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A Timeless Perspective on
Perceiving and Managing Information
in Our Imprecise World
DATA
AND REALITY
third edition

A Timeless Perspective on
Perceiving and Managing Information
in Our Imprecise World
DATA
AND REALITY
third edition
WILLIAM KENT
Updated by Steve Hoberman
Technics Publications

Published by:
Technics Publications, LLC
966 Woodmere Drive
Westfield, NJ 07090 U.S.A.
www.technicspub.com
Edited by David Kent and Carol Lehn
Cover design by Mark Brye
Cartoons by Abby Denson, www.abbycomix.com
All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced or transmitted in any form
or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopying, recording or by any
information storage and retrieval system, without written permission from the
publisher, except for the inclusion of brief quotations in a review.
The author and publisher have taken care in the preparation of this book, but make no
expressed or implied warranty of any kind and assume no responsibility for errors or
omissions. No liability is assumed for incidental or consequential damages in connection
with or arising out of the use of the information or programs contained herein.
All trade and product names are trademarks, registered trademarks, or service marks of
their respective companies, and are the property of their respective holders and should
be treated as such.
This book is printed on acid-free paper.
Original Content from 2nd Edition Copyright © 2012 by David Kent
Commentary from Steve Hoberman Copyright © 2012 by Technics Publications, LLC
ISBN, print ed. 978-1-9355042-1-4
First Printing 2012
Library of Congress Control Number: 2012930842
ATTENTION SCHOOLS AND BUSINESSES: Technics Publications books are
available at quantity discounts with bulk purchase for educational, business, or sales
promotional use. For information, please email Steve Hoberman, President of Technics
Publications, at me@stevehoberman.com.

Praise for Data and Reality
An excellent, philosophical discussion of the problems inherent in
describing the real world. There is nothing really similar to this work. I
think that all database researchers should read this document.
Mike Senko, 1978
I expect the book to be one of the most frequently quoted ones for the next
few years. It is unique in being an almost exhaustive, condensed rendition
of the typical problems encountered. The most striking strong point is its
penetration into major database technology headaches.... Many well-chosen
examples and the lucid style make it easy to read.
Reiner Durcholz, 1978
Kent has produced a rather remarkable and highly readable short
work...the most important things he has to say are philosophical and go
right to the heart of the key concepts that must be understood if a system is
to be “successful” (whatever that may mean!).... This is a serious book but
not a heavy one. Kent writes easily and without hiding behind the
semantics of the data base specialists.
Datamation, March 1979
Data and Reality illustrates extensively the pitfalls of any simplistic
attempts to capture reality as data in the sense of today’s database systems.
The approach taken by the author is one which very logically and carefully
delineates the facets of reality being represented in an information system,
and also describes the data processing models used in such systems. The
linguistic, semantic, and philosophical problems of describing reality are
comprehensively examined.... The depth of discussion of these concepts, as
they impact information systems, is not likely to be found elsewhere....
[T]he value of this book resides in its critical, probing approach to the
difficulties of modeling reality in typical information systems.... [I]t is very
well written and should prove both enjoyable and enlightening to a careful
reader.
ACM Computing Reviews, August 1980

Kent attacks the pseudo-exactness of existing data models in a very neat
and clear (and often humorous) manner.... This book is for everyone who
thinks about or works on data files and who wants to understand the
reasons for his disenchantment.
European Journal of Operations Research, November 1981
I am using Data and Reality as research material for my current project.
It is on my desk right now.
Joe Celko, 1998
The book is still quoted quite often and has a message even—or
especially—for today’s jaded information scientists.
Prof. Dr. Robert Meersman, Vrije Universiteit Brussel, 1998
Your book focuses attention on many issues that are still, embarrassingly,
not being dealt with in our formalized information systems. It provides an
important reference point not only in identifying these problems, but in
pointing out origins and the long-standing practice of simply ignoring
them. When I reopened your book...I found lots of issues that seem as fresh
as ever.
Roger Burkhart, John Deere, 1998
A small number of computing and information management books are of
foundational nature, not oriented towards a particular technology,
methodology or tool. Data and Reality is such a book. The concepts and
approach described there are as valid now as they were in 1978, and are
still often ignored resulting in systems that are not what we want them to
be.
Haim Kilov, Genesis Development Corporation, 1999
Were it not for Bill Kent I might have forgotten that the data represented
by that richness was only a representation of reality, and not the reality
itself. In a world which reinvents the Perfect Semantic Representation
Language to End All Semantic Representation Languages every ten years
or so, it is a pleasure to have Bill’s calming influence in print in the form of
Data and Reality.
Richard Mark Soley, Ph.D., CEO, Object Management Group, 1999

I served on the original ANSI X3H2 Database Standards Committee with
Bill Kent—these were the pioneer days of RDBMS. The relational model
was still new, and the academics were playing with relational algebra as a
high level abstraction. We had set theory, relations. We had semiotics,
formal languages and other conceptual tools. And they never got together!
How long did we have wheels? How long did we have suitcases? So why
did it take so long to put wheels on suitcases? Data and Reality was the
first book to look at data qua data by putting all of the tools in one place.
We were still learning and Bill was ahead of the rest of us. My work with
designing data encoding schemes was inspired by this book. Looking at the
third edition with Steve’s commentaries, I am reminded just how
important this book was and still is. I tell people this is like reading a copy
of Sun Tsu’s Art of War with good updated commentaries.
Joe Celko, Author of eight books on SQL, 2012
I knew Bill Kent before he was Bill Kent—he always had these searching
thoughts, profound questions. Talking with Bill Kent made you aware that
you were talking with someone that had thought longer and more deeply
than you. He might have written Data and Reality in 1978, but it is still
years ahead of its time! I think Bill is the first one, certainly the first one I
ever knew, that understood that meaning (semantics) is expressed in the
structural characteristics of the components (the actual “things”) of
interest. In the automated systems domain, what is well understood by IT
is “GARBAGE IN, GARBAGE OUT.” If data meaning is not precisely
expressed in the structure of a data model, I am going to guarantee there is
a lot of garbage spewing out of the Enterprises’ systems! Everybody, (IT
and non-IT) ought to read Bill’s book and get their garbage data cleaned
up—they owe it to their neighbors!
John Zachman, 2012

ix
Contents
A Note by Chris Date on the Republication of Data and Reality .......................................11
Foreword to the New Edition of Data and Reality............................................................13
Preface to the Third Edition ............................................................................................17
Preface to the Second Edition .........................................................................................23
Preface to the First Edition .............................................................................................27
CHAPTER 1: Entities ........................................................................................................35
One Thing ..............................................................................................................................37
Existence................................................................................................................................50
CHAPTER 2: The Nature of an Information System...........................................................55
Data Description ....................................................................................................................57
Records and Representatives..................................................................................................63
CHAPTER 3: Naming .......................................................................................................69
How Many Ways? ..................................................................................................................70
What Is Being Named? ...........................................................................................................73
Uniqueness, Scope, and Qualifiers ..........................................................................................74
Scope of Naming Conventions ................................................................................................77
Changing Names ....................................................................................................................78
Versions.................................................................................................................................79
Names, Symbols, Representations ..........................................................................................79
Why Separate Symbols and Things?........................................................................................79
Sameness (Equality) ...............................................................................................................84
CHAPTER 4: Relationships...............................................................................................87
Degree, Domain, and Role ......................................................................................................88
Forms of Binary Relationships.................................................................................................89
Other Characteristics..............................................................................................................93
Naming Conventions ..............................................................................................................95
Relationships and Instances Are Entities .................................................................................97

x Data and Reality
CHAPTER 5: Attributes.................................................................................................... 99
Some Ambiguities ..................................................................................................................99
Attribute vs. Relationship.....................................................................................................101
Are Attributes Entities? ........................................................................................................104
Attribute vs. Category ..........................................................................................................105
Options................................................................................................................................105
Conclusion ...........................................................................................................................107
CHAPTER 6: Types and Categories and Sets................................................................... 109
“Type”: A Merging of Ideas...................................................................................................109
Extended Concepts...............................................................................................................112
Sets......................................................................................................................................114
CHAPTER 7: Models...................................................................................................... 119
General Concept of Models ..................................................................................................119
The Logical Model: Sooner, or Later? ....................................................................................120
Models of Reality vs. Models of Data....................................................................................122
CHAPTER 8: The Record Model ..................................................................................... 125
Semantic Implications ..........................................................................................................127
The Type/Instance Dichotomy ..............................................................................................129
Naming Practices..................................................................................................................133
Implicit Constraints ..............................................................................................................136
CHAPTER 9: Philosophy ................................................................................................ 139
Reality and Tools..................................................................................................................139
Points of View......................................................................................................................141
A View of Reality..................................................................................................................142
Bibliography ................................................................................................................ 151
Index ........................................................................................................................... 161

11
A Note by Chris Date on the Republication of Data and Reality
By Chris Date in 2012
I first read this book in draft form in the mid-1970s, and I enjoyed it immensely. Bill
was a good friend of mine; we had many interests in common, including not least a deep
and abiding love of the desert. Although we didn’t always see eye to eye technically, our
debates on technical issues were never acrimonious, and often enlightening to me. Of
course, the world has moved on since then; I’ve learned a lot myself in the intervening
years, and I’m quite sure there are aspects of Bill’s book that I would disagree with now
more than I did then! (His characterization of the relational model is certainly a case in
point.) But this is quibbling. Here’s a lightly edited version of what I wrote myself by
way of annotation on his book when I referenced it some years later in a book of my
own:
[Bill’s book is a] stimulating and thought-provoking discussion of the nature of
information.... “This book projects a philosophy that life and reality are at bottom
amorphous, disordered, contradictory, inconsistent, non-rational, and nonobjective”
(excerpt from the final chapter). The book can be regarded in large part as a
compendium of real-world problems that (it is suggested) existing database
formalisms have difficulty in dealing with. Recommended.
I still stand by these remarks today. (Though I have to say that the reference to “a
compendium of real-world problems” does remind me—I don’t think Bill would mind me
saying this—that I always thought of Bill as being, philosophically, at one with the
apocryphal trainee officer of whom an exasperated instructor wrote in his final report:
“This man can be relied upon to find the set of circumstances in which any given plan
can be guaranteed not to work.”)
In all seriousness, though, I’m very glad to see Bill’s book being given a new lease on life
in this way. I hope it wins him many new fans. For me, it brings Bill very strongly back
to mind, and in my imagination I can see his face again and hear once again his gruff
voice saying “But what about....” I wish the book every success.

13
Foreword to the New Edition of Data and Reality
By Graeme Simsion in 2012
With a single word, Data and Reality lays down a challenge to data modeling
practitioners, teachers, and researchers.
The word is arbitrary, which Merriam-Webster defines as “...based on or determined by
individual preference or convenience....” William Kent uses the word throughout the
book—and particularly in the first chapter—to characterize some of the most important
decisions that data modelers make.
The boundaries of an entity are arbitrary, our selection of entity types is arbitrary, the
distinction between entities, attributes, and relationships is arbitrary. In a similar vein,
he uses variants of the word ambiguous some fifty times, pointing out important and
often fundamental problems with the goals, language, and process of data modeling.
Kent was writing in 1978, when data modeling was a new discipline. His achievement
at the time was to identify the areas in which we needed to develop theory and
experience so that critical data modeling decisions could be rooted in something more
than “individual preference.”
In the years since, hundreds of books and papers have been published on data modeling,
and practitioners have accumulated a wealth of experience. So we should be well down
the track towards replacing arbitrariness with soundly-based rules and guidelines.
Unfortunately, this is not the case, at least not in the areas that Data and Reality
focuses on. Nor have Kent’s concerns been further elaborated, or, for that matter,
refuted.
Instead, like the drunk looking for his lost keys under the streetlamp because “the light
is better here,” we have pursued other, less fundamental, aspects of data modeling, in
particular the design and evaluation of modeling formalisms (within a sadly
unimaginative range of variants). The only significant exception is the exploration of the
binary alternative to the entity-relationship-attribute paradigm by Nijssen, Halpin, and
others, which Kent foreshadows in Chapters 4 and 5. But, again, this work has led
mainly to proposals for new formalisms. Similarly, research that seeks to apply ontology
to data modeling has focused on comparing formalisms, rather than shedding light on
the deeper questions that Kent raises.

14 Data and Reality
The arbitrariness that Kent identifies lies in the earliest—and, I would argue, the most
critical—stage of data modeling, when complex real-world structures are mapped onto
the simple constructs supported by the modeling language. My own research with data
modeling practitioners in 2002-2006 showed considerable evidence of arbitrary
decisions, resulting in radically different models for the same situation—with little
basis for choosing one over the others. Worse, many modelers seemed unaware of the
arbitrariness of their models, and hence were inclined to see alternative models as being
wrong, rather than the result of different arbitrary decisions. Thought leaders were
divided about the contribution of individual preference: some saw modeling as
deterministic, others as highly creative.
So, more than three decades on from Data and Reality, data modelers still do not have a
clear agreement on the nature of the task, on what guidelines to apply in selecting
entities, attributes, and relationships, and why one workable model should be preferred
over another.
Perhaps we have avoided these issues because they lead to the difficult questions of
identity, semantics, and categorization, which are traditionally the territory of
philosophers rather than information technology practitioners and researchers. But we
will not find our keys if we are not prepared to move from under the streetlamp.
The practitioner or researcher who is not equipped or inclined to tackle these problems
at least needs to be aware of them, in order to understand the challenges of their work
and the limitations of the techniques they are using. Researchers need to understand,
deeply, the shortcomings of laboratory tasks that require the participant to develop a
single correct “gold standard” model for a situation, and of formalisms and quality
metrics that assume a common perception and categorization of the real-world domain.
Practitioners need to recognize where they are making arbitrary decisions that might
well be different from those made by other modelers.
While such fundamental issues remain unrecognized and unanswered, Data and
Reality, with its lucid and compelling elucidation of the questions, needs to remain in
print. I read the book as a database administrator in 1980, as a researcher in 2002, and
just recently as the manuscript for the present edition. On each occasion, I found
something more, and on each occasion I considered it the most important book I had
read on data modeling. It has been on my recommended reading list forever. The first
chapter, in particular, should be mandatory reading for anyone involved in data
modeling.

Foreword 15
In publishing this new edition, Steve Hoberman has not only ensured that one of the
key books in the data modeling canon remains in print, but has added his own
comments and up-to-date examples, which are likely to be helpful to those who have
come to data modeling more recently. Don’t do any more data modeling work until
you’ve read it.
About Graeme
Graeme Simsion is an information systems consultant, educator and researcher with a
longstanding interest in data modeling. He is the author of Data Modeling Essentials,
which is now entering its fourth edition, and of numerous academic and practitioner
papers. His Ph.D. thesis, published as Data Modeling Theory and Practice, reported on
the attitudes and practices of almost five hundred data modeling practitioners. He
currently focuses on teaching consulting skills and pursuing his second career as a
screenwriter.

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*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK STANLEY IN
AFRICA ***

Transcriber’s Note: The original publication has
been replicated faithfully except as listed here.
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COLUMBIA PRESENTING STANLEY TO EUROPEAN
SOVEREIGNS.
STANLEY
IN
AFRICA.
THE
WONDERFUL DISCOVERIES
AND
THRILLING ADVENTURES
OF

THE GREAT AFRICAN
EXPLORER
AND OTHER
TRAVELERS, PIONEERS AND
MISSIONARIES.
BEAUTIFULLY AND ELABORATELY
ILLUSTRATED WITH
ENGRAVINGS, COLORED PLATES AND
MAPS
BY
JAMES P. BOYD, A.M.

Author of “Political History of the
United States” and
“Life of Gen. U. S. Grant,” etc.
ROSE PUBLISHING CO.,
Toronto, Canada.
Copyright, 1889
BY
James P. Boyd.

INTRODUCTION.
A volume of travel, exploration and adventure is never without
instruction and fascination for old and young. There is that within us
all which ever seeks for the mysteries which are bidden behind
mountains, closeted in forests, concealed by earth or sea, in a word,
which are enwrapped by Nature. And there is equally that within us
which is touched most sensitively and stirred most deeply by the
heroism which has characterized the pioneer of all ages of the world
and in every field of adventure.
How like enchantment is the story of that revelation which the
New America furnished the Old World! What a spirit of inquiry and
exploit it opened! How unprecedented and startling, adventure of
every kind became! What thrilling volumes tell of the hardships of
daring navigators or of the perils of brave and dashing landsmen!
Later on, who fails to read with the keenest emotion of those
dangers, trials and escapes which enveloped the intrepid searchers
after the icy secrets of the Poles, or confronted those who would
unfold the tale of the older civilizations and of the ocean’s island
spaces.
Though the directions of pioneering enterprise change, yet more
and more man searches for the new. To follow him, is to write of the
wonderful. Again, to follow him is to read of the surprising and the
thrilling. No prior history of discovery has ever exceeded in vigorous
entertainment and startling interest that which centers in “The Dark
Continent” and has for its most distinguished hero, Henry M. Stanley.
His coming and going in the untrodden and hostile wilds of Africa,

now to rescue the stranded pioneers of other nationalities, now to
explore the unknown waters of a mighty and unique system, now to
teach cannibal tribes respect for decency and law, and now to map
for the first time with any degree of accuracy, the limits of new
dynasties, make up a volume of surpassing moment and peculiar
fascination.
All the world now turns to Africa as the scene of those
adventures which possess such a weird and startling interest for
readers of every class, and which invite to heroic exertion on the
part of pioneers. It is the one dark, mysterious spot, strangely made
up of massive mountains, lofty and extended plateaus, salt and
sandy deserts, immense fertile stretches, climates of death and
balm, spacious lakes, gigantic rivers, dense forests, numerous,
grotesque and savage peoples, and an animal life of fierce mien,
enormous strength and endless variety. It is the country of the
marvelous, yet none of its marvels exceed its realities.
And each exploration, each pioneering exploit, each history of
adventure into its mysterious depths, but intensifies the world’s view
of it and enhances human interest in it, for it is there the civilized
nations are soon to set metes and bounds to their grandest
acquisitions—perhaps in peace, perhaps in war. It is there that white
colonization shall try its boldest problems. It is there that Christianity
shall engage in one of its hardest contests.
Victor Hugo says, that “Africa will be the continent of the
twentieth century.” Already the nations are struggling to possess it.
Stanley’s explorations proved the majesty and efficacy of equipment
and force amid these dusky peoples and through the awful mazes of
the unknown. Empires watched with eager eye the progress of his
last daring journey. Science and civilization stood ready to welcome
its results. He comes to light again, having escaped ambush, flood,
the wild beast and disease, and his revelations set the world aglow.
He is greeted by kings, hailed by savants, and looked to by the
colonizing nations as the future pioneer of political power and

commercial enterprise in their behalf, as he has been the most
redoubtable leader of adventure in the past.
This miraculous journey of the dashing and intrepid explorer,
completed against obstacles which all believed to be
insurmountable, safely ended after opinion had given him up as
dead, together with its bearings on the fortunes of those nations
who are casting anew the chart of Africa, and upon the native
peoples who are to be revolutionized or exterminated by the last
grand surges of progress, all these render a volume dedicated to
travel and discovery, especially in the realm of “The Dark Continent,”
surprisingly agreeable and useful at this time.
MARCHING THROUGH EQUATORIAL AFRICA.
Larger.

19
27
CONTENTS.
HENRY M. STANLEY,
Stanley is safe; the world’s rejoicings; a new volume in African
annals; who is “this wizard of travel?” story of Stanley’s life; a
poor Welsh boy; a work-house pupil; teaching school; a sailor
boy; in a New Orleans counting-house; an adopted child; bereft
and penniless; a soldier of the South; captured and a prisoner;
in the Federal Navy; the brilliant correspondent; love of travel
and adventure; dauntless amid danger; in Asia-Minor and
Abyssinia; at the court of Spain; in search of Livingstone; at Ujiji
on Tanganyika; the lost found; across the “dark continent;”
down the dashing Congo; boldest of all marches; acclaim of the
world.
THE CONGO FREE STATE,
A Congo’s empire; Stanley’s grand conception; European ambitions;
the International Association; Stanley off for Zanzibar; enlists his
carriers; at the mouth of the Congo; preparing to ascend the
river; his force and equipments; the river and river towns;
hippopotamus hunting; the big chiefs of Vivi; the “rock-
breaker;” founding stations; making treaties; tribal
characteristics; Congo scenes; elephants, buffaloes and water-
buck; building houses and planting gardens; making roads;
rounding the portages; river crocodiles and the steamers;
foraging in the wilderness; products of the country; the king

139
and the gong; no more war fetish; above the cataracts; Stanley
Pool and Leopoldville; comparison of Congo with other rivers;
exploration of the Kwa; Stanley sick; his return to Europe;
further plans for his “Free State;” again on the Congo; Bolobo
and its chiefs; medicine for wealth; a free river, but no land;
scenery on the upper Congo; the Watwa dwarfs; the lion and
his prey; war at Bolobo; the Equator station; a long voyage
ahead; a modern Hercules; tropical scenes; a trick with a tiger
skin; hostile natives; a canoe brigade; the Aruwimi; ravages of
slave traders; captive women and children; to Stanley Falls; the
cataracts; appointing a chief; the people and products; wreck of
a steamer; a horrible massacre; down the Congo to Stanley
Pool; again at Bolobo; a burnt station; news from missionaries;
at Leopoldville; down to Vivi; the treaties with chiefs; treaty
districts; the Camaroon country; oil river region; Stanley’s return
to London; opinions of African life; thirst for rum; adventures
and accidents; advice to adventurers; outlines of the Congo
Free State; its wealth and productions; commercial value; the
Berlin conference; national jurisdiction; constitution of the
Congo Free States; results.
THE SEARCH FOR EMIN,
Stanley’s call; the Belgian king; the Emin Pasha relief committee;
Stanley in charge of the expedition; off for Central Africa;
rounding the cataracts; the rendezvous at Stanley Pool; who is
Emin? his life and character; a favorite of Gordon; fall of
Khartoum; Emin cut off in equatorial Soudan; rising of the
Mahdi; death of Gordon; Emin lost in his equatorial province; his
capitals and country; Stanley pushes to the Aruwimi; Tippoo Tib
and his promises; Barttelot and the camps; trip up the Aruwimi;
wanderings in the forest; battles with the dwarfs; sickness,
starvation and death; lost in the wilds; the plains at last; grass
and banana plantations; arrival at Albert Nyanza; no word of
Emin; back to the Aruwimi for boats; another journey to the

185
257
lake; Emin found; tantalizing consultations; Stanley leaves for
his forest stations; treachery of Tippoo Tib; massacre of
Barttelot; the Mahdi influence; again for the Lake to save Emin;
willing to leave Africa; the start for Zanzibar; hardships of the
trip; safe arrival at Zanzibar; accident to Emin; the world’s
applause; Stanley a hero.
EGYPT AND THE NILE,
Shaking hands at Ujiji; Africa a wonderland; Mizriam and Ham;
Egypt a gateway; mother of literature, art and religion; the Jews
and Egypt; mouths of the Nile; the Rosetta stone; Suez Canal;
Alexandria; Pharos, a “wonder of the world;” Cleopatra’s
needles; Pompey’s Pillar; the catacombs; up the Nile to Cairo;
description of Cairo; Memphis; the Pyramids and Sphinx;
convent of the pulley; Abydos its magnificent ruins; City of “the
Hundred Gates;” temple of Luxor; statues of Memnon; the
palace temple of Thebes; the old Theban Kings; how they built;
ruins of Karnak; most imposing in the world; temples of Central
Thebes; wonderful temple of Edfou; the Island of Philæ; the
elephantine ruins; grand ruins of Ipsambul; Nubian ruins; rock
tomb at Beni-Hassan; the weird “caves of the crocodiles;” horrid
death of a traveler; Colonel and Lady Baker; from Kartoum to
Gondokoro; hardships of a Nile expedition; the “forty thieves;”
Sudd on the White Nile; adventures with hippopotami; mobbing
a crocodile; rescuing slaves; at Gondokoro; horrors of the
situation; battles with the natives; night attack; hunting
elephants; instincts of the animal; natural scenery; different
native tribes; cruelty of slave-hunters; ambuscades; annexing
the country; hunting adventures; the Madhi’s rebellion; death of
Gordon.
SOURCES OF THE NILE,

331
African mysteries; early adventures; the wonderful lake regions;
excitement over discovery; disputed points; the wish of
emperors; journey through the desert; Baker and Mrs. Baker;
M’dslle Tinne; Nile waters and vegetation; dangers of
exploration; from Gondokoro to Albert Nyanza, native chiefs and
races; traits and adventure; discovery of Albert Nyanza; King
Kamrasi; his royal pranks; adventures on the lake; a true Nile
source; Murchison Falls; revelations by Speke and Grant;
Victoria Nyanza; another Nile source; Stanley on the scene; his
manner of travel; trip to Victoria Nyanza; voyage of the “Lady
Alice;” adventures on the lake; King Mtesa and his empire;
wonders of the great lake; surprises for Stanley; in battle for
King Mtesa; results of his discoveries; native traditions; demons
and dwarfs; off for Tanganyika.
THE ZAMBESI,
Livingstone on the scene; how he got into Africa; his early
adventures and trials; wounded by a lion; his marriage; off for
Lake Ngam; among the Makololo; down the Chobe to the
Zambesi; up the Zambesi; across the Continent to Loanda;
discovery of Lake Dilolo; importance of the discovery;
description of the lake; its wonderful animals; methods of
African travel; rain-makers and witchcraft; the magic lantern
scene; animals of the Zambesi; country, people and
productions; adventures among the rapids; the Gouye Falls; the
burning desert and Cuando river; an elephant hunt; the
wonderful Victoria Falls; sounding smoke; the Charka wars;
lower Zambesi valley; wonderful animal and vegetable growth;
mighty affluents; escape from a buffalo; slave hunters; Shire
river and Lake Nyassa; peculiar native head-dresses; native
games, manners and customs; Pinto at Victoria Falls; central
salt pans.

367
416
423
THE CONGO,
Discovery of the wonderful Lake Tanganyika; Burton and Speke’s
visit; Livingstone’s trials; his geographical delusions; gorilla and
chimpanzee; Livingstone at Bangweola; on the Lualaba; hunting
the soko; thrilling adventure with a leopard; the Nyangwe
people; struggle back to Ujiji; meeting with Stanley; joy in the
wilderness; exploration of Tanganyika; the parting; Livingstone’s
last journey; amid rain and swamps; close of his career; death
of the explorer; care of his body; faithful natives; Stanley’s
second visit; what he had done; strikes the Lualaba; descends
in the “Lady Alice;” fights with the natives; ambuscades and
strategies; boating amid rapids; thrilling adventures amid falls
and cataracts; wonderful streams; the Lualaba is the Congo; joy
over the discovery; gauntlet of arrows and spears; loss of men
and boats: death of Frank Pocock; the falls become too
formidable; overland to the Atlantic; at the mouth of the mighty
Congo; return trip to Zanzibar; the Congo empire; Stanley’s
future plans.
CAPE OF STORMS,
Discovery of the Cape; early settlers; table mountain; Hottentot and
Boer; the diamond regions; the Zulu warriors; the Pacific
republics; natal and the transvaal; manners, customs, animals
and sports; climate and resources.
NYASSALAND,
A disputed possession; the beautiful Shiré; rapids and cataracts;
mountain fringed valleys; rank tropical vegetation; magnificent
upland scenery; thrifty and ingenious natives; cotton and
sorghum; the Go-Nakeds; beer and smoke; geese, ducks and
waterfowls; Lake Shirwa; the Blantyre mission; the Manganja

441
highlands; a village scene; native honesty; discovery of Lake
Nyassa; description of the Lake; lofty mountain ranges;
Livingstone’s impressions; Mazitu and Zulu; native arms, dresses
and customs; slave-hunting Arabs; slave caravans; population
about Nyassa; storms on the lake; the first steamer; clouds of
“Kungo” flies; elephant herds; charge of an elephant bull;
exciting sport; African and Asiatic elephants; the Scottish
mission stations; great wealth of Nyassaland; value to
commerce; the English and Portuguese claims.
AFRICAN RESOURCES,
African coasts and mysteries; Negroland of the school-books; how to
study Africa; a vast peninsula; the coast rind; central plateaus
and mountain ranges; Stanley’s last discoveries; a field for
naturalists; bird and insect life; wild and weird nature; vast
area; incomputable population; types of African races;
distribution of races; African languages; character of the human
element; Africa and revelation; tribes of dwarfs; “Africa in a
Nutshell”; various political divisions; variety of products;
steamships and commerce; as an agricultural field; the lake
systems; immense water-ways; internal improvements;
Stanley’s observations; features of Equatorial Africa; extent of
the Congo basin; the Zambesi and Nile systems; the
geographical sections of the Congo system; the coast section;
cataracts, mountains and plains; affluents of the great Congo;
tribes of lower Congo; length of steam navigation; future
pasture grounds of the world; the Niam-Niam and Dinka
countries; empire of Tippoo Tib; richness of vegetable
productions; varieties of animal life; immense forests and
gigantic wild beasts; oils, gums and dyes; hides, furs, wax and
ivory; iron, copper, and other minerals; the cereals, cotton,
spices and garden vegetables; the labor and human resources;
humanitarian and commercial problems; the Lualaba section;
size, population and characteristics; navigable waters;

526
565
Livingstone’s observations; tracing his footsteps; animal and
vegetable life; stirring scenes and incidents; the Manyuema
country; Lakes Moero and Bangweola; resources of forest and
stream; climate and soil; a remarkable land; customs of natives;
village architecture; river systems and watersheds; Stanley and
Livingstone in the centre of the Continent; the Chambesi
section; head-rivers of the Congo; the Tanganyika system;
owners of the Congo basin; Stanley’s resume of African
resources; a glowing picture.
THE WHITE MAN IN AFRICA,
Egyptian and Roman Colonists; Moorish invasion; Portugese advent;
the commercial and missionary approach; triumphs of late
explorers; can the white man live in Africa?; colonizing and
civilizing; Stanley’s personal experience; he has opened a
momentous problem; Stanley’s melancholy chapters; effect of
wine and beer; the white man must not drink in Africa; must
change and re-adapt his habits; visions of the colonists; effect
of climate; kind of dress to wear; the best house to build; how
to work and eat; when to travel; absurdities of strangers;
following native examples; true rules of conduct; Stanley’s laws
of health; African cold worse than African heat; guarding
against fatigue; Dr. Martins code of health; the white man can
live in Africa; future of the white races in the tropics; the
struggle of foreign powers; missionary struggles; political and
commercial outlook.
MISSIONARY WORK IN AFRICA,
Africa for the Christian; Mohammedan influences; Catholic missions;
traveler and missionary; the great revival following Stanley’s
discoveries; Livingstone’s work; perils of missionary life; history
of missionary effort; the Moors of the North; Abyssinian

735
Christians; west-coast missions; various missionary societies;
character of their work; Bishop Taylor’s wonderful work in
Liberia, on the Congo, in Angola; nature of his plans; self-
supporting churches; outline of his work; mission houses and
farms; vivid descriptions and interesting letters; cheering
reports from pioneers; South African missions; opening
Bechuana-land; the Moffats and Coillards; Livingstone and
McKenzie; the Nyassa missions; on Tanganyika; the Church in
Uganda; murder of Harrington; the gospel on the east coast;
Arabs as enemies; religious ideas of Africans; rites and
superstitions; fetish and devil worship; importance of the
mission field; sowing the seed; gathering the harvest.
AFRICA’S LIGHTS AND SHADOWS,
Arnot’s idea of Central Africa; killed by an elephant; the puff adder;
the Kasai region; bulls for horses; a Congo hero; affection for
mothers; caught by a crocodile; decline of the slave trade; the
natives learning; books in native tongues; natives as laborers;
understanding of the climate; Stanley on the Gombe; the
leopard and spring-bock; habits of the antelope; Christian
heroes in Africa; the boiling pot ordeal; adventures of a slave;
Arab cruelties; a lion hunt; Mohammedan influence; a victim of
superstition; Hervic women; Tataka mission in Liberia; a native
war dance; African game laws; Viva on the Congo; rum in
Africa; palavering; Emin Pasha at Zanzibar; the Sas-town tribes;
an interrupted journey; in Monrovia; a sample sermon; the
scramble for Africa; lions pulling down a giraffe; Kilimanjars,
highest mountains in Africa; the Kru-coast Missions; a desperate
situation; Henry M. Stanley and Emin Pasha; comparison of the
two pioneers. pp. 800.

LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS.
PAGE.
COLUMBIA PRESENTING STANLEY TO EUROPEAN
SOVEREIGNS, Colored Plate
Frontis-
piece
MARCHING THROUGH EQUATORIAL AFRICA 4
MAP OF CENTRAL AFRICA
16 and
17
HENRY M. STANLEY 18
THE BELLOWING HIPPOPOTAMI 23
SCENE ON LAKE TANGANYIKA 29
GATHERING TO MARKET AT NYANGWE 31
A SLAVE-STEALER’S REVENGE 34
BUFFALO AT BAY 38
FIGHT WITH AN ENRAGED HIPPOPOTAMUS 40
ROUNDING A PORTAGE 44
A NARROW ESCAPE 45
WHITE-COLLARED FISH-EAGLES 48
A TEMPORARY CROSSING 49
WEAVER-BIRDS’ NESTS 51
NATIVES’ CURIOSITY AT SIGHT OF A WHITE MAN 56
CAPTURING A CROCODILE 58
LIONS DRAGGING DOWN A BUFFALO 62
A FUNERAL DANCE 66
STANLEY’S FIGHT WITH BENGALA IN 1877 67
AFRICAN BLACK-SMITHS 71

AFRICAN HEADDRESSES 72
ORNAMENTED SMOKING PIPE 75
NIAM-NIAM HAMLET ON THE DIAMOONOO 76
NIAM-NIAM MINSTREL 79
NIAM-NIAM WARRIORS 79
RECEIVING THE BRIDE 81
A BONGO CONCERT 82
THE MASSACRE AT NYANGWE 90
KNIFE-SHEATH, BASKET, WOODEN-BOLSTER AND BEE-
HIVE
96
RECEPTION BY AN AFRICAN KING 99
SACRIFICE OF SLAVES, Colored Plate 100
TIPPOO TIB’S GRAND CANOES GOING DOWN THE
CONGO, FRONT
136
TIPPOO TIB’S GRAND CANOES GOING DOWN THE
CONGO, REAR
137
HENRY M. STANLEY. From a Late Portrait 138
EMIN PASHA IN HIS TENT 142
NIAM-NIAM VILLAGE 146
CUTTING WOOD AT NIGHT FOR THE STEAMERS 149
INTERVIEW OF MAJOR BARTTELOT AND MR. JAMESON
WITH TIPPOO TIB
149
AN AMBUSCADE 151
ELEPHANTS DESTROYING VEGETATION 157
THE CAPTURED BUFFALO 159
AFRICAN WARRIORS 159
ATTACK ON THE ENCAMPMENT 161
BEGINNING A HUT 164
STANLEY’S FIRST SIGHT OF EMIN’S STEAMER 165
THE SECOND STAGE 165
HUT COMPLETED IN AN HOUR 166
CAMP AT KINSHASSA, ON THE CONGO, WITH TIPPOO
TIB’S HEADQUARTERS
170

SLAVE MARKET 180
LIVINGSTONE AND STANLEY 185
THE ROSETTA STONE 188
DE LESSEPS 190
CLEOPATRA 191
PHAROS LIGHT 192
ALEXANDER, THE GREAT 193
CLEOPATRA’S NEEDLE 193
THE SERAPEION 195
EGYPTIAN GOD 196
ROMAN CATACOMBS 196
MASSACRE OF MAMELUKES 199
VEILED BEAUTY 200
PYRAMIDS OF EGYPT 203
INTERIOR OF GREAT PYRAMID 204
THE SPHINX 206
STATUES OF MEMNON 210
RUINS IN THEBES 211
OBELISK OF KARNAK 213
SPHINX OF KARNAK 214
GATEWAY AT KARNAK 215
A MUMMY 216
TEMPLE AT EDFOU 217
ISIS ON PHILÆ 218
TEMPLE COURT, PHILÆ 220
TEMPLE AT IPSAMBUL 221
TEMPLE OF OSIRIS 222
TEMPLE OF ATHOR 224
ROCK TOMB OF BENI-HASSAN 226
EGYPTIAN BRICK FIELD 227
GROTTOES OF SAMOUN 228
A CHIEF’S WIFE 231
THE “FORTY THIEVES” 232

MOBBING A CROCODILE 234
RELEASING SLAVES 236
ATTACKED BY A HIPPOPOTAMUS 237
A SOUDAN WARRIOR 239
A NIGHT ATTACK 241
ELEPHANTS IN TROUBLE 242
SHAKING FRUIT 244
TABLE ROCK 245
NATIVE DANCE 246
ATTACK BY AMBUSCADE 248
HUNTING WITH FIRE 251
RESULTS OF FREEDOM 251
GORDON AS MANDARIN 253
PORTRAIT OF GORDON 256
PORTRAIT OF COLONEL BAKER 266
MAD’MLLE TINNE 268
LADY BAKER 270
SLAVE HUNTER’S VICTIM’S 271
WHITE NILE SWAMPS 274
CROSSING A SPONGE 276
PREPARING TO START 279
A ROYAL JOURNEY 291
MURCHISON FALLS 298
HENRY M. STANLEY 303
STANLEY ON THE MARCH 304
RUBAGA 314
SHOOTING A RHINOCEROS 328
LIVINGSTONE 330
LION ATTACKS LIVINGSTONE 333
CUTTING A ROAD 334
A BANYAN TREE 338
ANIMALS ON THE ZAMBESI 343
THE GONYE FALLS 344

HUNTING THE ELEPHANT 345
IN THE RAPIDS 348
VICTORIA FALLS 351
CHARGE OF A BUFFALO 355
NATIVE SLAVE HUNTERS 356
HUAMBO MAN AND WOMAN 359
SAMBO WOMAN 359
GANGUELA WOMEN 359
BIHE HEAD DRESS 361
QUIMBANDE GIRLS 361
CUBANGO HEAD-DRESS 361
LUCHAZE WOMAN 362
AMBUELLA WOMAN 362
SOVA DANCE 363
FORDING THE CUCHIBI 363
VICTORIA FALLS (BELOW) 365
ON TANGANYIKA 368
ANT HILL 371
GORILLAS 371
A SOKO HUNT 374
A DANGEROUS PRIZE 375
NYANGWE MARKET 378
STANLEY AT TANGANYIKA 380
STANLEY MEETS LIVINGSTONE 381
AFLOAT ON TANGANYIKA 382
DEEP-WATER FORDING 386
LAST DAY’S MARCH 388
DEATH OF LIVINGSTONE 389
THE KING’S MAGICIANS 390
A WEIR BRIDGE 395
FIGHTING HIS WAY 398
RESCUE OF ZAIDI 403
ATTACK BY THE BANGALA 405

IN THE CONGO RAPIDS 408
DEATH OF FRANK POCOCK 411
ZULUS 418
MY CATTLE WERE SAVED 420
BUFFALO HUNTERS 421
VILLAGE SCENE ON LAKE NYASSA 426
STORM ON LAKE NYASSA 434
AN ELEPHANT CHARGE 436
NATIVE HUNTERS KILLING SOKOS 446
AFRICAN ANT-EATER 446
TERRIBLE FIGHT OF AFRICAN MONARCHS, Colored Plate 446
QUICHOBO 446
THE “DEVIL OF THE ROAD,” ETC. 450
BUSH-BUCKS 450
NATIVE TYPES OF SOUTHERN SOUDAN 451
BARI OF GONDOKORO 453
CHASING GIRAFFES 457
NATIVE RAT-TRAP 463
AFRICAN HATCHET 464
NATIVES RUNNING TO WAR 466
UMBANGI BLACKSMITHS 469
NATIVES KILLING AN ELEPHANT 472
ON A JOURNEY IN THE KALAHARI DESERT 480
WOMEN CARRIERS 481
DRIVING GAME INTO THE HOPO 483
PIT AT END OF HOPO 483
CAPSIZED BY A HIPPOPOTAMUS 487
HUNTER’S PARADISE 488
BATLAPIN BOYS THROWING THE KIRI 492
PURSUIT OF THE WILD BOAR 492
RAIDING THE CATTLE SUPPLY 494
HUNTING ZEBRAS 497
DANGEROUS FORDING 503

A YOUNG SOKO 506
MANYUEMA WOMEN 510
TYPES OF AFRICAN ANTELOPES 515
BINKA CATTLE HERD 518
AFRICAN RHINOCEROS 534
ELEPHANT UPROOTING A TREE 540
COL. BAKER’S WAY OF REACHING BERBER 553
AFRICA METHODIST CONFERENCE 564
CHUMA AND SUSI 568
KING LOBOSSI 568
WEST AFRICAN MUSSULMAN 579
AN AFRICAN CHIEF 587
PORT AND TOWN OF ELMINA 592
COOMASSIE, THE CAPITAL OF ASHANTI 594
CANOE TRAVEL ON THE NIGER 598
MAP OF LIBERIA 604
METHODIST PARSONAGE OF AFRICA 606
AFRICAN VILLAGE AND PALAVER TREE 611
ST. PAUL DE LOANDA 618
FOREST SCENE IN ANGOLA 621
MUNDOMBES AND HUTS 626
NATIVE GRASS-HOUSE ON THE CONGO 629
SOME OF BISHOP TAYLOR’S MISSIONARIES 635
GARAWAY MISSION HOUSE 643
MAP OF ANGOLA 647
STEAM WAGONS FOR HAULING AT VIVI 659
REED DANCE BY MOONLIGHT 676
MISSION HOUSE AT VIVI 692
HUNTING THE GEMBOCK 696
BISHOP TAYLOR’S MISSIONS 699
A NATIVE WARRIOR 706
THE COILLARD CAMP 709
AT HOME AFTER THE HUNT 711

MOFFAT INSTITUTION—KURUMAN 713
MOFFAT’S COURAGE 715
NATIVES OF LARI AND MADI IN CAMP AT SHOO 719
TINDER-BOX, FLINT AND STEEL 726
A CARAVAN BOUND FOR THE INTERIOR 728
TRAVEL ON BULL-BACK AND NATIVE ESCORT 739
LEOPARD ATTACKING A SPRINGBOCK 747
A LION HUNT 757
NATIVE WAR DANCE 764
BUFFALO DEFENDING HER YOUNG 770
SEKHOMS AND HIS COUNSEL 774
AN INTERRUPTED JOURNEY 779
LIONS PULLIN DOWN A GIRAFFE 786
HUNTING LIONS 794
A DESPERATE SITUATION 797
DINING ON THE BANKS OF THE SHIRE 800

CENTRAL AFRICA AND THE CONGO BASIN.
Larger: A. B. C. D. E. F.

HENRY M. STANLEY.
The news rang through the world that Stanley was safe. For
more than a year he had been given up as lost in African wilds by all
but the most hopeful. Even hope had nothing to rest upon save the
dreamy thought that he, whom hardship and danger had so often
assailed in vain, would again come out victorious.
The mission of Henry M. Stanley to find, succor and rescue Emin
Pasha, if he were yet alive, not only adds to the life of this persistent
explorer and wonderful adventurer one of its most eventful and
thrilling chapters, but throws more light on the Central African
situation than any event in connection with the discovery and
occupation of the coveted areas which lie beneath the equatorial
sun. Its culmination, both in the escape of the hero himself and in
the success of his perilous errand, to say nothing of its far-reaching
effects upon the future of “The Dark Continent,” opens, as it were, a
new volume in African annals, and presents a new point of departure
for scientists, statesmen and philanthropists.
Space must be found further on for the details of that long,
exciting and dangerous journey, which reversed all other tracks of
African travel, yet redounded more than all to the glory of the
explorer and the advancement of knowledge respecting hidden
latitudes. But here we can get a fair view of a situation, which in all
its lights and shadows, in its many startling outlines, in its awful
suggestion of possibilities, is perhaps the most interesting and
fateful now before the eyes of modern civilization.

It may be very properly asked, at the start, who is this wizard of
travel, this dashing adventurer, this heroic explorer and rescuer, this
pioneer of discovery, who goes about in dark, unfathomed places,
defying flood and climate, jungle and forest, wild beast and
merciless savage, and bearing a seemingly charmed life?
Who is this genius who has in a decade revolutionized all
ancient methods of piercing the heart of the unknown, and of
revealing the mysteries which nature has persistently hugged since
“the morning stars first sang together in joy?”
The story of his life may be condensed into a brief space—brief
yet eventful as that of a conqueror, moved ever to conquest by sight
of new worlds. Henry M. Stanley was born in the hamlet of Denbigh,
in Wales, in 1840. His parents, who bore the name of Rowland, were
poor; so poor, indeed, that the boy, at the age of three years, was
virtually on the town. At the age of thirteen, he was turned out of
the poor-house to shift for himself. Fortunately, a part of the
discipline had been such as to assure him the elements of an English
education. The boy must have improved himself beyond the
opportunities there at hand, for in two or three years afterwards, he
appeared in North Wales as a school-teacher. Thence he drifted to
Liverpool, where he shipped as a cabin-boy on a sailing-vessel,
bound for New Orleans. Here he drifted about in search of
employment till he happened upon a merchant and benefactor, by
the name of Stanley. The boy proved so bright, promising and
useful, that his employer adopted him as his son. Thus the
struggling John Rowland became, by adoption, the Henry M. Stanley
of our narrative.
Before he came of age, the new father died without a will, and
his business and estate passed away from the foster child to those
entitled at law. But for this misfortune, or rather great good fortune,
he might have been lost to the world in the counting-room of a
commercial city. He was at large on the world again, full of
enterprise and the spirit of adventure.

The civil war was now on, and Stanley entered the Confederate
army. He was captured by the Federal forces, and on being set at
liberty threw his fortunes in with his captors by joining the Federal
navy, the ship being the Ticonderoga, on which he was soon
promoted to the position of Acting Ensign. After the war, he
developed those powers which made him such an acquisition on
influential newspapers. He was of genial disposition, bright
intelligence, quick observation and surprising discrimination. His
judgment of men and things was sound. He loved travel and
adventure, was undaunted in the presence of obstacles, persistent in
every task before him, and possessed shrewd insight into human
character and projects. His pen was versatile and his style adapted
to the popular taste. No man was ever better equipped by nature to
go anywhere and make the most of every situation. In a single year
he had made himself a reputation by his trip through Asia Minor and
other Eastern countries. In 1866 he was sent by the New York
Herald, as war correspondent, to Abyssinia. The next year he was
sent to Spain by the same paper, to write up the threatened
rebellion there. In 1869 he was sent by the Herald to Africa to find
the lost Livingstone.
A full account of this perilous journey will be found elsewhere in
this volume, in connection with the now historic efforts of that
gallant band of African pioneers who immortalized themselves prior
to the founding of the Congo Free State. Suffice it to say here, that
it took him two years to find Livingstone at Ujiji, upon the great lake
of Tanganyika, which lake he explored, in connection with
Livingstone, and at the same time made important visits to most of
the powerful tribes that surround it. He returned to civilization, but
remained only a short while, for by 1874 he was again in the
unknown wilds, and this time on that celebrated journey which
brought him entirely across the Continent from East to West,
revealed the wonderful water resources of tropical Africa and gave a
place on the map to that remarkable drainage system which finds its
outlet in the Congo river.

Says the Rev. Geo. L. Taylor of this march: “It was an
undertaking which, for grandeur of conception, and for sagacity,
vigor, and completeness of execution, must ever rank among the
marches of the greatest generals and the triumphs of the greatest
discoverers of history. No reader can mentally measure and classify
this exploit who does not recall the prolonged struggles that have
attended the exploration of all great first-class rivers—a far more
difficult work, in many respects, than ocean sailing. We must
remember the wonders and sufferings of Orellana’s voyages (though
in a brigantine, built on the Rio Napo, and with armed soldiers)
down that “Mediterranean of Brazil,” the Amazon, from the Andes to
the Atlantic, in 1540. We must recall the voyage of Marquette and
Joliet down the Mississippi in 1673; the toils of Park and Landers on
the Niger, 1795-1830; and of Speke and Baker on the Nile, 1860-
1864, if we would see how the deed of Stanley surpasses them all in
boldness and generalship, as it promises also to surpass them in
immediate results.
The object of the voyage was two-fold: first, to finish the work
of Speke and Grant in exploring the great Nile lakes; and, secondly,
to strike the great Lualaba where Livingstone left it, and follow it to
whatever sea or ocean it might lead.”
And again:—“The story of the descent of the great river is an
Iliad in itself. Through hunger and weariness; through fever,
dysentery, poisoned arrows, and small-pox; through bellowing
hippopotami, crocodiles, and monsters; past mighty tributaries,
themselves great first-class rivers; down roaring rapids, whirlpools,
and cataracts; through great canoe-fleets of saw-teethed, fighting,
gnashing cannibals fiercer than tigers; through thirty-two battles on
land and river, often against hundreds of great canoes, some of
them ninety feet long and with a hundred spears on board; and, at
last, through the last fearful journey by land and water down the
tremendous cañon below Stanley Pool, still they went on, and on,
relentlessly on, till finally they got within hailing and helping distance
of Boma, on the vast estuary by the sea; and on August 9, 1877, the

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