Current Challenges for rural Com. in EU
- 1. 1 FE4416 Current Challenges to Rural Communities across Europe and possible Solutions to those Challenges. By Dirk Fleischheuer 111719999
- 2. 2 Introduction: In thisessayI will discussthree currentissuesthatare of concernto the rural communitiesacross the EuropeanUnion. The examplesIpickedare mainlyfromIrelandandGreatBritainbutare not unique tothose areas.The discussedissues andchallenges are:The “braindrain”of rural areas,the dangersof hydraulicFrackingto agriculture andthe underpaymentof agricultural goodsproducers.I put a slightlystrongerfocusonthe latterissue while alsoincludingsome possiblesolutionstothe discussed matters.Ialsoprovidedashortconclusiontoeachdiscussionandanoverall conclusion withrecommendations astohowrural communitiescanovercome the discussedchallenges. “Brain drain” in rural areas due to the prevailing migrations patterns: Definitionof braindrain:“The lossof skilledintellectual andtechnical labourthroughthe movement of suchlabourto more favourable geographic,economic,orprofessionalenvironments.”(The Free Dictionary,2014) Rural areasare commonlycharacterisedbythe out-migrationof youngadults.Thisisdue to employmentand/ortertiaryeducationopportunitiesinurbancentres.Olderage groupsare those more likelytomigrate inthe reverse directionasemploymentopportunitiesbecomelessrelevant at or aroundretirementage.(Stockdale&Catney,2012) Thistrendisreflectedinthe age-profile of the rural populationacrossthe EU whichconsistsof a highernumberof olderpeople andpeople aged 10 -19 but lesspeopleof workingage.(Eurostat,2013) Basedon the analysisof a EuropeanQuality of Life Studycarriedoutin2003 ShucksmithconcludedthatthroughoutEurope the educational levelsof people livinginrural areasare lowerthanthose livinginurbanareas.In rural Europe 23% of people onlyhadprimaryeducation(18%inurbanEurope) andonly13% had a Universitydegree (22% urban).Thishowevercouldalsobe causedbythe lowerrelevance of thirdleveleducationfor the majorityof rural employmentopportunities.( Shucksmith, 2007) The above data seemsto suggestthatthere is a braindrainoccurring inthe rural areas of Europe,especiallywhentakinginto account that rural areas have much higheremigrationfiguresthanurbanareaswithPortugal and Irelandbeingthe hardesthitcountriesinEurope.(UCC,2013) While rural-urbanmigrationcanbe explainedthroughbetteremploymentandeducationopportunitiesinurbanareas,urbanto rural migrationisoftenexplainedbythe attractivenessof the rural idylliclandscape.BilkerandHaartsen howeverargue thata more diverse conceptualisationof urban-rural migrationisnecessaryasthere
- 3. 3 are differencesinpopularityamongrural areasformigrationpurposes.Influencingfactorsare, amongothers, the proximityto urbancentres andcertainlandscape featuressuchasbeachesor coasts.(Bijker&Haartsen,2012) In the case of migrationfromthe more wealthycountriesof Europe to rural areasof southernEurope the climate isalsoaninfluencingfactor.(Stone &Stubbs,2007) Othermotivesincludelivingclosertofriendsandfamilyandlowerhousingcosts.StudiesinSweden showedthatthe peri-urbancountrysides are more attractive topeople aged19 -40 years,people withuniversityeducationandhigh-income earnerswhile more remote areasare more popular amongpeople aged61 or older.(Bijker&Haartsen,2012) Anotherportionof urban-rural migrants are the “lifestyle-migrants”made upbypeople movingintorural areasforself-employmentand retirementwhile simultaneouslywantingtoenjoythe idyllicrural landscape. The economicbenefit to rural areasthroughsuch lifestyle-migrantsisminimal. (Stockdale &MacLeod,2013) The EuropeanNetworkforRural Development (ENRD) hasidentifiedthreemainareasof interventiontopromote social inclusioninrural areas.These interventionsshouldarguablyalso combat the braindrainof rural Europe:The facilitationof diversification tocreate new small enterprisesandnewjobs.The promotionof local developmentinrural areas.The improvementof InformationandCommunicationTechnology(ICT) inrural areasintermsof accessibility,qualityand usage.(ENRD,2014) In general itcouldbe saidthat urbanareas will alwaysbe more attractive tolarge scale international and national employers.Likewiseitisnotto be expectedthatanyUniversitieswillbe movingtorural areas.Howeverthe lossof skilledintellectual andtechnical labourcancertainlybe minimised throughthe promotionof social inclusioninrural development. The improvementof ICTinrural areas seemstobe a keypointinstoppingsome of the braindrain inrural Europe. Highspeed internetaccesswill enable businesseswhichdonotrelyona face to face interactionwithits customerstoset upand stay inrural areas.By doingso,those businessescanbenefitfromlower businesscostsaswell aslowercostsof livingfortheiremployees.Additionally,the provisionof high qualityICTwill enable more peopletoworkfromhome and spendmore moneyinthe local economy.
- 4. 4 The dangers of Hydraulic Fracturing (Fracking) to agriculture. Frackingis “the processof injectingliquidsathighpressure intosubterraneanrocks,boreholes,etc, so as to force openexistingfissuresandextractoil orgas.” (OxfordDictionary,2014) More detailed descriptionsof the Frackingprocessanditspotential benefitsonenergyproductionare widely documented elsewhere;the potential impacts onagriculture howeverinclude watercontamination (surface andunderground,) soil contaminationandavarietyof otherenvironmental,socialand economicimpacts. Thisisparticularlyworrisomeaspotential impactson agriculture are not localised.Agriculturalproduce fromareaswhere Frackingisundertakenmaybe transportedtoother regions nationallyaswell asinternationallywhile environmentaldegradationof the aquifer,soilor air doesnotstop at the farm where itoccurred. Thiscouldleadto a situationwhere neighboring farmswhichdidnot benefitfromFracking(throughroyaltiesorlandsales) couldstill sufferfromthe negative impacts,maytheybe real orperceived.(Beng,2014) Concernsregardinghumanhealthcan be directlylinkedtothe risksposedtoagriculture throughFrackingasreportsfromthe US show.In the oil-richandmostlyrural communitiesinthe USthe contaminationof drinkingwellsthrough Frackingfluidshasledtoa reportedincrease inrespiratory problems,rashesandnosebleedsamong the populationandanunusuallyhighnumberof cattle deaths.Farmerswhose personal healthswere alsoaffectedreportedanimprovementof theirconditionsaftertheystoppedeatingproduce from theirownfarms.(Royte,2012) The potential contaminationof the groundwatercanoccur at several stagesof the FrackingprocessandFrackingliquids cancontainwell over300 chemicalswhichcould have respiratory,dermatological,neurotoxicand,amongothers, carcinogeniceffects.Consumer awarenessof potential waterand/orsoil contaminationcausedbyFrackingcouldleadto unwillingnesstobuyandconsume agricultural produce fromfarmsnearFrackingoperations. This will particularlyhurtsmallerfarmerswholackthe financial meansforenvironmentalcleanupsand /or extendedlawsuitsagainstoil andgascompanies.(Beng,2014) Unfortunatelythere are atthe momentnobindingEU-wide lawsregardingthe regulationof Fracking inorderto protectagainst watercontaminationandotherdangers.Insteaditislefttoeachindividual memberstate toregulate the industryandto decide whetherexistinglegislationissufficient. While Europeanenvironment commissionerJanezPotočnikthinksthatexistingEUlegislationcontains”cleargaps”whichneedto be filled,UKprime ministerDavidCameroonthinksthatthe existingrulesare sufficientandwasat the forefrontof those lobbyingagainsttighterEU-wide regulations. (Carrington,2014) Giventhe interdependence of Europeanagricultural trade the attitudesdisplayedbythe opponents of EU-wide lawsstemmingfromanarguable inclinationtofavourenergyproductionoverfood productionseemstobe short-sightedandworrisome.
- 5. 5 Under payment of farmers for agricultural produce. In August2014 some hundredIrishFarmersstagedanation-wide protestoverongoingbeefprice cuts by leadingretailers.Asfarm-gatepricesforcattle have fallenbynearly17% in the last12 monthsleadinguptothe protest,the IrishFarmersAssociation(IFA) haswarnedthatif beef prices do notimprove withinthe nearfuture alarge numberof Irishfarmerswill nolongerbe able to survive inthe market.(Sheehan,2014) The farmerswere especiallyfrustratedbecauseintheir opinionthese price cutscut were notjustifiedasthe beef pricesintheirmainmarketsacrossEurope and the UK had recentlyrecoveredandstabilised.(Donohoe,2014) Neitherhave theseprice cuts beenpassedonto the consumerwiththe Irishretail price forbeef onlydecreasingby 0.6%. (Sheehan,2014) This ledIFA presidentEddieDowneytoaccuse retailersof “unacceptable behaviour and lackof corporate responsibility.”(Donohoe,2014) InneighbouringBritainitisestimatedthat that between2000 and 2010, 3000 small tomedium-scale farmershave beenforcedoutof business or intopovertythroughsuchpractices.(Renton,2011) The above example highlightsone of the challengescurrentlyfacedbyrural societies:The potential abuse of buyer-powerbyfoodretailersandthe effects thisabuse hasonitsrural suppliers.This behaviourispossible becauseof the marketfragmentationonthe upstreamside of agricultural produce and the small numbersof supermarketscontrollingthe downstreamflowof suchproduce. In the UK for example fourmajorsupermarketswithacombinedmarketshare of 76% standas “gatekeepers”between7000 suppliersand25 millionhouseholds.Thissituationgivesmassive buying,retail andbargainingpowertothe supermarketsandputsthe (rural) suppliersof agricultural productsat a disadvantage.Furthertothat, rural producersface an array of financial abusesthrough retailerssuchas“listingfees”,threatof “de-listing”,“slottingfees”andretrospective changesto previouslyagreedterms.(Nicholson&Young,2012) Retailersonthe otherhanddenyallegationsof buyer-powerabuse andspeakof a workingcode of practise (Renton,2011); insteadtheyblame the price cuts on fallingEuropeanprices.(Sheehan,2014) Possible solutionstothese problemsinclude the appointmentof anombudsmanasan adjudicatorindisputesbetweensuppliersandretailers, Governmentlegislationenforcingacode of conducton retailers(stronglyopposedbyretailers) orby supplierssellingmore produce toco-ops.(Renton,2011) Anothersolutionwhichisgaining increasingpopularityisthe use of farmersmarketsasan outletforagricultural produce.Farmers’ marketsprovide anopportunitytosell locallyproducedfoodandtherebycreatingtiesbetween farmersand consumers.Consumerswhoregularlybuytheirfood atfarmersmarketsplace great importance onproductqualitysafetyandfreshness.The farmerwhomeetsthese expectationsgains nearly100% of the moneythe customerspendsonthe farmersproducts.Thiscan improve farm
- 6. 6 profitabilityandkeeplandinproductiveuse.(Conneretal,2010) Furtherto thatMoroney etal arguesthat the adaptationof a cooperative structure by(Irish) farmersmarketscanfurtherincrease the producer/farmersmarketcontrol andthe brand-buildingandsustainabilityof the individual markets.(Moroneyetal,2009) Sadlythere seemtobe no concrete political strategiestoimplement or supportEU-wide initiativesthatwouldbe beneficial toagricultural goodsproducers,andin extensiontothe consumersof these products. The documentedhighvolume of allegationsof buyer-powerandfinancialabusesof producers throughretailersmake the explanationsforprice cutsgivenbyretailerssoundsomewhathollow, especiallywhentheyrefuse acode of conductand the establishmentof anindependentadjudicator. Thisbehaviourseemsarguablysomewhatshort-sightedasitsacrificeslong-termbusiness relationshipsforshort-termeconomicgains.Italsojeopardisescustomerloyaltyasproducersmay feel forcedtocut cornersand mayimplementsavingsthatcouldseriouslyaffectproductqualityand safetyas witnessedrepeatedlyduringrecentfoodscandals.Farmerswill have topresentanunited and well organisedfrontinordertostandup successfullyagainstfinancial abusesandunreasonable demandsfromfoodretailers.The organisationof farmersinco-opstructurescannegate the negative effectsof producerfragmentationandstrengthentheirhandinthe demandfor governmentlegislationregardingacode of conduct forretailers.Furtherto thatincreased collaborationamongfarmerscanopenupalternative waysof bringingproduce tothe consumers, while atthe same time sharingthe financial burdenassociatedwithsuchundertakings. Conclusion The problems andchallengesforrural communitiesacrossEurope whichIlistedabove are certainly worrisome andcouldpresentseriousobstaclesinasuccessful rural developmentprocess.Itseems evenmore worrisome that there are noclear governmental-strategiestothe challengesof Fracking and under-paymentof farmers.Onthe thirdsubject,the ongoingbraindrainof rural Europe the ENRD has introducedcertainmeasurements;the implementationof these measurementshowever islargelylefttothe individualstates.Inthe case of Irelandthe recommendedimprovementof ICT serviceshasarguablybeenratherslow.Itseemsthatthe rural populationwill be betteradvisednot to relyongovernmentinitiativesbuttotake mattersintotheirownhandsand tackle the challenges throughan increasedbottom-updevelopmentapproach.Thismeansincreasednetworkingand organisationamongthe communitiesanditsmembers.Rural communitiesneedtodisplayanunited frontif theywant to fightFrackingoperationsintheirlocal areas.The organisationinco-operative
- 7. 7 structurescan give farmersandagricultural producersthe negotiatingpowertogetbetterdealsfor theirproduce.The improvementof ICTinrural areascouldalso be drivenforwardthroughorganised local initiativesandthe foundationof anICT-servicesco-opmaywell be analternative toprivate providers.Collaborationandcommunicationamongthose affectedare the keyingredientsin masteringthe challengesfacedbyrural communitiesacrossEurope.
- 8. 8 References Beng O. (2014). The Potential Impacts of Hydraulic Fracturing on Agriculture. European Journal of Sustainable Development. 3, 3, 63-72 Available at: http://www.ecsdev.org/ojs/index.php/ejsd/article/view/138 Viewed 16/10/2014 Bijker R A. & Haartsen T. (2012). More than Counter Urbanisation: Migration to Popular and Less- popular Rural Areas in the Netherlands. Population, Space and Place. 18. P. 643-647 Available at: http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/psp.687/abstract Viewed 20/10/2014 Carrington D. (2014). UK defeats European bid for Fracking regulation. The Guardian 14th January 2014. Available at: http://www.theguardian.com/environment/2014/jan/14/uk-defeats-european- bid-fracking-regulations Viewed: 03/11/2014 Conner et al, 2010: Conner, David. Colasanti, Kathryn. Ross, Brent R. Smalley, Susan B. (2010) Locally Grown Foods and Farmers Markets: Consumer Attitudes and Behaviours. Sustainability 2010, 2. pp.743, 744, 753. Available at: http://www.mdpi.com/2071-1050/2/3/742 viewed on 12/03/2013. Donohoe P. (2014). Tractors and Trolleys. Farmers protests over Beef Prices. Irish Farmers Journal. 26th of August 2014. Available at: http://www.farmersjournal.ie/tractors-and-trolleys-farmers- protest-over-beef-prices-164001 Viewed 14/10/2014 ENRD (2014). European Network for Rural Development. Rural Development Gateway. Social Inclusion. Available at: http://enrd.ec.europa.eu/enrd-static/policy-in-action/cap-towards-2020/rdp- programming-2014-2020/rural-development-priorities/en/social-inclusion_en.html Viewed 03/11/2014 Eurostat (2013) Eurostat Reg Yearbook 2013. Focus on Rural Development. P 241 Available at: http://epp.eurostat.ec.europa.eu/cache/ITY_OFFPUB/KS-HA-13-001/EN/KS-HA-13-001-EN.PDF Viewed 16/10/2014 Renton A. (2011). British farmers forced to pay the costs of supermarket price wars. The Observer. 2nd July 2011. Available at: http://www.theguardian.com/environment/2011/jul/02/british-farmers- supermarket-price-wars Viewed 16/10/2014 Royte E. (2012). Fracking our Food Supply. The Nation.8th November 2012. Available at: http://www.thenation.com/article/171504/fracking-our-food-supply Viewed 03/11/2014
- 9. 9 Moroneyet al (2009). MoroneyA. Briscoe R.McCarthy O.O’ShaughnessyM.Ward M. The Potential of the Cooperative FormforFarmers’MarketsinIreland – Some Lessonsfromthe USA andUK. Journalof Co-operativeStudies.Vol.42No.1. April 2009 P.4 -12 Available at: http://www.ingentaconnect.com/content/ukscos/jcs/2009/00000042/00000001/art00002 Viewed 03/11/2014 Nicholson C.& YoungB. (2012). The RelationshipbetweenSupermarketsandSuppliers:Whatare the ImplicationsforConsumers? ConsumersInternationalReportJuly 2012. Availableat: http://www.makefruitfair.org.uk/relationship-between-supermarkets-and-suppliers-what-are- implications-consumers?Viewed16/10/2014 OxfordDictionary(2014). OxfordDictionaries.Definitionof Fracking.Available at: http://www.oxforddictionaries.com/definition/english/fracking Viewed02/11/2014 SheehanA.(2014). Shoppersnotgainingfrombeef price cutstofarmers. Irish Independent 14th of August2014. Availableat: http://www.independent.ie/irish-news/shoppers-not-gaining-from-beef- price-cuts-to-farmers-30507494.html Viewed14/10/2014 Stockdale A.& CatneyG. (2012) A Life Course PerspectiveonUrban-Rural Migration:the Importance of the Local Context. Population and Place. Vol.20Issue 1. Pp 83-98 Availableat: http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/psp.1758/full Viewed16/10/2014 Stockdale A.& MacLeod M. (2013) Pre RetirementAge Migrationtorural Areas. Journalof Rural Studies. Vol.32. October2013. P.80-92 Available at: http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0743016713000351# Viewed20/10/2014 Stone I.& StubbsC.(2007) Enterprisingexpatriates:lifestyle migration and entrepreneurshipinrural southernEurope. Entrepreneurship &RegionalDevelopment:An International Journal,19:5,P.433-450. Availableat: http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/08985620701552389 The Free Dictionary.(2014) The Free DictionarybyFarlex.Definition:braindrain.Available at: http://www.thefreedictionary.com/brain+drain Viewed18/10/2104 UCC (2013). UniversityCollege Cork27/09/2013. News:IrishEmigration:It’scomplicated.Available at: http://www.ucc.ie/en/news/fullstory-371828-en.html Viewed18/10/2014
- 10. 10