Some
examples of devices that are used in a PAN are
personal computers, printers, fax machines,
telephones, PDAs, scanners, and even video
game consoles. Such a PAN may include wired
and wireless connections between devices. The
reach of a PAN is typically at least about 20-30
feet (approximately 6-9 meters), but this is
expected to increase with technology
improvements.

Local Area Network
 A local Area Network (LAN) is a computer network covering a small physical area, like a
home, office, or small group of buildings, such as a school, or an airport. Current wired
LANs are most likely to be based on Ethernet technology, although new standards like
ITU-T G.hn also provide a way to create a wired LAN using existing home wires (coaxial
cables, phone lines and power lines)[2].
 For example, a library may have a wired or wireless LAN for users to interconnect local
devices (e.g., printers and servers) and to connect to the internet. On a wired LAN, PCs in
the library are typically connected by category 5 (Cat5) cable, running the IEEE 802.3
protocol through a system of interconnected devices and eventually connect to the
Internet. The cables to the servers are typically on Cat 5e enhanced cable, which will
support IEEE 802.3 at 1 Gbit/s. A wireless LAN may exist using a different IEEE protocol,
802.11b, 802.11g or possibly 802.11n. The staff computers (bright green in the figure) can
get to the color printer, checkout records, and the academic network and the Internet. All
user computers can get to the Internet and the card catalog. Each workgroup can get to its
local printer. Note that the printers are not accessible from outside their workgroup.
 Typical library network, in a branching tree topology and controlled access to resources
 All interconnected devices must understand the network layer (layer 3), because they are
handling multiple subnets (the different colors). Those inside the library, which have only
10/100 Mbit/s Ethernet connections to the user device and a Gigabit Ethernet connection
to the central router, could be called "layer 3 switches" because they only have Ethernet
interfaces and must understand IP. It would be more correct to call them access routers,
where the router at the top is a distribution router that connects to the Internet and
academic networks' customer access routers.
 The defining characteristics of LANs, in contrast to WANs (Wide Area Networks), include
their higher data transfer rates, smaller geographic range, and lack of a need for leased
telecommunication lines. Current Ethernet or other IEEE 802.3 LAN technologies operate
at speeds up to 10 Gbit/s. This is the data transfer rate. IEEE has projects investigating the
standardization of 40 and 100 Gbit/s.[3]

Campus Area Network
 A campus area network (CAN) is a computer network made up of an
interconnection of local area networks (LANs) within a limited
geographical area. It can be considered one form of a metropolitan
area network, specific to an academic setting.
 In the case of a university campus-based campus area network, the
network is likely to link a variety of campus buildings including;
academic departments, the university library and student residence
halls. A campus area network is larger than a local area network but
smaller than a wide area network (WAN) (in some cases).
 The main aim of a campus area network is to facilitate students
accessing internet and university resources. This is a network that
connects two or more LANs but that is limited to a specific and
contiguous geographical area such as a college campus, industrial
complex, office building, or a military base. A CAN may be considered a
type of MAN (metropolitan area network), but is generally limited to a
smaller area than a typical MAN. This term is most often used to
discuss the implementation of networks for a contiguous area. This
should not be confused with a Controller Area Network. A LAN connects
network devices over a relatively short distance. A networked office
building, school, or home usually contains a single LAN, though
sometimes one building will contain a few small LANs (perhaps one per
room), and occasionally a LAN will span a group of nearby buildings.

Computer networks and its components by narender singh sandhu

Metropolitan Area
Network
 A metropolitan area network (MAN) is a
network that connects two or more local
area networks or campus area
networks together but does not extend
beyond the boundaries of the
immediate town/city. Routers, switches
and hubs are connected to create a
metropolitan area network.

Wide Area Network
 A wide area network (WAN) is a computer network that covers a
broad area (i.e. any network whose communications links cross
metropolitan, regional, or national boundaries [1]). Less formally,
a WAN is a network that uses routers and public communications
links. Contrast with personal area networks (PANs), local area
networks (LANs), campus area networks (CANs), or metropolitan
area networks (MANs), which are usually limited to a room,
building, campus or specific metropolitan area (e.g., a city)
respectively. The largest and most well-known example of a
WAN is the Internet. A WAN is a data communications network
that covers a relatively broad geographic area (i.e. one city to
another and one country to another country) and that often uses
transmission facilities provided by common carriers, such as
telephone companies. WAN technologies generally function at
the lower three layers of the OSI reference model: the physical
layer, the data link layer, and the network layer.

Global Area Network
 A global area networks (GAN) (see also IEEE
802.20) specification is in development by
several groups, and there is no common
definition. In general, however, a GAN is a
model for supporting mobile communications
across an arbitrary number of wireless LANs,
satellite coverage areas, etc. The key
challenge in mobile communications is
"handing off" the user communications from
one local coverage area to the next. In IEEE
Project 802, this involves a succession of
terrestrial WIRELESS local area networks
(WLAN).[4]

Virtual Private Network
 A virtual private network (VPN) is a computer network in which
some of the links between nodes are carried by open
connections or virtual circuits in some larger network (e.g., the
Internet) instead of by physical wires. The data link layer
protocols of the virtual network are said to be tunneled through
the larger network when this is the case. One common
application is secure communications through the public Internet,
but a VPN need not have explicit security features, such as
authentication or content encryption. VPNs, for example, can be
used to separate the traffic of different user communities over an
underlying network with strong security features.
 A VPN may have best-effort performance, or may have a defined
service level agreement (SLA) between the VPN customer and
the VPN service provider. Generally, a VPN has a topology more
complex than point-to-point.
 A VPN allows computer users to appear to be editing from an IP
address location other than the one which connects the actual
computer to the Internet.

Internet Work
 An Internetwork is the connection of two or more distinct computer
networks or network segments via a common routing technology. The
result is called an internetwork (often shortened to internet). Two or
more networks or network segments connect using devices that
operate at layer 3 (the 'network' layer) of the OSI Basic Reference
Model, such as a router. Any interconnection among or between public,
private, commercial, industrial, or governmental networks may also be
defined as an internetwork.
 In modern practice, interconnected networks use the Internet Protocol.
There are at least three variants of internetworks, depending on who
administers and who participates in them:
 Intranet
 Extranet
 Internet
 Intranets and extranets may or may not have connections to the
Internet. If connected to the Internet, the intranet or extranet is normally
protected from being accessed from the Internet without proper
authorization. The Internet is not considered to be a part of the intranet
or extranet, although it may serve as a portal for access to portions of
an extranet.

Intranet
 An intranet is a set of networks, using the
Internet Protocol and IP-based tools such
as web browsers and file transfer
applications, that is under the control of a
single administrative entity. That
administrative entity closes the intranet to
all but specific, authorized users. Most
commonly, an intranet is the internal
network of an organization. A large
intranet will typically have at least one web
server to provide users with organizational
information.

Extranet
 An extranet is a network or internet work that is
limited in scope to a single organization or entity
and also has limited connections to the networks of
one or more other usually, but not necessarily,
trusted organizations or entities (e.g., a company's
customers may be given access to some part of its
intranet creating in this way an extranet, while at the
same time the customers may not be considered
'trusted' from a security standpoint). Technically, an
extranet may also be categorized as a CAN, MAN,
WAN, or other type of network, although, by
definition, an extranet cannot consist of a single
LAN; it must have at least one connection with an
external network.

Internet
 The Internet consists of a worldwide interconnection of
governmental, academic, public, and private networks based
upon the networking technologies of the Internet Protocol Suite.
It is the successor of the Advanced Research Projects Agency
Network (ARPANET) developed by DARPA of the U.S.
Department of Defense. The Internet is also the communications
backbone underlying the World Wide Web (WWW). The 'Internet'
is most commonly spelled with a capital 'I' as a proper noun, for
historical reasons and to distinguish it from other generic
internetworks.
 Participants in the Internet use a diverse array of methods of
several hundred documented, and often standardized, protocols
compatible with the Internet Protocol Suite and an addressing
system (IP Addresses) administered by the Internet Assigned
Numbers Authority and address registries. Service providers and
large enterprises exchange information about the reachability of
their address spaces through the Border Gateway Protocol
(BGP), forming a redundant worldwide mesh of transmission
paths.

 All networks are made up of basic
hardware building blocks to interconnect
network nodes, such as Network Interface
Cards (NICs), Bridges, Hubs, Switches,
and Routers. In addition, some method of
connecting these building blocks is
required, usually in the form of galvanic
cable (most commonly Category 5 cable).
Less common are microwave links (as in
IEEE 802.12) or optical cable ("optical
fiber"). An Ethernet card may also be
required.

Network Interface Cards
 A network card, network adapter, or NIC
(network interface card) is a piece of
computer hardware designed to allow
computers to communicate over a
computer network. It provides physical
access to a networking medium and
often provides a low-level addressing
system through the use of MAC
addresses.

Repeaters
 A repeater is an electronic device that
receives a signal, clean it from the
unnecessary noise, regenerate it and
retransmits it at a higher power level, or
to the other side of an obstruction, so
that the signal can cover longer
distances without degradation. In most
twisted pair Ethernet configurations,
repeaters are required for cable which
runs longer than 100 meters.

Hubs
A network hub contains multiple
ports. When a packet arrives at
one port, it is copied unmodified
to all ports of the hub for
transmission. The destination
address in the frame is not
changed to a broadcast address

Bridges
 A network bridge connects multiple network segments at the data link
layer (layer 2) of the OSI model. Bridges do not promiscuously copy
traffic to all ports, as hubs do, but learn which MAC addresses are
reachable through specific ports. Once the bridge associates a port and
an address, it will send traffic for that address only to that port. Bridges
do send broadcasts to all ports except the one on which the broadcast
was received.
 Bridges learn the association of ports and addresses by examining the
source address of frames that it sees on various ports. Once a frame
arrives through a port, its source address is stored and the bridge
assumes that MAC address is associated with that port. The first time
that a previously unknown destination address is seen, the bridge will
forward the frame to all ports other than the one on which the frame
arrived.
 Bridges come in three basic types:
 Local bridges: Directly connect local area networks (LANs)
 Remote bridges: Can be used to create a wide area network (WAN) link
between LANs. Remote bridges, where the connecting link is slower
than the end networks, largely have been replaced with routers.
 Wireless bridges: Can be used to join LANs or connect remote stations
to LANs

Switches
 A network switch is a device that forwards and filters OSI layer 2
datagrams (chunk of data communication) between ports
(connected cables) based on the MAC addresses in the
packets.[6] This is distinct from a hub in that it only forwards the
frames to the ports involved in the communication rather than all
ports connected. A switch breaks the collision domain but
represents itself a broadcast domain. Switches make forwarding
decisions of frames on the basis of MAC addresses. A switch
normally has numerous ports, facilitating a star topology for
devices, and cascading additional switches.[7] Some switches
are capable of routing based on Layer 3 addressing or additional
logical levels; these are called multi-layer switches. The term
switch is used loosely in marketing to encompass devices
including routers and bridges, as well as devices that may
distribute traffic on load or by application content (e.g., a Web
URL identifier).

Routers
 A router is a networking device that
forwards packets between networks using
information in protocol headers and
forwarding tables to determine the best
next router for each packet. Routers work
at the Network Layer (layer 3) of the OSI
model and the Internet Layer of TCP/IP.

The Advantages (Benefits) of Networking
 You have undoubtedly heard the “the whole is greater than the
sum of its parts”. This phrase describes networking very well,
and explains why it has become so popular. A network isn't just a
bunch of computers with wires running between them. Properly
implemented, a network is a system that provides its users with
unique capabilities, above and beyond what the individual
machines and their software applications can provide.
 Most of the benefits of networking can be divided into two
generic categories: connectivity and sharing. Networks allow
computers, and hence their users, to be connected together.
They also allow for the easy sharing of information and
resources, and cooperation between the devices in other ways.
Since modern business depends so much on the intelligent flow
and management of information, this tells you a lot about why
networking is so valuable.
 Here, in no particular order, are some of the specific advantages
generally associated with networking:

 Connectivity and Communication: Networks connect computers and the users of those
computers. Individuals within a building or work group can be connected into local area
networks (LANs); LANs in distant locations can be interconnected into larger wide area
networks (WANs). Once connected, it is possible for network users to communicate with
each other using technologies such as electronic mail. This makes the transmission of
business (or non-business) information easier, more efficient and less expensive than it
would be without the network.
 Data Sharing: One of the most important uses of networking is to allow the sharing of
data. Before networking was common, an accounting employee who wanted to prepare a
report for her manager would have to produce it on his PC, put it on a floppy disk, and then
walk it over to the manager, who would transfer the data to her PC's hard disk. (This sort of
“shoe-based network” was sometimes sarcastically called a “sneakernet”.)
True networking allows thousands of employees to share data much more easily and
quickly than this. More so, it makes possible applications that rely on the ability of many
people to access and share the same data, such as databases, group software
development, and much more. Intranets and extranets can be used to distribute corporate
information between sites and to business partners.
 Hardware Sharing: Networks facilitate the sharing of hardware devices. For example,
instead of giving each of 10 employees in a department an expensive color printer (or
resorting to the “sneakernet” again), one printer can be placed on the network for everyone
to share.
 Internet Access: The Internet is itself an enormous network, so whenever you access the
Internet, you are using a network. The significance of the Internet on modern society is
hard to exaggerate, especially for those of us in technical fields.

 Internet Access Sharing: Small computer networks allow multiple users to share a single
Internet connection. Special hardware devices allow the bandwidth of the connection to be
easily allocated to various individuals as they need it, and permit an organization to
purchase one high-speed connection instead of many slower ones.
 Data Security and Management: In a business environment, a network allows the
administrators to much better manage the company's critical data. Instead of having this
data spread over dozens or even hundreds of small computers in a haphazard fashion as
their users create it, data can be centralized on shared servers. This makes it easy for
everyone to find the data, makes it possible for the administrators to ensure that the data is
regularly backed up, and also allows for the implementation of security measures to control
who can read or change various pieces of critical information.
 Performance Enhancement and Balancing: Under some circumstances, a network can
be used to enhance the overall performance of some applications by distributing the
computation tasks to various computers on the network.
 Entertainment: Networks facilitate many types of games and entertainment. The Internet
itself offers many sources of entertainment, of course. In addition, many multi-player
games exist that operate over a local area network. Many home networks are set up for
this reason, and gaming across wide area networks (including the Internet) has also
become quite popular. Of course, if you are running a business and have easily-amused
employees, you might insist that this is really a disadvantage of networking and not an
advantage!

Advantages are as follows:
 You can be afforded an opportunity not yet advertised therefore
reducing the competition significantly.
 A job may be specifically created for you based on an employer’s
requirement.
 You are in the enviable position of focussing attention on the qualities
and strengths you possess.
 Networking provides social contact and stimulation.
 Rather than having to make a cold call or attend an interview with
people who are unknown to you, you will have a referral that will make
the process easier.
 Openings are created for you to be opportunistic and flexible. You must
actively listen to the communication that is going on around you.
 Networking is a two way process that can enable you to help others.
 Networking is a proactive job search method.
 Networking puts you in control, setting your own pace and course. It is
less stressful than sifting through tons of advertisements and is far
more productive over time.
 Unfortunately as in all aspects of life, networking has its disadvantages
too.

Disadvantages are as follows:
 While networking is a very effective technique one
must always be aware of the possibility of
indiscretion. Choose your contacts wisely and
ensure that you maintain confidentiality at all times.
 Networking can be a waiting game where you have
to wait it out patiently for the right opportunity or the
right contact to come available.
 To weigh it up you can clearly see that the
advantages greatly outweigh the disadvantages. Put
your thoughts together and develop a networking
contact list and begin this proactive process and
take control of your job search.

Thanks
Presented By
Mr. Narender Singh Sandhu
(PGDCA, APGDCA, MSc-IT, MCA, M.Phil)
P.G.COLLEGE CHAMBA (H.P)
E-Mail- nssandhumca@gmail.com
whereisnarendersingh@gmail.com
Contact- 7018626528, 09418333592

Computer networks and its components by narender singh sandhu

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