cro oscilloscope for physics classes and students.ppt
- 2. INTRODUCTION: The cathode-ray oscilloscope (CRO) is a multipurpose display instrument used for the observation, measurement , and analysis of waveforms by plotting amplitude along y-axis and time along x-axis. CRO is generally an x-y plotter; on a single screen it can display different signals applied to different channels. It can measure amplitude, frequencies and phase shift of various signals. Many physical quantities like temperature, pressure and strain can be converted into electrical signals by the use of transducers, and the signals can be displayed on the CRO. A moving luminous spot over the screen displays the signal. CROs are used to study waveforms, and other time-varying phenomena from very low to very high frequencies. The central unit of the oscilloscope is the cathode-ray tube (CRT), and the remaining part of the CRO consists of the circuitry required to operate the cathode-ray tube.
- 3. Block diagram of a cathode-ray oscilloscope:
- 4. COMPONENTS OF THE CATHODE-RAY OSCILLOSCOPE: The CRO consists of the following: (i) CRT (ii) Vertical amplifier (iii) Delay line (iv) Horizontal amplifier (v) Time-base generator (vi) Triggering circuit (vii) Power supply
- 5. CATHODE-RAY TUBE: The electron gun or electron emitter, the deflecting system and the fluorescent screen are the three major components of a general purpose CRT. A detailed diagram of the cathode-ray oscilloscope is given in Fig. 14-2.
- 6. Electron Gun: In the electron gun of the CRT, electrons are emitted, converted into a sharp beam and focused upon the fluorescent screen. The electron beam consists of an indirectly heated cathode, a control grid, an accelerating electrode and a focusing anode. The electrodes are connected to the base pins. The cathode emitting the electrons is surrounded by a control grid with a fine hole at its centre. The accelerated electron beam passes through the fine hole. The negative voltage at the control grid controls the flow of electrons in the electron beam, and consequently, the brightness of the spot on the CRO screen is controlled.
- 7. Deflection Systems: Electrostatic deflection of an electron beam is used in a general purpose oscilloscope. The deflecting system consists of a pair of horizontal and vertical deflecting plates. Let us consider two parallel vertical deflecting plates P1 and P2. The beam is focused at point O on the screen in the absence of a deflecting plate voltage. If a positive voltage is applied to plate P1 with respect to plate P2, the negatively charged electrons are attracted towards the positive plate P1, and these electrons will come to focus at pointY1 on the fluorescent screen.
- 8. Deflection Systems: The deflection is proportional to the deflecting voltage between the plates. If the polarity of the deflecting voltage is reversed, the spot appears at the point Y2, as shown in Fig. 14-3(a).
- 9. Deflection Systems: To deflect the beam horizontally, an alternating voltage is applied to the horizontal deflecting plates and the spot on the screen horizontally, as shown in Fig. 14-3(b). The electrons will focus at point X2. By changing the polarity of voltage, the beam will focus at point X1. Thus, the horizontal movement is controlled along X1OX2 line.
- 10. Display waveform on the screen: Figure 14-5(a) shows a sine wave applied to vertical deflecting plates and a repetitive ramp or saw-tooth applied to the horizontal plates. The ramp waveform at the horizontal plates causes the electron beam to be deflected horizontally across the screen. If the waveforms are perfectly synchronized then the exact sine wave applied to the vertical display appears on the CRO display screen.
- 11. TIME-BASE GENERATORS: The CRO is used to display a waveform that varies as a function of time. If the wave form is to be accurately reproduced, the beam should have a constant horizontal velocity. As the beam velocity is a function of the deflecting voltage, the deflecting voltage must increase linearly with time. A voltage with such characteristics is called a ramp voltage. If the voltage decreases rapidly to zero—with the waveform repeatedly produced, as shown in Fig. 14-6—we observe a pattern which is generally called a saw-tooth waveform. The time taken to return to its initial value is known as flyback or return time.
- 12. Oscilloscope Amplifiers: The purpose of an oscilloscope is to produce a faithful representation of the signals applied to its input terminals. Considerable attention has to be paid to the design of these amplifiers for this purpose. The oscillographic amplifiers can be classified into two major categories. (i) AC-coupled amplifiers (ii) DC-coupled amplifiers The low-cost oscilloscopes generally use ac-coupled amplifiers. The ac amplifiers, used in oscilloscopes, are required for laboratory purposes. The dc-coupled amplifiers are quite expensive. They offer the advantage of responding to dc voltages, so it is possible to measure dc voltages as pure signals and ac signals superimposed upon the dc signals. DC-coupled amplifiers have another advantage. They eliminate the problems of low-frequency phase shift and waveform distortion while observing low-frequency pulse train. The amplifiers can be classified according to bandwidth use also: (i) Narrow-bandwidth amplifiers (ii) Broad-bandwidth amplifiers
- 13. Vertical Amplifiers: Vertical amplifiers determines the sensitivity and bandwidth of an oscilloscope. Sensitivity, which is expressed in terms of V/cm of vertical deflection at the mid-band frequency. The gain of the vertical amplifier determines the smallest signal that the oscilloscope can satisfactorily measure by reproducing it on the CRT screen. The sensitivity of an oscilloscope is directly proportional to the gain of the vertical amplifier. So, as the gain increases the sensitivity also increases. The vertical sensitivity measures how much the electron beam will be deflected for a specified input signal. The CRT screen is covered with a plastic grid pattern called a graticule. The spacing between the grids lines is typically 10 mm. Vertical sensitivity is generally expressed in volts per division. The vertical sensitivity of an oscilloscope measures the smallest deflection factor that can be selected with the rotary switch.