Csvfrictions
- 1. Financial Frictions Under Asymmetric Information and Costly State Verification
- 2. General Idea • Standard dsge model assumes borrowers and lenders are the same people..no conflict of interest. • Financial friction models suppose borrowers and lenders are different people, with conflicting interests. • Financial frictions: features of the relationship between borrowers and lenders adopted to mitigate conflict of interest.
- 3. Discussion of Financial Frictions • Simple model to illustrate the basic costly state verification (csv) model. – Original analysis of Townsend (1978), Gale‐Helwig. • Then: integrate the csv model into a full‐blown dsge model. – Follows the lead of Bernanke, Gertler and Gilchrist (1999). – Empirical analysis of Christiano, Motto and Rostagno (2003,2009,2011). • After fitting model to data, find that a new shock, ‘risk shock’, appears to be important in business cycles.
- 4. Simple Model • There are entrepreneurs with all different levels of wealth, N. – Entrepreneur have different levels of wealth because they experienced different idiosyncratic shocks in the past. • For each value of N, there are many entrepreneurs. • In what follows, we will consider the interaction between entrepreneurs with a specific amount of N with competitive banks. • Later, will consider the whole population of entrepreneurs, with every possible level of N.
- 5. Simple Model, cont’d • Each entrepreneur has access to a project with rate of return, 1 R k • Here, is a unit mean, idiosyncratic shock experienced by the individual entrepreneur after the project has been started, 0 dF 1 • The shock, , is privately observed by the entrepreneur. • F is lognormal cumulative distribution function.
- 6. Banks, Households, Entrepreneurs ~ F, dF 1 0 entrepreneur entrepreneur entrepreneur Households Bank entrepreneur entrepreneur Standard debt contract
- 7. • Entrepreneur receives a contract from a bank, which specifies a rate of interest, Z, and a loan amount, B. – If entrepreneur cannot make the interest payments, the bank pays a monitoring cost and takes everything. • Total assets acquired by the entrepreneur: total assets net worth loans A N B • Entrepreneur who experiences sufficiently bad ≤ ̄ luck, , loses everything.
- 8. • Expected return to entrepreneur, over opportunity cost of funds: Expected payoff for entrepreneur 1Rk A−ZBdF ̄ N1R For lower values of , entrepreneur opportunity cost of funds receives nothing ‘limited liability’.
- 9. • Rewriting entrepreneur’s rate of return: 1 R A − ZBdF ̄ k 1 R k A − 1 R k AdF ̄ ̄ N1 R N1 R − dF ̄ 1 Rk L ̄ 1R ̄ Z L−1 1R k L → L→ Z 1R k • Entrepreneur’s return unbounded above – Risk neutral entrepreneur would always want to borrow an infinite amount (infinite leverage).
- 10. • If given a fixed interest rate, entrepreneur with risk neutral preferences would borrow an unbounded amount. • In equilibrium, bank can’t lend an infinite amount. • This is why a loan contract must specify both an interest rate, Z, and a loan amount, B.
- 11. ‘Indifference Curves’ of Entrepreneurs • Think of the loan contract in terms of the loan amount (or, leverage, (N+B)/N) and the cutoff, ̄ 1Rk A−ZBdF ̄ − dF ̄ 1R k L N1R ̄ 1R Indifference curve, (leverage, - bar) space 7 L A NB 6 5 N N - bar 4 3 2 1 Utility increasing 2 3 4 5 6 7 leverage
- 12. Banks • Source of funds from households, at fixed rate, R • Bank borrows B units of currency, lends proceeds to entrepreneurs. • Provides entrepreneurs with standard debt contract, (Z,B)
- 13. Banks, cont’d • Monitoring cost for bankrupt entrepreneur with ̄ Bankruptcy cost parameter 1 R k A • Bank zero profit condition fraction of entrepreneurs with ̄ quantity paid by each entrepreneur with ̄ 1 − F ̄ ZB quantity recovered by bank from each bankrupt entrepreneur ̄ 1 − dF1 R k A 0 amount owed to households by bank 1 RB
- 14. Banks, cont’d • Simplifying zero profit condition: ̄ 1 − F ZB 1 − dF1 R k A 1 RB ̄ 0 ̄ 1 − F 1 ̄ ̄ Rk A 1 − dF1 R k A 1 RB 0 ̄ 1 − F 1 − ̄ ̄ dF 1 R B/N 0 1 R k A/N 1 Rk L − 1 1R L • Expressed naturally in terms of , L ̄
- 15. Bank zero profit condition, in (leverage, - bar) space 14 •Free entry of banks ensures zero profits 12 , L ̄ • zero profit curve represents a ‘menu’ of contracts, , 10 that can be offered in equilibrium. - bar 8 •Only the upward‐sloped portion of the curve is relevant, because ̄ entrepreneurs would never select a high value of if a lower 6 one was available at the same leverage. 4 2 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8 2 2.2 2.4 2.6 2.8 3 leverage
- 16. Some Notation and Results • Let expected value of , conditional on ̄ ̄ G ̄ 0 dF , Γ 1 − F G, ̄ ̄ ̄ ̄ • Results: Leibniz’s rule ̄ G ′ d ̄ 0 dF F ′ ̄ ̄ ̄ d Γ ′ 1 − F − F ′ G 1 − F ̄ ̄ ̄ ̄ ̄ ̄
- 17. Moving Towards Equilibrium Contract • Entrepreneurial utility: − dF 1 R ̄ ̄ 1 Rk L 1 − G − 1 − F ̄ ̄ ̄ 1 Rk L 1R share of entrepreneur return going to entrepreneur 1 − Γ ̄ 1 Rk L 1R
- 18. Moving Towards Equilibrium Contract, cn’t • Bank profits: share of entrepreneurial profits (net of monitoring costs) given to bank ̄ 1 − F 1 − dF ̄ ̄ 1R L−1 0 1 Rk L Γ − G 1 Rk L − 1 ̄ ̄ 1R L L 1 1R k 1− 1R Γ − G ̄ ̄
- 19. Equilibrium Contract • Entrepreneur selects the contract is optimal, given the available menu of contracts. • The solution to the entrepreneur problem is ̄ the that solves: profits, per unit of leverage, earned by entrepreneur, given ̄ leverage offered by bank, conditional on ̄ − dF 11 R k log ̄ 1 ̄ R 1− 1R k Γ − G ̄ ̄ 1R higher drives leverage up (good!) ̄ higer drives share of profits to entrepreneur down (bad!) ̄ log 1 R − log 1 − 1 R Γ − G k k log 1 − Γ ̄ ̄ ̄ 1R 1R
- 20. Computing the Equilibrium Contract • Solve first order optimality condition uniquely for the ̄ cutoff, : elasticity of leverage w.r.t. ̄ elasticity of entrepreneur’s expected return w.r.t. ̄ 1R k 1 − F ̄ 1 − F − F ′ ̄ ̄ 1R 1 − Γ ̄ 1− 1R k Γ − G ̄ ̄ 1R • Given the cutoff, solve for leverage: L k 1 1− 1R Γ −G 1R ̄ ̄ • Given leverage and cutoff, solve for risk spread: 1R k risk spread ≡ Z 1R 1R L−1 ̄ L
- 21. Result • Leverage, L, and entrepreneurial rate of interest, Z, not a function of net worth, N. • Quantity of loans proportional to net worth: L A NB 1 B N N N B L − 1N • To compute L, Z/(1+R), must make assumptions about F and parameters. 1 R k , , F 1R
- 22. The Distribution, F Log normal density function, E = 1, = 0.82155 0.9 0.8 0.7 0.6 density 0.5 0.4 0.3 0.2 0.1 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4 4.5 5 5.5
- 23. Results for log‐normal ̄ • Need: G ̄ 0 dF, F′ Can get these from the pdf and the cdf of the standard normal distribution. These are available in most computational software, like MATLAB. Also, they have simple analytic representations.
- 24. Results for log‐normal ̄ • Need: G ̄ 0 dF, F′ change of variables, xlog −x−Ex 2 ̄ log ̄ 0 dF 1 − ex e 2 2 x dx x 2 E1 requires Ex− 1 2 x − x 1 2 2 2 log ̄ 2 x 1 − ex e 2 2x dx x 2 2 combine powers of e and rearrange − x− 1 2 x log ̄ − 2 1 e 2 2x dx x 2 x− 1 2 2 x log 1 2 ̄ change of variables, v x 2 x − x 1 − x exp −v 2 2 x dv x 2 log ̄ 1 2 x prob v x 2 − x cdf for standard normal
- 25. Results for log‐normal, cnt’d • The log‐normal cumulative density: 2 − x 1 2 x ̄ log ̄ 0 − 2 F ̄ dF 1 e 2 2x dx x 2 • Differentiating (using Leibniz’s rule): 2 log 1 2 ̄ − 2 F ; 1 1 exp ̄ 2 ̄ 2 1 Standard Normal pdf log ̄ 1 2 2 ̄
- 26. Figure : Impact on standard debt contract of a 5% jump in 9 8 risk spread, 400(Z/R-1) 7 Entrepreneur Indifference curve 6 5 4 Risk spread= 2.67 Leverage = 1.12 Zero profit curve 3 2 Risk spread=2.52 Leverage = 1.13 1 1.08 1.1 1.12 1.14 1.16 1.18 leverage, L = (B+N)/N
- 28. Standard Model ‘Marginal Efficiency of Investment’ Firms consumption f,t Investment goods 0 Yjt 1 1 Yt f,t dj , 1 ≤ f,t , Yjt t K z t l jt 1− jt other oil au t Kt G t Ct I,t ≤ Yt . t ̄ t Supply labor Rent capital Households Backyard capital accumulation: ̄ ̄ Kt1 1 − Kt G i,t , I t , I t−1 Rk u t1 r k 1 − P k ′,t1 u c,t E t c,t u c,t1 t1 t1 Rk t1 t1 P k ′,t
- 29. Standard Model Firms L K Labor market C I Market for Physical Capital household
- 30. Financing • In the standard model, already have borrowing by firms for working capital. – will now have banks intermediate this borrowing between households and firms. • In standard model, ‘putting capital to work’ is completely straightforward and is done by households. They just rent capital into a homogeneous capital market. • Now: ‘putting capital to work’ involves a special kind of creativity that only some households – entrepreneurs – have. – Entrepreneurs finance the acquisition of capital in part by themselves, and in part by borrowing from regular ‘households’. – Conflict of interest, because there is asymmetric information about the payoff from capital. – Standard sharing contract between entrepreneur and household not feasible.
- 31. Financial Frictions with Physical K Firms L K Labor market C I Capital Producers Entrepreneurs Entrepreneurs sell their K to capital producers household
- 32. Financial Frictions with Physical K Firms Labor market Capital K’ Producers Entrepreneurs Loans household banks
- 33. Accounts for nearly 50% of GDP Banks, Households, Entrepreneurs ~F, t , E 1 entrepreneur entrepreneur entrepreneur Households Bank entrepreneur entrepreneur Standard debt contract
- 34. • Net worth of an entrepreneur who goes to the bank to receive a loan in period t: value of capital after production earnings from capital after utilization costs nt ̄ P k ′,t 1 − Kt ̄ r k Kt t −B t−1 Z t−1 t An entrepreneur who bought capital in t-1 experienced an idiosyncratic shock, . This log-normal shock has mean unity across all entrepreneurs, ~ F, t . An entrepreneur’s shock can only be observed by lender by paying a monitoring cost. Under standard debt contract, entrepreneur either pays the interest rate on the debt, or (if is too low) declares bankruptcy, in which case he/she is monitored and loses everything to the bank.
- 35. Five Adjustments to Standard DSGE Model for CSV Financial Frictions • Drop: household intertemporal equation for capital. • Add: characterization of the loan contracts that can be offered in equilibrium (zero profit condition for banks). • Add: efficiency condition associated with entrepreneurial choice of contract. • Add: Law of motion for entrepreneurial net worth (source of accelerator and Fisher debt-deflation effects). • Introduce: bankruptcy costs in the resource constraint.
- 36. Risk Shock and News • Assume ̂ iid, univariate innovation to t ̂ ̂ t 1 t−1 ut • Agents have advance information about pieces of u t u t 0 1 . . . 8 t t−1 t−8 2 it−i ~iid, E it−i 2 i it−i ~piece of u t observed at time t − i
- 37. Economic Impact of Risk Shock lognormal distribution: 20 percent jump in standard deviation 1 0.9 Larger number of *1.2 0.8 entrepreneurs in left 0.7 tail problem for bank density 0.6 Banks must raise 0.5 interest rate on entrepreneur 0.4 Entrepreneur borrows less 0.3 Entrepreneur buys less capital, 0.2 investment drops, economy tanks 0.1 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4 idiosyncratic shock
- 38. Monetary Policy • Nominal rate of interest function of: – Anticipated level of inflation and change. – Slowly moving inflation target. – Deviation of output growth from ss path. – Monetary policy shock.
- 39. Estimation • Use standard macro data: consumption, investment, employment, inflation, GDP, price of investment goods, wages, Federal Funds Rate. • Also some financial variables: BAA-AAA corporate bond spreads, value of DOW, credit to nonfinancial business. • Data: 1985Q1-2008Q4
- 40. Key Result • Risk shocks: – important source of fluctuations. • Out-of-Sample evidence suggests the model deserves to be taken seriously.
- 41. Risk Shocks • Important • Why are they important? • What shock do they displace, and why?
- 42. Role of the Risk Shock in Macro and Financial Variables
- 43. Variance Decomposition In Business Cycle Frequencies Risk shock, t Output 49 Credit 63 Slope of Term Structure 33 Risk spread 98 Real Value of Stock Market 76
- 44. Why Risk Shock is so Important • A. Our econometric estimator ‘thinks’ risk spread ~ risk shock. • B. In the data: the risk spread is strongly negatively correlated with output. • C. In the model: bad risk shock generates a response that resembles a recession. • A+B+C suggests risk shock important.
- 46. What Shock Does the Risk Shock Displace, and why? • The risk shock crowds out some of the role of the marginal efficiency of investment shock.
- 48. Why does Risk Crowd out Marginal Efficiency of Investment? Supply shifter: Price of capital marginal efficiency of investment, i,t Demand shifters: risk shock, t ; wealth shock, t Quantity of capital
- 49. • Marginal efficiency of investment shock can account well for the surge in investment and output in the 1990s, as long as the stock market is not included in the analysis. • When the stock market is included, then explanatory power shifts to financial market shocks.
- 50. CKM Challenge • CKM argue that risk shocks (actually, any intertemporal shock) cannot be important in business cycles. • Idea: a shock that hurts the intertemporal margin will induce substitution away from investment and to other margins, such as consumption and leisure. • CKM argument probably right in RBC model. • Not valid in New Keynesian models.
- 51. Failure of Comovement Between C & I in RBC Models With Risk Shocks • In RBC model, jump in risk discourages investment. • Reduction in demand leads to reduction of price of current goods relative to future goods, i.e., real interest rate. • Real interest rate decline induces surge in demand, partially offsetting drop in investment. • This Mechanism does not necessarily work in NK model because real rate not fully market determined there.
- 53. ‘Out of Sample Evidence’ • Out of sample forecasting performance good. • Predictions for aggregate bankruptcy rate good. • Correlates well with Bloom evidence on cross-sectional uncertainty.
- 54. Conclusion • Much of the dynamics of past data can be explained as reflecting a risk shock. • In this analysis, shock is treated as exogenous. • Interesting to investigate mechanisms that make that ‘shock’ endogenous.