Data Collection in Research Methodology in BA
- 3. Interview method ⦿ The interview method of collecting data involves presentation of oral-verbal stimuli and reply in terms of oral-verbal responses. This method can be used through personal interviews and, if possible, through telephone interviews. ⦿ A method of data collection that involves researchers asking respondents basically open ended questions of respondents. ⦿ Interviews are capable of generating both standardized quantifiable data, and more in-depth qualitative data 3
- 4. Classification Personal & telephonic interviews Unstructured, semistructured & structured interviews Formal & non formal interviews One on one & group interviews
- 5. Personal interviews Personal interview method requires a person known as the interviewer asking questions generally in a face-to-face contact to the other person or persons. This sort of interview may be in the form of direct personal investigation or it may be indirect oral investigation. In the case of direct personal investigation the interviewer has to collect the information personally from the sources concerned. He has to be on the spot and has to meet people from whom data have to be collected. This method is particularly suitable for intensive investigations.
- 6. ⦿ But in certain cases it may not be possible or worthwhile to contact directly the persons concerned or on account of the extensive scope of enquiry, the direct personal investigation technique may not be used. In such cases an indirect oral examination can be conducted under which the interviewer has to cross-examine other persons who are supposed to have knowledge about the problem under investigation and the information, obtained is recorded. Most of the commissions and committees appointed by government to carry on investigations make use of this method.
- 7. Merits of personal interview method (i) More information and that too in greater depth can be obtained. (ii) Interviewer by his own skill can overcome the resistance, if any, of the respondents; the interview method can be made to yield an almost perfect sample of the general population. (iii) There is greater flexibility under this method as the opportunity to restructure questions is always there, specially in case of unstructured interviews. (iv) Observation method can as well be applied to recording verbal answers to various questions. (v)Personal information can as well be obtained easily under this method.
- 8. (vi) Samples can be controlled more effectively as there arises no difficulty of the missing returns; non-response generally remains very low. (vii) The interviewer can usually control which person(s) will answer the questions. This is not possible in mailed questionnaire approach. If so desired, group discussions may also be held. (ix) The language of the interview can be adopted to the ability or educational level of the person interviewed and as such misinterpretations concerning questions can be avoided. (x)The interviewer can collect supplementary information about the respondent’s personal characteristics and environment which is often of great value in interpreting results.
- 9. Demerits of personal interview method (i) It is a very expensive method, specially when large and widely spread geographical sample is taken. (ii) There remains the possibility of the bias of interviewer as well as that of the respondent; there also remains the headache of supervision and control of interviewers. (iii) Certain types of respondents such as important officials or executives or people in high income groups may not be easily approachable under this method and to that extent the data may prove inadequate. (iv) This method is relatively more-time-consuming, specially when the sample is large and re- calls upon the respondents are necessary.
- 10. (v)The presence of the interviewer on the spot may over-stimulate the respondent, sometimes even to the extent that he may give imaginary information just to make the interview interesting. (vi) Under the interview method the organization required for selecting, training and supervising the field-staff is more complex with formidable problems. (vii) Interviewing at times may also introduce systematic errors. (viii) Effective interview presupposes proper rapport with respondents that would facilitate free and frank responses. This is often a very difficult requirement.
- 11. Telephone interviews This method of collecting information consists in contacting respondents on telephone itself. It is not a very widely used method, but plays important part in industrial surveys, particularly in developed regions. The chief merits of such a system are: 1.It is more flexible in comparison to mailing method. 2.It is faster than other methods i.e., a quick way of obtaining information. 3.It is cheaper than personal interviewing method; here the cost per response is relatively low. 4.Recall is easy; callbacks are simple and economical. 5.There is a higher rate of response than what we have in mailing method; the non-response is generally very low.
- 12. 6.Replies can be recorded without causing embarrassment to respondents and wider distribution of sample is possible. 7. Interviewer can explain requirements more easily. 8. At times, access can be gained to respondents who otherwise cannot be contacted for one reason or the other. 9. No field staff is required. 10. Representative and wider distribution of sample is possible.
- 13. Demerits of telephonic interview method 1. Little time is given to respondents for considered answers; interview period is not likely to exceed five minutes in most cases. 2. Surveys are restricted to respondents who have telephone facilities. 3. Extensive geographical coverage may get restricted by cost considerations. 4. It is not suitable for intensive surveys where comprehensive answers are required to various questions. 5. Possibility of the bias of the interviewer is relatively more. 6. Questions have to be short and to the point; probes are difficult to handle.
- 14. Interview Types ⦿ Interviews can range from fixed to free: › Structured: Uses pre-established questions, asked in a predetermined order, using a standard mode of delivery › Semi-structured: As the name suggests, these interviews are neither fully fixed nor fully free, and are perhaps best seen as flexible › Unstructured: Attempts to draw out information, attitudes, opinions, and beliefs around particular themes, ideas, and issues without the aid of predetermined questions 14
- 15. Unstructured interviews do not follow a system of pre-determined questions and standardized techniques of recording information. In a non-structured interview, the interviewer is allowed much greater freedom to ask, in case of need, supplementary questions or at times he may omit certain questions if the situation so requires. He may even change the sequence of questions. He has relatively greater freedom while recording the responses to include some aspects and exclude others. But this sort of flexibility results in lack of comparability of one interview with another and the analysis of unstructured responses becomes much more difficult and time-consuming than that of the structured responses obtained in case of structured interviews. Unstructured interviews also demand deep knowledge and greater skill on the part of the interviewer. Unstructured interview, however, happens to be the central technique of collecting information in case of exploratory or formulative research studies. But in case of descriptive studies, we quite often use the technique of structured interview because of its being more economical, providing a safe basis for generalization and requiring relatively lesser skill on the part of the interviewer.
- 16. Interview Types ⦿ Interviews also vary in their level of formality: › Formal: A formal interview is just that, formal. Perhaps the best analogy is the classic job interview that includes: the office setting; the formal handshake; appropriate attire; order and structure; and best professional behavior. › Informal: An informal interview attempts to ignore the rules and roles associated with interviewing in an attempt to establish rapport, gain trust, and create a more natural environment conducive to open and honest communication. 16
- 17. Interview Types ⦿ Interviewing can be done one on one, or in groups: › One on one: Most interviews are an interaction between the interviewer and a single interviewee. It is thought that ‘one on one’ allows the researcher control over the process and the interviewee the freedom to express their thoughts › Group: Group interviews involve interviewing more than one person at a time. This can be done in a formal structured way, or may involve a less structured process where the researcher acts more as a moderator or facilitator than an interviewer 17
- 18. Conducting an Interview ⦿ Conducting an interview that can generate relevant and credible data requires: › thorough planning › considered preparation of an interview schedule and recording system › sufficient piloting › reflexive modification › the actual interview › and appropriate analysis 18
- 19. Conducting the Interview Two important considerations in interviewing are: ⦿ Presentation of self ⦿ Preliminaries › Be on time! › Set up and check equipment › Establish rapport › Introduce the study › Explain ethics 19
- 20. The Questioning Process Listen more than talk The main game in interviewing is to facilitate an interviewee’s ability to answer. This involves: › easing respondents into the interview › asking strategic questions › prompting and probing appropriately › keeping it moving › being true to your role › winding it down when the time is right 20
- 21. Recording Responses Recording responses can be done in a number of ways; you may need to trial a couple of recording methods in order to assess what is best for you. › Note taking - this can range from highly structured to open and interpretive. › Audio recording - audio recording allows you to preserve raw data for review at a later date. › Video taping - video taping offers the added bonus of being able to record visual cues, but is more intrusive; is prone to more technical difficulties; and can generate data that is hard to analyse. 21
- 22. Observation method of data collection ⦿ Observation: A systematic method of data collection that relies on a researcher’s ability to gather data through their senses ⦿ Observe: To notice using a full range of appropriate senses. To see, hear, feel, taste, and smell 22
- 23. ⦿ The observation method is the most commonly used method specially in studies relating to behavioral sciences. In a way we all observe things around us, but this sort of observation is not scientific observation. Observation becomes a scientific tool and the method of data collection for the researcher, when it serves a formulated research purpose, is systematically planned and recorded and is subjected to checks and controls on validity and reliability. Under the observation method, the information is sought by way of investigator’s own direct observation without asking from the respondent.
- 24. ⦿ Observation provides the opportunity for researchers to document actual behavior rather than responses related to behavior ⦿ However, the observed can act differently when surveilled; and researchers’ observations are likely to be biased by their own worldviews 24
- 25. Types of Observation ⦿ In conducting observations, researchers can be anything from removed to immersed: › Non-participant: In this role, the researcher does not become, nor aims to become an integral part of the system or community they are observing › Participant: In this role, the researcher is, or becomes, a part of the team, community, or cultural group they are observing 25
- 26. Types of Observation › Structured: Highly systematic and often rely on predetermined criteria related to the people, events, practices, issues, behaviours, actions, situations, and phenomena being observed. › Semi-structured: Observers generally use some manner of observation schedule or checklist to organize observations, but also attempt to observe and record the unplanned and/or the unexpected. › Unstructured: Observers attempt to observe and record data without predetermined criteria. 26
- 27. Advantages ⦿ Subjective bias is eliminated, if observation is done accurately. ⦿ Information obtained under this method relates to what is currently happening; it is not complicated by either the past behavior or future intentions or attitudes. ⦿ This method is independent of respondents willingness to respond and as such is relatively less demanding of active cooperation on the part of respondents as happens to be the case in the interview or the questionnaire method. This method is particularly suitable in studies which deal with subjects (i.e., respondents) who are not capable of giving verbal reports of their feelings for one reason or the other
- 28. Limitations ⦿ Firstly, it is an expensive method. ⦿ Secondly, the information provided by this method is very limited. ⦿ Thirdly, sometimes unforeseen factors may interfere with the observational task. At times, the fact that some people are rarely accessible to direct observation creates obstacle for this method to collect data effectively.
- 29. What is a Questionnaire? A set of Questions designed to generate the statistical information from a specific demographic needed to accomplish the research objectives.
- 30. ▪ Ensures standardization and comparability of the data across interviews – everyone is asked the same questions ▪ Increases speed and accuracy of recording ▪ Facilitates data processing ▪ Allows the researcher to collect the relevant information necessary to address the management decision problem Purposes of the Questionnaire
- 31. 1. Content - What should be asked? 2. Wording - How should each question be phrased? 3. Sequence - In what order should the questions be presented? 4. Layout - What layout will best serve the research objectives? The Major Decisions in Questionnaire Design The most difficult step is specifying exactly what information is to be collected from each respondent
- 32. 1. General form & content ⦿ So far as the general form of a questionnaire is concerned, it can either be structured or unstructured questionnaire. Structured questionnaires are those questionnaires in which there are definite, concrete and pre-determined questions. The questions are presented with exactly the same wording and in the same order to all respondents. ⦿ Resort is taken to this sort of standardization to ensure that all respondents reply to the same set of questions. The form of the question may be either closed (i.e., of the type ‘yes’ or ‘no’) or open (i.e., inviting free response) but should be stated in advance and not constructed during questioning.
- 33. 1. General form & content ⦿ Thus a highly structured questionnaire is one in which all questions and answers are specified and comments in the respondent’s own words are held to the minimum. When these characteristics are not present in a questionnaire, it can be termed as unstructured or non-structured questionnaire. More specifically, we can say that in an unstructured questionnaire, the interviewer is provided with a general guide on the type of information to be obtained, but the exact question formulation is largely his own responsibility and the replies are to be taken down in the respondent’s own words to the extent possible.
- 34. 2. Question sequence ⦿ A proper sequence of questions reduces considerably the chances of individual questions being misunderstood. The question-sequence must be clear and smoothly-moving, meaning thereby that the relation of one question to another should be readily apparent to the respondent, with questions that are easiest to answer being put in the beginning. The first few questions are particularly important because they are likely to influence the attitude of the respondent and in seeking his desired cooperation. The opening questions should be such as to arouse human interest. The following type of questions should generally be avoided as opening questions in a questionnaire: ⦿ Questions that put too great a strain on the memory or intellect of the respondent; ⦿ Questions of a personal character; ⦿ Questions related to personal wealth, etc.
- 35. ⦿ Relatively difficult questions must be relegated towards the end so that even if the respondent decides not to answer such questions, considerable information would have already been obtained. Thus, question-sequence should usually go from the general to the more specific and the researcher must always remember that the answer to a given question is a function not only of the question itself, but of all previous questions as well.
- 36. 3. Question formulation and wording With regard to this aspect of questionnaire, the researcher should note that each question must be very clear for any sort of misunderstanding can do irreparable harm to a survey. Question should also be impartial in order not to give a biased picture of the true state of affairs. Questions should be constructed with a view to their forming a logical part of a well thought out tabulation plan. In general, all questions should meet the following standards— (a) should be easily understood (b) should be simple i.e., should convey only one thought at a time (c) should be concrete and should conform as much as possible to the respondent’s way of thinking.
- 37. 1. Are the questions relevant. Do they pertain to the research problem 2. Are the questions accurate. Do they accurately depict the attitudes, behaviors, etc. intended to investigate 3. Do respondents have the necessary information? 4. Do respondents understand and interpret the question correctly 5. Will respondents give the information? 4. Layout
- 38. Open-ended questions ⦿ Open-ended Questions are exploratory in nature. Respondents provide a response in their own words. allows for the respondent to provide any answer they choose without forcing them to select from concrete options. ⦿ Questions that are open-ended provide rich qualitative data. In essence, they provide the researcher with an opportunity to gain insight on all the opinions on a topic they are not familiar with.
- 39. Open Ended Questions: key advantages ⦿ They permit an unlimited number of possible answers. ⦿ Respondents can answer in detail and can qualify and clarify responses ⦿ Unanticipated findings can be discovered ⦿ They permit adequate answers to complex issues ⦿ They permit creativity, self-expression, and richness of detail ⦿ They reveal a respondent's logic, thinking process, and frame of reference
- 40. Open-ended questions: Key disadvantages ⦿ Different respondents give different degrees of detail in answers ⦿ Responses may be irrelevant or buried in useless detail ⦿ Comparisons and statistical analysis become difficult ⦿ Coding responses is difficult· articulate and highly literate respondents have an advantage ⦿ Questions may be too general for respondents who lose direction ⦿ A greater amount of respondent time, thought, and effort is necessary ⦿ Answers take up a lot of space in the questionnaire.
- 41. Closed-ended questions Such questions do not allow the respondent to provide unique or unanticipated answers, but rather, they have to choose from a list of pre-selected options. Questions that are closed-ended are conclusive in nature as they are designed to create data that is easily quantifiable. The fact that questions of this type are easy to code makes them particularly useful when trying to prove the statistical significance of a survey’s results. Furthermore, the information gained by closed-ended questions allows researchers to categorize respondents into groups based on the options they have selected.
- 42. Closed Ended Questions: key advantages ⦿ It is easier and quicker for respondents to answer. ⦿ The answers of different respondents are easier to compare. ⦿ Answers are easier to code and statistically analyze. ⦿ The response choices can clarify question meaning for respondents ⦿ Respondents are more likely to answer about sensitive topics ⦿ There are fewer irrelevant or confused answers to questions ⦿ Less articulate or less literate respondents are not at a disadvantage ⦿ Replication is easier
- 43. Closed Ended Questions: key disadvantages ⦿ They can suggest ideas that the respondent would not otherwise have. ⦿ Respondents with no opinion or no knowledge can answer anyway. ⦿ respondents can be frustrated because their desired answer is not a choice ⦿ It is confusing if many response choices are offered ⦿ Misinterpretation of a question can go unnoticed ⦿ Distinctions between respondent answers may be blurred ⦿ Clerical mistakes or marking the wrong response is possible ⦿ They force respondents to give simplistic responses to complex issues ⦿ They force people to make choices they would not make in the real world
- 44. Closed Ended Questions ⦿ Dichotomous questions ⦿ Multiple choice questions ⦿ Scaled response questions
- 45. Dichotomous Questions ▪ Questions with two options like Yes/No, Agree/Disagree. Advantage It is quick and does not allow ambivalent answers. Disadvantages ▪ Prone to large amounts of error since polarized responses prevent gaining information on the range of variation ▪ Fail to communicate any intensity of feeling
- 46. Multiple Choice Questions ▪Are all possible alternatives included? ▪Too many alternatives ▪Position Bias Scaled Response Questions ▪ Closed ended questions where the response choices are designed to capture an intensity of feeling (Likert, Staple, Semantic differential) ▪Easy to code and more powerful statistical tools ▪Main problem: Respondent misunderstanding
- 47. ▪long-worded questions ▪ double-barreled questions. Questions that refer to two or more issues within the same question. Where respondent may agree with only 1 part of multipart statement. ▪ Do you think Nike offers better pricing and variety than other brands Things to avoid
- 48. Things to avoid ▪ burdensome questions - that may tax the respondent’s memory ▪ How many tubes of toothpaste have you purchased in the last 3 months ▪ Have you purchased toothpaste in the past week ▪Embarrassing, sensitive, or threatening questions: ▪ Have you charged more on your credit card than you should ▪ Use third person do you think most people…..
- 49. Merits ⦿ There is low cost even when the universe is large and is widely spread geographically. It is free from the bias of the interviewer; answers are in respondents’ own words. ⦿ Respondents have adequate time to give well thought out answers. ⦿ Respondents, who are not easily approachable, can also be reached conveniently. ⦿ Large samples can be made use of and thus the results can be made more dependable and reliable.
- 50. Demerits ⦿ Low rate of return of the duly filled in questionnaires; bias due to no-response is often indeterminate. ⦿ It can be used only when respondents are educated and cooperating. ⦿ The control over questionnaire may be lost once it is sent. ⦿ There is inbuilt inflexibility because of the difficulty of amending the approach once questionnaires have been dispatched. ⦿ There is also the possibility of ambiguous replies or omission of replies altogether to certain questions; interpretation of omissions is difficult. ⦿ It is difficult to know whether willing respondents are truly representative. ⦿ This method is likely to be the slowest of all.
- 51. The layout and physical attractiveness of a questionnaire are important aspects ▪ Questionnaires should be designed to appear as short as possible ▪ Questionnaires should not appear overcrowded ▪ Leave lots of space for open ended questions ▪ Questionnaires in booklet form are often recommended QUESTIONNAIRE LAYOUT
- 52. OPENING ▪Provide first name (at least) ▪Provide name of company doing research ▪Provide reason for survey and topic ▪State that no selling will be involved and no personal data other than for statistical purposes ▪Tell respondent approximate time to complete ▪Reinforce that respondent’s time is appreciated ▪Invite to participate AND CLOSING ▪Thank for time ▪Ask if they had a positive experience and remind them that their opinions count
- 53. Schedules This method of data collection is very much like the collection of data through questionnaire, with little difference which lies in the fact that schedules (Performa containing a set of questions) are being filled in by the enumerators who are specially appointed for the purpose. These enumerators along with schedules, go to respondents, put to them the questions from the performa in the order the questions are listed and record the replies in the space meant for the same in the performa. In certain situations schedules may be handed over to respondents and enumerators may help them in recording their answers to various questions in the said schedules. Enumerators explain the aims and objects of the investigation and also remove the difficulties which any respondent may feel in understanding the implications of a particular question or the definition or concept of difficult terms.
- 54. ⦿ This method requires the selection of enumerators for filling up schedules or assisting respondents to fill up schedules and as such enumerators should be very carefully selected. The enumerators should be trained to perform their job well and the nature and scope of the investigation should be explained to them thoroughly so that they may well understand the implications of different questions put in the schedule. Enumerators should be intelligent and must possess the capacity of cross- examination in order to find out the truth. Above all, they should be honest, sincere, hardworking and should have patience and perseverance. ⦿ This method of data collection is very useful in extensive enquiries and can lead to fairly reliable results. It is, however, very expensive and is usually adopted in investigations conducted by governmental agencies or by some big organizations. Population census all over the world is conducted through this method.
- 55. DIFFERENCE BETWEEN QUESTIONNAIRES AND SCHEDULES ⦿ 1.The questionnaire is generally sent through mail to informants to be answered as specified in a covering letter, but otherwise without further assistance from the sender. The schedule is generally filled out by the research worker or the enumerator, who can interpret questions when necessary. ⦿ 2.To collect data through questionnaire is relatively cheap and economical since we have to spend money only in preparing the questionnaire and in mailing the same to respondents. Here no field staff required. To collect data through schedules is relatively more expensive since considerable amount of money has to be spent in appointing enumerators and in importing training to them. Money is also spent in preparing schedules.
- 56. ⦿ 3.Non-response is usually high in case of questionnaire as many people do not respond and many return the questionnaire without answering all questions. Bias due to non-response often remains indeterminate. As against this, non-response is generally very low in case of schedules because these are filled by enumerators who are able to get answers to all questions. But there remains the danger of interviewer bias and cheating. ⦿ 4. In case of questionnaire, it is not always clear as to who replies, but in case of schedule the identity of respondent is known
- 57. 5.The questionnaire method is likely to be very slow since many respondents do not return the questionnaire in time despite several reminders, but in case of schedules the information is collected well in time as they are filled in by enumerators. 6. Personal contact is generally not possible in case of the questionnaire method a questionnaires are sent to respondents by post who also in turn return the same by post. But in case of schedules direct personal contact is established with respondents. 7. Personal contact is generally not possible in case of the questionnaire method as questionnaires are sent to respondents by post who also in turn return the same by post. But in case of schedules direct personal contact is established with respondents.
- 58. 8. Questionnaire method can be used only when respondents are literate and cooperative, but in case of schedules the information can be gathered even when the respondents happen to be illiterate. 9. Wider and more representative distribution of sample is possible under the questionnaire method, but in respect of schedules there usually remains the difficulty in sending enumerators over a relatively wider area. 10. Risk of collecting incomplete and wrong information is relatively more under the questionnaire method, particularly when people are unable to understand questions properly. But in case of schedules, the information collected is generally complete and accurate as enumerators can remove the difficulties, if any, faced by respondents in correctly understanding the questions. As a result, the information collected through schedules is relatively more accurate than that obtained through questionnaires
- 59. 11. The success of questionnaire method lies more on the quality of the questionnaire itself, but in the case of schedules much depends upon the honesty and competence of enumerators. 12. In order to attract the attention of respondents, the physical appearance of questionnaire must be quite attractive, but this may not be so in case of schedules as they are to be filled in by enumerators and not by respondents. 13. Along with schedules, observation method can also be used but such a thing is not possible while collecting data through questionnaires.
- 60. Other methods of data collection ⦿ Warranty cards: Warranty cards are usually postal sized cards which are used by dealers of consumer durables to collect information regarding their products. The information sought is printed in the form of questions on the ‘warranty cards’ which is placed inside the package along with the product with a request to the consumer to fill in the card and post it back to the dealer.
- 61. ⦿ Distributor or store audits: Distributor or store audits are performed by distributors as well as manufactures through their salesmen at regular intervals. Distributors get the retail stores audited through salesmen and use such information to estimate market size, market share, seasonal purchasing pattern and so on. The data are obtained in such audits not by questioning but by observation. For instance, in case of a grocery store audit, a sample of stores is visited periodically and data are recorded on inventories on hand either by observation or copying from store records. The principal advantage of this method is that it offers the most efficient way of evaluating the effect on sales of variations of different techniques of in-store promotion.