Data Collection

-Data collection methods are scientific in
procedure calling for different skills.
- The choice of data collection method(s)
is determined by context & minimum
cost enough for the purpose of study.
- Primary & Secondary data require
different methods of data collection.
- These methods can be grouped under
Quantitative (numerical) & Qualitative
(non-numerical).

Quantitative Research Qualitative Research
Type of knowledge Subjective Objective
Aim Exploratory &
Observational
Generalizable & Testing
Characteristics Flexible
Contextual portrayal
Dynamic, continuous
view of change
Fixed & controlled
I V & D V
Pre & Post measurement
change
Sampling Purposeful Random
Data Collection Semi-structured or
Unstructured
Structured
Nature of Data Narrative, quotations,
descriptions
Value uniqueness,
particularity
Numbers, Statistics
Replication
Analysis Thematic Statistical

 Quantitative techniques are
used to describe patterns or to
pinpoint specific problems
that need attention, but they
are usually not good for
understanding why these
patterns or problems exist.

Qualitative techniques are better suited to
examine the feelings, beliefs, attitudes, or
motivation that underlie an observed problem.
They are helpful in exploring the causes of a
problem, constraints to changes in behavior,
and opportunities for correcting the problem.
Qualitative methods are based on talking to
people at length and in depth or observing their
behavior.

 An interview is a purposeful interaction in
which one person obtains information from
another.
Interview
 Structured
 Unstructured
 Semi structured

 It is a formal interview in which researchers
has specified a set of planned questions that
elicits the same questions from the interviewees.
2. Unstructured Interview :
 It is an informal interview that allows researchers
to obtain more complex or personal information.
3. Semi-structured Interview:
 The interview in which the interviewer has general
idea or framework , but does not enter the
interview with a list of predetermined questions

Guidelines for interviewing
• Listen more, talk less.
• Do not interrupt.
• Avoid leading questions.
• Keep participants focused and ask for
concrete details.
• Follow up on what they say.
• Do not be judgmental about their views.
• Do not debate with them over their
responses.

Collecting the Data in
Interviews:
• Taking notes during the interview.
• Writing notes after the interview.
• Audio- or videotaping the interview.

 A focus group is where people from similar
backgrounds or experiences that get together
to discuss specific topics of interest to the
researcher.
 The group participants are guided by the
moderator or facilitator, who introduces topics
for discussion and helps the group participate
in a lively and natural manner amongst
themselves.

An in depth interview is a discussion between
a respondent and an interviewer that follows a
set of brief interview guidelines written ahead
of time.
The interview contains many open-ended
questions and does not necessarily follow a
rigid form and sequence of questions

 Most common method of data collection in
medicine and allied health sciences.
 Observation becomes a scientific tool and the
method of data collection for the researcher,
when it serves a formulated research purpose,
is systematically planned and recorded and is
subjected to checks and control on validity and
reliability.

 Gorman and Clayton define observation studies as
those that “involve the systematic recording of
observable phenomena or behaviour in a natural
setting”.
• MARSHALL and ROSSMAN (1989) define
observation as "the systematic description of
events, behaviors, and artifacts in the social
setting chosen for study “.
• Observations enable the researcher to describe
existing situations using the five senses, providing
a "written photograph" of the situation under study
(ERLANDSON, HARRIS, SKIPPER, & Allen , 1993).

 Controlled Observation :
 Naturalistic Observation
 Participant Observation

 1. Controlled Observation : Researcher
decides where the observation will take place
, at what time, with which participants, in
what circumstances & uses a standardized
procedure.
Strengths :
- Easily replicated  easy to test for reliability.
- Very easy for analysis.
- Time saving.
- Limitations :
- - Lack validity due to the Hawthorne effect /
demand characteristics.

- Studying the spontaneous behaviour of
participants in natural surroundings. The
researcher simply records what they see in
whatever way they can.
- Strengths :
- 1. By being able to observe the flow of behaviour
in its own setting , studies have greater
ecological validity.
2. Generates new ideas.
Limitations :
- Conducted on a micro scale  may lack
representativeness ----> lacks the ability to be
generalized to wider society.
- Less reliable.
- -Needs training.

- Here, researcher joins in & becomes part of the
group.
- Can be either Covert or Overt. Covert is where the
study is carried out ‘under cover’. The researcher’s
real identity & purpose are kept concealed from
the group being studied.
- The researcher takes a false identity & role, usually
posing as a genuine member of the group.
- Overt observation is where the researcher reveals
his or her true identity & purpose to the group &
asks permission to observe.
Limitations :
- 1. Difficult to get time / privacy for recording.
- 2. May lose objectivity -- bias---- reduces
validity of data.

The interview method of collecting data involves
presentation of oral, verbal stimuli and reply in
terms of oral-verbal responses. This method can
also be used through personal telephone interviews
and self-administered questionnaire.
Personal interview: Personal interview method
requires a person known as the interviewer asking
questions generally in a face to face contacts to the
other person or persons – respondent (s).
A method of collecting information through
personal interview is usually carried out in a
structured way. As such we call the interviews
structured or semi-structured interviews

 In an interview method – Usually uses a fixed
set of questions asked from sample of
respondents who have been selected to
represent a larger population. Such surveys
can focus on facts about respondents or on
what they know, or they can focus more on
respondent’s attitudes, opinions, and other
less easily qualified dimensions.

 Data collection through Self-
administered questionnaire.
Merits :
Low cost when even to a larger population
Free from bias of interviewer
Adequate time and well thought answers from
respondents
Demerits :
Low return
only used when respondents are educated
and readily cooperative
Possibility of ambiguous replies or omissions

 Data Collection through personal interview
Merits :
Enumerators fills the questionnaire and
interprets questions where necessary
Non-response is generally very low
Identity of respondent well known
Demerits :
More expensive
Difficult to cover a wider area

- It is a written collection of self – report
questions to be answered by selected group of
research participants.
 Guidelines for developing and presenting
questionnaires:
1. avoid a sloppy presentation.
2. carefully proofread.
3. Avoid a lengthy questionnaire.
4. do not ask unnecessary questions.
5. be clear.
6. an “other comments” section.

Advantages of questionnaires:
• The knowledge needed is controlled
by the questions.
• It can be used on a small scale, in-
house, and on a large scale.
• Data can be gathered in several
different time slots.
• Self-completion questionnaires allow
access to outside contexts.

Types of questionnaires:
 Closed ended: the range of possible responses
is determined by the researcher.
 Open ended : the subject can decide what
to say and how to say it.
 Mixture of closed and open ended.

Question Type Example
List Indicate your qualification by circling any of the following
, Dip, MBBS, MD/MS
Category Indicate your salary range by circling one of it. (in Rs)
1. Less than 50,000
2. 51000-70000
3. 71000-90000
4. < 90000.
Ranking Rank the following from 1 to 4 in order of preference.
I like to learn by studying :-
-With the whole class
--in small group
-- in pairs
-- independently

Scale Circle one of the following to indicate your attitude
to the following to indicate your attitude to the
following statement.
‘I like to learn through interacting with native
speakers ‘.
Strongly agree, agree, neutral, disagree,,
strongly disagree
Quantity /
Frequency
Circle one of the following:
How often did you practise English outside class ?
0,1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9,10, more than 10.
Grid How many Ph D students are there in the following
class ?
- 0-5 5-10 10-15 15+
Year 1
Year 2

 Numeric Open End:
1. How much did you spend on groceries this
week ?
 Text Open End :
1. How can our university improve the working
conditions ?
- - - - - - -- - - -- - -- - - - - - - - - - -
- - - - - -
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
- - - - - -

 After reading the Travel Information Guide ,
can you use this information to make
journeys you previously thought weren’t
possible ?
Yes ( ) if yes, please complete the table below.
No ( ) If no, please say why _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _
_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _
What places can you now visit ?
(Eg. Hospital, library , Mall,
friends )
Which service do you use to get
there ?
(Eg. Bus service, Voluntary Care
group )

In most intervention trials it will be necessary to
compile a register of individuals included in the
trial. The register should include sufficient
identification information on each person to
enable participants to be followed over time with
minimal possibility of confusing one individual
with another.
- Enumerate (count and identify) all members.
- Clearly define a specific population or
subgroup.

 This is data available – be it published or
unpublished.
 Can be obtained from various sources.
 Require minute scrutiny to assess suitability
in the context of the problem raising issues
of:
-Reliability of data
-suitability of data
-adequacy of data
-Bias
-Incompleteness
-Lack of stand format

The researcher must judiciously select the
method/methods for his own study, keeping
in view the following factors:
 Nature, scope and object of enquiry: This
constitutes the most important factor
affecting the choice of a particular method.
The method selected should be such that it
suits the type of enquiry that is to be
conducted by the researcher. This factor is
also important in deciding use of secondary
or primary data or both.

 Availability of Funds: Finance, in fact, is a big
constraint in practice and the researcher has to
act within this limitation. Very limited fund may
compel the researcher to select a comparatively
cheaper method, which may not be as efficient
and effective as some other costly method.
 Time Factor: The available time affects the
selection of the method by which the data is to
be collected. Some methods take relatively more
time, while with others the data can be collected
in a comparatively shorter time.
 Precision required: Precision required is yet
another important factor to be considered at the
time of selecting the method of collection of
data.

 Definition: The collection and use of similar
and related data from different sources
using different tools.
 Supplements incomplete data sources.
 Eliminates bias.
 Possible to assess the balance of evidence
regarding each source.
 A Check on sources and informants with
incentives to mislead.

Remember: each method of data collection has
its use and none is superior in all
situations.
Desirable: selection of method depends on the
nature of a particular problem in
consideration of time and resources.
Required: Experience and ability of the
researcher.

Data Collection

More Related Content

What's hot (20)

Similar to Data Collection (20)

More from sangita singh (14)

Recently uploaded (20)

Data Collection