Contruction Technology Report (Scaffolding)

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Table of Content pg.1
1. Introduction pg. 2 – 3
1.1. What is Scaffolding? pg. 2
1.2. Competent and Qualified Person pg. 3
2. Components of Scaffolding pg. 4 – 6
2.1. Standard pg. 4
2.2. Ledgers pg. 4
2.3. Transoms pg. 5
2.4. Scaffold fittings pg. 5 – 6
3. Materials of Scaffolding pg. 7 – 8
3.1. Tubular Steel pg. 7
3.2. Aluminium Alloy pg. 8
3.3. Timber pg. 8
4. Types of Scaffolding pg. 9 – 17
4.1. Supported Scaffolding pg. 9 – 11
4.2. Tube and Coupler Scaffolding pg. 12 – 14
4.3. Suspended Scaffolding pg. 15 – 17
5. Methodology of Scaffolding (Frame Scaffolding) pg. 18
6. Case Study – Safety Precautions of Frame Scaffolding in Malaysia pg.19 – 23
6.1. Introduction pg.19 – 20
6.2. Root Causes of Scaffolding Accidents pg. 21 – 23
7. Conclusion pg. 24
References pg. 25 – 26
Appendices pg. 27 – 30

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1. Introduction
1.1. What is Scaffolding?
Scaffolding in building construction is a temporary platform constructed for supporting
workers and holding materials during the process of construction, maintenance, repair, or
cleaning of building or other structure. Scaffolding aids safety of workers and allow access to
areas that are hard to reach. It contains one or more planks of different size and length, with
several methods of support, ranging from simple to complex design, depending on the
usage.
Since ancient times, scaffolding has been existing and being used. Evidence of the
ancient Egyptians using the help of scaffolding for their pyramids construction had been
found by the historians. There are rules and guidelines for scaffolding construction that have
to be followed by the construction companies in the current construction industry. Many
construction workmen, painters, and building maintenance crews are working on the
scaffolding, and due to the nature of its use, the construction companies must follow the
rules properly to provide a safe platform to work and a safe access to the materials required.
Construction site workers should also be trained to use the scaffolding. If proper training is
not provided, those who works on scaffolding are at risk for falls and falling objects which
could lead to severe or even fatal injuries.
Figure 1.1 Frame Scaffolding
Source http://jtbsafetyresources.com/scaffolding-training#/oil_and_gas_safety_services/

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1.2. Competent and Qualified Person
The terms “competent person” and “qualified person” are created by the federal
OSHA (Occupational Safety and Health Administration) to label those who are able to
evaluate unsafe conditions and mechanical systems, examine equipment, and also train the
others to work safely.
1.2.1 The Competent Person
The competent person is an individual who is able to evaluate unsafe working
environments and has authorization to take quick corrective measures to eliminate them
(Brasch, n.d.). The individual is in charge of supervising all assembly, disassembly, and
movement of scaffolding. Erectors and dismantlers must be trained by the competent person
to recognize hazards associated with their work. He must have the knowledge of the
requirements which are relevant to the types of scaffolds used. The competent person
should always decide if it is safe to work on scaffolds during bad weathers. He must also
have the sufficient knowledge to determine whether scaffold components made of different
metals or made by different manufacturers can be used together. Lastly, the competent
person has to identify the causes of deteriorated scaffold components and fix or replace
them.
1.2.2. The Qualified Person
A qualified person is someone who has an acknowledged degree, or has broad
knowledge, training, and experience, and has the capability to solve problems associated to
the job. The individual does not have to be a registered professional engineer. Scaffolds
must be planned by a qualified person and have to be built and loaded depending on the
design.

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2. Components of Scaffolding
There are three general elements of scaffolding which are standard, ledgers and
transoms.
2.1. Standard
A standard is a long pipe or tube that links the overall weight of the scaffold straight
to the ground, and it runs the full span of the scaffolding.
Figure 2.1 Different lengths of standards
Source http://metecmetal.en.made-in-china.com/product/xeIJEhZHgwcA/China-Cuplock-
Scaffolding-System-Standard.html
2.2 Ledgers
A ledger is the base of each standard that is linked to a base plate, which helps
allocate the weight of each standard bears. The main function of ledgers is to add further
support and weight distribution of the scaffolding.
Figure 2.2 Ledgers
Source http://www.australianscaffolds.com.au/KWIKSTAGE.html

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2.3. Transoms
There are two types of transforms, main transoms and intermediate
transoms. Main transoms provide support for standards by holding them in position as well
as supporting boards while intermediate transoms are placed alongside main transoms to
lend additional board support (Unknown, 2014).
2.4. Scaffold fittings
Scaffolding fittings are usually made out of steel or aluminium alloy. The following
are the major scaffold fittings:
2.4.1. Double Coupler
Serve as the connecting component of ledgers and standards. It is the only scaffold
fitting that bears load.
Figure 2.3 Double Coupler for scaffolding
Source http://czyueyang.en.made-in-china.com/product/JqZEzPLoYIhg/China-Scaffolding-
Pipe-Coupler-Double-Coupler-KZ48-1-.html
2.4.2. Swivel Coupler
Consists of two single couplers that can be reverted to make it possible to be rotated
and this allows scaffold tubes to connect to it at any angles.
Figure 2.4 Swivel Coupler
Source http://www.qrbiz.com/buy_american-type-forged-swivel-coupler

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2.4.3. Putlog Coupler
Used exclusively for setting putlogs or transoms to the horizontal ledgers.
Figure 2.5 Putlog Coupler
Source http://www.cyruscorporation.co/putlog-coupler-1310069.html
2.4.4. Base Plate
A square plate that distributes the load of the scaffolding from the foot of a standard
onto a sole plate or firm ground. Base plates can be obtained with a threaded spigot and nut
for use on sloping sites to make up variations in levels (Chudley, 1996).
Figure 2.6 Scaffolding Base Plate
Source http://www.badgerladder.com/steel-base-plate/
2.4.5. Split Joint Pin
Joins scaffold tube from one end to another. A centre bolt expands the two parts
which hold on the bore of the tubes.
2.4.6. Reveal Pin
In order to form an adjustable strut, reveal pin fits into the end of a tube.
2.4.7. Putlog End
A flat plate which fits on the end of a scaffold tube to convert into a putlog (Chudley,
1996).

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3. Materials of Scaffolding
Typically, materials of scaffolding consist of tubular steel, tubular aluminum alloy and
timber.
3.1. Tubular Steel
According to British Standard 1139, welded and seamless steel tubes shall have an
external diameter of 48mm and a bore diameter of 38mm. The steel tubes can be either
galvanized or ungalvanized. After each usage, ungalvanized steel tubes have to be
maintained by painting or oil bath. One of the major flaws of tubular steel is its weight. It is
three times heavier compared to aluminum alloy tubes. However, tubular steels are much
more durable than aluminum alloy tubes.
Figure 3.1 Steel pipe for scaffolding
Source http://www.ec21.com/product-details/Scaffolding-Steel-Pipe-Scaffold-Scaffolding--
4359673.html

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3.2. Aluminum Alloy
According to British Standard 1139, aluminum alloy tubes with an external diameter
of 48mm are compulsory for metal scaffolding. Aluminum alloy tube have to be painted with
bitumastic paint before use in order to prevent corrosion after coming in contact with wer
cement and damp lime.
Figure 3.2 Aluminum Alloy Scaffolding Plank
Source http://www.alibaba.com/products-directory/recommended-aluminium-alloy-scaffolding.
html
3.3. Timber
Timber is used in both putlog and independent scaffolding and is used extensively in
many developing countries but is rare in developed country such as United Kingdom. When
timber is used as a scaffolding material, coupling fittings are being replaced by wire or rope.
Timbers are being lashed together with the wire or rope.
Figure 3.3 Timber Scaffolding
Source http://formworkblog.com/public/965

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4. Types of Scaffolding
Generally, there are three main types of scaffolding which are supported scaffolding,
suspended scaffolding and aerial lifts.
4.1. Supported Scaffolding
Supported scaffolds consist of one or more platforms supported by outrigger beams,
brackets, poles, legs, uprights, posts, frames, or similar rigid support (OSHA, n.d.). It is built
from base to upward. (Formark Scaffolding, 2013). Below are the common used types of
supported scaffolding.
4.1.1. Framed Scaffolding
It is one of the most commonly used type of scaffolding in Malaysia’s construction
industry. Framed scaffoldings are the platforms supported on fabricated end frames with
integral posts, horizontal bearers, and intermediate members. It is the most common type of
scaffold because they are versatile, economical, and easy to use. Their modular frames can
be stacked several stories high for use on large-scale construction jobs. As frames are
stacked, cross braces must be of such length as will automatically keep the scaffold plumb,
level and square. Frames and panels must be locked together to prevent up uplift. Uplift is
the separation of a frame from the frame below it.
The figures below show the examples of framed scaffolding that are being used in
several construction sites in Malaysia.
Figure 4.1 Framed Scaffolding in a Construction Site at Malacca.
Source Lee Qian Ying

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Figure 4.2 Framed Scaffolding in a Construction Site in Malacca.
Figure 4.3 Framed Scaffolding in a Construction Site in Bandar Kinrara, Puchong.
Source Tan Kai Sin

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4.1.2. Mobile Scaffolding
Mobile scaffolding also known as mobile access tower is another type of scaffolding
that can be commonly seen in Malaysia. Mobile scaffolding is a type of unpowered, portable,
caster-or wheel-mounted supported scaffold. It is used to gain access to buildings for
maintenance and repair. It has at least one platform to work and at least four legs and each
is fitted with castor. It moves on only hard ground surface or concrete floor.
Figure 4.4 Mobile Scaffolding in a Café at Taylor’s University that is Undergoing
Renovations.

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4.2. Tube and Coupler Scaffolding
There are two types of scaffolding under tube and coupler scaffolding which are
independent scaffolding and putlog scaffolding.
4.2.1. Independent Scaffolding
An autonomous tied platform comprises of two columns of principles, each one line
parallel. The internal column is situated as near the building as useful, with just enough room
to consider an inside board between within norms and the building. The separation between
within benchmarks and the outside norms will be controlled by the quantity of sheets
needed.
Records are settled to the norms utilizing right-hand couplers and the records, in the same
way as the guidelines, are altered parallel to the building. Transoms are settled to the
measures (where conceivable) utilizing right-hand couplers or to the records utilizing putlog
couplers. Props are settled slanting to the records or norms. Influence propping or
longitudinal supporting is settled to the models over the substance of the framework.
The dispersing of the models to structure the inlet length relies on upon the tallness
and stacking of the platform. The dividing of the records or the lift tallness is regularly 2
meters yet in specific circumstances lifts may be more noteworthy, gave the gauges are
equipped for supporting the heap.
Figure 4.5 Independent Scaffolding
Source http://www.rubo-serwis.
pl/en/media/uploaded/produkty/rusztowania/modulowe/basic-elements-of-modular-scaffolding.
jpg

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The following are the different types of independent scaffoldings which are being
used for different purposes:
Inspection and Very Light Duty
 Maximum of one working platform
 Not less than three boards wide
 Maximum bay length of 2.7 metres
 Maximum loading of 75 kg/m2
Light Duty (painting, pointing, etc.)
 Maximum of two working platforms
 Minimum width of four boards
General Purpose (brickwork, plastering, etc.)
 Minimum width of five boards
 Maximum bay length of 2 metres
Heavy Duty (brickwork, blockwork, etc.)
 Minimum of five boards wide
 Maximum bay length of 2 metres
Masonry or Special Duty (masonry, cladding, etc.)
 Maximum of one working platform
 Minimum of six to eight boards wide
 Maximum loading of 300 kg

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4.2.2. Putlog Scaffolding
Putlog scaffolding is consists of a single row of standards set away from the wall
at 1.25m or 1.30m. The standards are connected by a ledger fixed with right angle
couplers and the putlogs are fixed to the ledgers using putlog couplers. It erected as the
building rises. It is mostly used for brick construction. The putlog scaffolding is partly
supported by the building.
There are difference in loadings and spacing for differences purposes:
General Purpose
 Maximum Standard Spacing 2.1 M
 Maximum Loading 2.0 kN
Heavy Duty:
 Maximum Standard Spacing 2 M
 Maximum Loading 2.5 kN
 Average height of lifts 1.35 M approx..
 Maximum height 50 M (unless designed)
Figure 4.6 Putlog Scaffolding
Source http://www.tubitt.com/gifs/putlog2.gif

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4.3. Suspended Scaffolding
Suspended scaffolding also known as hanging scaffolding is platform hang from
an overhead structure. It is used when it is impossible to construct scaffolding from floor
to upper level but access to an upper level is required. It is usually used for maintenance
works or cleaning work for an existing building. There are several types of suspended
scaffolding.
Figure 4.7 All types of suspended scaffoldings.
Source https://www.osha.gov/SLTC/etools/scaffolding/images/suspended.jpg

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4.3.1. Single-point adjustable
Platform supported by one rope from overhead support and equipped to allow
workers access to required working level. For example, by window washers clean on
skyscrapers.
4.3.2. Two- point adjustable
It is the most common type of suspended scaffolding. The platform supported by
hangers (stirrups) suspended by two ropes from overhead supports and equipped with a
means to permit the platform to be raised and lowered.
4.3.3. Catenary
Platform supported by two horizontal and parallel ropes attached to structural
members of a building.
4.3.4. Multi-point adjustable
More than two ropes to support the platform from overhead structure and
equipped to allow the platform raised or lowered. It included chimney hoist. “Chimney
hoists mean a temporary hoist used for transport personnel”. For example, used for
chimney-cleaning.
4.3.5. Interior hung
Fixed- length supports platform from the ceiling or roof structure.
4.3.6. Needle beam
Platform which supported from needle beam attached to a permanent structure.
4.3.7. Multi-level
Multi-point adjustable scaffolding is which at various level resting on common
stirrups.
4.3.8. Float (Ship)
It is consist of a braced platform resting on two parallel bearers and hung from
overhead supports by ropes of fixed length.

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4.3.9. Aerial Lifts
Aerial lifts are not commonly used in Malaysia’s construction industry. It is a
vehicle-mounted aerial device. It may be made of metal, fiberglass-reinforced plastic or
other materials. Aerial lifts is used when there are some levels or height are hard to
reach.
Figure 4.8 Aerial Lift
Source http://blakleyequipment.com/images/boomLift.jpg

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5. Methodology of Scaffolding (Frame Scaffolding)
STEP 1
Sole plates that are suitable are selected and their positions are being set out.
Unless the surface is concrete or other firm surfaces, the sole plates should be bedded
as level as possible.
STEP 2
2 people are needed for this step. One individual is needed to hold a unit frame
of scaffolding while the other one is needed to screw jack set to the lowest adjustment,
fitted inside the base of each leg or standard. Each ends of a folding brace to one frame
on one side. After that, attach the other end of the brace to the other unit frame on
the same side.
STEP 3
Another brace is fitted on the other side of the bay. The levels of both sides
are adjusted using the adjustable screw jacks. Then, a plank or a straight edge is
placed on top of the frames to enable the levelling of the bay.
STEP 4
The working platform is decked with planks to the full length of the scaffolding.
Height coupler is inserted to connect the next unit frame and the previous 3 steps are
repeated in order to install an additional lift. The working platform should be fully
decked out, toe boards fit, hand rails fitted, additional bracing or outriggers fitted if
required and the whole scaffolding is checked for completion after the desired height
(maximum 4 metres) is reached.

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6. Case Study – Safety Precautions of Frame Scaffolding in Malaysia
6.1. Introduction
One of the major contributors of a country’s economic development is the
construction industry. However, Dayang, N.M.A.A. and Chai, G.M.W. (2010, p1)
concluded that according to their provided statistics the construction industry is also one
of the major contributors when it comes to deadly accidents. Quite a number of the fatal
construction related accidents involves the scaffolding. The figure provided by
Malaysia’s Department of Occupational Safety and Health (DOSH) shows the
occupational accidents by sector until June 2014. The construction industry is one of the
sectors that contributed to the most numbers of occupational accidents.
Figure 5.1 Occupational Accidents by Sector until June 2014.
Source
http://www.dosh.gov.my/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=1225&Itemid=
545&lang=en

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In Malaysia’s construction industry, one of the most commonly used types of
scaffolding is frame scaffolding. According to Occupational Safety and Health
Administration (OSHA), there are several guidelines that must be followed when it
comes to scaffolding use in the construction industry. Unfortunately, the guidelines are
not fully followed by the individuals who are involved in the construction industry. The
following table provides the statistics of fatal construction accidents that involves
scaffolding from year 2007 to 2008 that were being recorded by DOSH.
Date Case Location
11 January 2007 Scaffolding Collapse Construction Site,
Kuala Lumpur.
20 August 2007 Fall from Scaffolding Construction Site,
Negeri Sembilan.
5 May 2008 Struck by Scaffolding Frame Construction Site,
Selangor.
28 July 2008 Slip from Platform Construction Site,
Johor.
25 August 2008 Struck by Scaffolding Construction Site,
Kuala Lumpur.
Table 1.1 Statistics of Fatal Construction Accidents That Involves Scaffolding from Year
2007 to 2008.
Source Department of Occupational Safety and Health, Ministry of
Human Resources, 2009.

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6.2. Root Causes of Scaffolding Accidents
6.2.1. Lack of Proper Training
One of the mutual roots of accidents related to scaffolding is that the employees
or workers were not well trained. They fail to identify and avoid the hazards. They are
lack of knowledge on how to shield themselves from the accidents.
Although some employers may have already provided their employees to receive
formal training, however as majority of Malaysia’s construction workers consist of foreign
worker form countries like Bangladesh for instance, they may have problem in fully
understanding the training program as these programs are usually conducted in either
Bahasa Malaysia or English. Neither of these two languages clearly isn’t their mother
tongue.
OSHA (2002) concluded that employers must train each employee who works on
a scaffold on the hazards and the procedures to control the hazards. Therefore, the
employers have the responsibilities to provide a sufficient amount of training to the
employees in order to raise their awareness in the possible dangers that they could
expose themselves into if they do not follow the provided safety precaution guidelines
especially when it comes to scaffolding. Without proper training, the employees would
not be able to identify the life-threatening fall hazards and dangers.
In the figure below, a worker at a construction site in Bandar Kinrara, Puchong
who was working on a scaffolding, exposed himself into danger by stepping on a timber
formwork which the length of it was extended beyond the scaffolding, if he took a wrong
step and stepped on the edge of the timber formwork, he might fall and suffered from
deadly injuries as he did not wear a safety belt.
Figure 5.2 The worker was not aware of the danger he exposed himself into
Source Tan Kai Sin

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6.2.2. Unsafe Site Condition
Poor housekeeping of the construction site may result in hazardous site
condition, eventually exposing the construction worker to fatal dangers. OSHA (2002)
provided that each platform must be planked and decked as fully as possible with the
space between the platform and uprights not more than 2.5 centimetres wide and
scaffold planking must be able to support, without failure, its own weight and at least four
times the intended load.
The figure below shows that a piece of chipped timber is being used as the
scaffolding platform at a LRT construction site at Bandar Kinrara, Puchong. This clearly
is violating the guideline being set out by OSHA. A piece of chipped timber obviously is
not capable enough to the weight of a worker and the tools that are being carried by him
or her. If the platform collapses, the worker who is working on it at that time barely has
any chances to survive.
Figure 5.3 Chipped timber plank being used as scaffolding platform
Source Tan Kai Sin

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6.2.3. Safety Equipment Not Provided
Besides providing sufficient training, the employer also has the responsibility to
provide safety equipment for the employees in order to reduce the hazards working on
sites. North California State University’s Environmental and Public Safety Department
(2014) concluded the points that shall be kept in mind when working on scaffolding as
the following:
 Hard hats are required gear whether you are working on scaffolding or near one.
 When working on a scaffold, wear non-skid shoes.
 When working on swinging scaffolds, use a safety belt attached to either a
secure line or to a structure - not to the scaffold.
However, some employers did not provide all the safety equipment that is being
stated above. The figure below show two construction workers who are working on a
scaffolding. The only safety equipment that they have on is the safety helmets. They are
not wearing non-skid shoes and safety belts.
Figure 5.4 Construction Workers Not Provided with Safety Equipment
Source Tan Kai Sin

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7. Conclusion
After careful observations of several different construction sites in Malaysia, we
came into a conclusion that scaffolding related accidents are mainly resulted by three
causes which are lack of proper training, unsafe side condition and safety equipment not
provided. These causes are all results of negligence of the employers towards their
employees’ safety.
In order to ensure the safety of the scaffolding user, the process of building up
the scaffoldings has to be supervised by the titled person. The scaffolding must be
installed following to the scheme of professional engineer. Before the erection of the
scaffolding, all of the components must be thoroughly checked and examined that they
are in good condition and free of rust.
During the period on construction, the scaffoldings used on site must be checked
regularly at least once a month to ensure the safety of the scaffolding users.
Furthermore, the main contractor has to conduct hazard calculation on the process of
construction and prolong the requirement to all the sub-contractors participating in the
process.
Last but not least, “contractor must complies with Section X, Factories and
Machinery (Building Operations and Work of Engineering Construction) (Safety)
Regulations 1986 on scaffolds and make reference to the Guidelines of Safe Scaffolds
Installation and Guidelines on Protection from Falls at Workplace” (Department of
Occupational Safety and Health (DOSH), 2009).

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References
Brasch, E., (n.d.). Supported Scaffolds: Requirements and Best Practices for the
Construction Industry. Retrieved 30th October, 2014 from
http://www.cbs.state.or.us/osha/pdf/pubs/4904.pdf
Chudley, R., (1987). Construction Technology 4 (2nd ed.). Essex ,United Kingdom:
Longman.
Dayang, N.M.A.A. & Chai, G.M.W., (2010). An Analysis of Accidents Statistics in
Malaysian Construction Sector. Paper presented at 2010 International
Conference on E-business, Management and Economics. Location:
http://www.ipedr.com/vol3/1-B10029.pdf
Department of Education and Training, State of New South Wales. (2005). Erect and
dismantle restricted height scaffolding. New South Wales: Unknown.
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cted+heights+scaffolding.pdf
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=107%3Ascaffolds-failure-at-construction-site&
catid=440&Itemid=1127&lang=en
Department of Occupational Safety and Health, (2014). Occupational Accident Statistics
by Sector. Retrieved on 16th November, 2014 from
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=1225&Itemid=545&lang=en
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Scaffolds.pdf
Formark Scaffolding. (2013). Types of Scaffolding and Their Uses [Website] Retrieved
from http://www.formarkscaffolding.co.uk/types-of-scaffolding-and-their-uses.
html

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NC State University, Department of Health & Public Safety, (2014). Scaffold Safety
Guidelines. Retrieved on 16th November, 2014 from
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O’Brien, D.J., (2014). Lack Of Training Is Often The Cause Of Workers Falling From
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OSHA. (n.d). Supported Scaffolds [Website] Retrieved from
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OSHA. (n.d). Frame or Fabricated [Website] Retrieved from
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l
Occupational Safety and Health Administration.(2002). A Guide to Scaffold Use in the
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Safway. (2013). Safety Issues : Mobile Scaffolds. 1. Retrieved from
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Unknown, (2012). Scaffolding: Purpose of Scaffolding. Retrieved on 30th October. 2014
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Appendices
Figure 6.1 Online newspaper article from Malaysia Today (30th May, 2013)
Source http://www.malaysia-today.net/another-qfreakq-mrt-accident-at-subang/

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Figure 6.2 Cut out of online newspaper from Borneo Post Online (29th December, 2011)
Source http://www.theborneopost.com/2011/12/29/man-dies-in-fall-at-construction-site/

P a g e | 29
Figure 6.3 Cut out from The Straits Times (28th January, 2014)
Source http://www.straitstimes.com/breaking-news/singapore/story/worker-dies-after-falling-
four-storeys-scaffolding-which-collapsed-201

P a g e | 30
Figure 6.4 Newspaper cut out from The Star (2nd July, 2014)
Source http://www.perkeso.gov.my/en/contact-us/location-and-working-hours/
branch/item/1902-nine-deaths,-33-accidents-at-construction-sites-in-first-three-months.
html

Contruction Technology Report (Scaffolding)

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Contruction Technology Report (Scaffolding)