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9 0 0 0 0
9 7 8 0 1 3 4 6 0 1 5 3 3
ISBN-13: 978-0-13-460153-3
ISBN-10: 0-13-460153-X
DATABASE
Concepts
David M. Kroenke
David J. Auer
Scott L. Vandenberg
Robert C. Yoder
EIGHTH EDITION
DATABASE
Concepts
Kroenke
•
Auer
•
Vandenberg
•
Yoder
8E
www.pearsonhighered.com

vi Contents
8 Data Warehouses, Business
Intelligence Systems, and Big
Data 488
BUSINESS INTELLIGENCE SYSTEMS 491
THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN OPERATIONAL AND
BI SYSTEMS 491
REPORTING SYSTEMS AND DATA MINING
APPLICATIONS 491
DATA WAREHOUSES AND DATA MARTS 492
OLAP 503
DISTRIBUTED DATABASE PROCESSING 507
OBJECT-RELATIONAL DATABASES 510
VIRTUALIZATION 511
CLOUD COMPUTING 511
BIG DATA AND THE NOT ONLY SQL
MOVEMENT 513
THE ACCESS WORKBENCH SECTION 8—BUSINESS
INTELLIGENCE SYSTEMS USING MICROSOFT
ACCESS 518
Summary 531 • Key Terms 533 • Review
Questions 533 • Exercises 535 • Access
Workbench Exercises 537 • Marcia’s Dry
Cleaning Case Questions 537 • Garden Glory
Project Questions 538 • James River Jewelry
Project Questions 539 • The Queen Anne
Curiosity Shop Project Questions 539
Glossary 542
Index 553
ONLINE APPENDICES: SEE PAGE 541
FOR INSTRUCTIONS
Appendix A: Getting Started with
Microsoft SQL Server
2016
Appendix B: Getting Started with
Oracle Database XE
Appendix C: Getting Started with
MySQL 5.7 Community
Server
Appendix D: James River Jewelry
Project Questions
Appendix E: Advanced SQL
Appendix F: Getting Started in
Systems Analysis and
Design
Appendix G: Getting Started with
Microsoft Visio 2016
Appendix H: The Access Workbench—
Section H—Microsoft
Access 2016
Switchboards
Appendix I: Getting Started with
Web Servers, PHP, and
the NetBeans IDE
Appendix J: Business Intelligence
Systems
Appendix K: Big Data
A01_KROE1533_08_SE_FM.indd 6 11/21/16 7:22 PM

Preface
Colin Johnson is a production supervisor for a small manufacturer in Seattle. Several years
ago, Colin wanted to build a database to keep track of components in product packages. At
the time, he was using a spreadsheet to perform this task, but he could not get the reports
he needed from the spreadsheet. Colin had heard about Microsoft Access, and he tried to
use it to solve his problem. After several days of frustration, he bought several popular
Microsoft Access books and attempted to learn from them. Ultimately, he gave up and
hired a consultant who built an application that more or less met his needs. Over time,
Colin wanted to change his application, but he did not dare try.
Colin was a successful businessperson who was highly motivated to achieve his goals. A
seasoned Windows user, he had been able to teach himself how to use Microsoft Excel,
Microsoft PowerPoint, and a number of production-oriented application packages. He was
flummoxed at his inability to use Microsoft Access to solve his problem. “I’m sure I could do it,
but I just don’t have any more time to invest,” he thought. This story is especially remarkable
because it has occurred tens of thousands of times over the past decade to many other people.
Microsoft, Oracle, IBM, and other database management system (DBMS) vendors are
aware of such scenarios and have invested millions of dollars in creating better graphical inter-
faces, hundreds of multi-panel wizards, and many sample applications. Unfortunately, such
efforts treat the symptoms and not the root of the problem. In fact, most users have no clear
idea what the wizards are doing on their behalf. As soon as these users require changes to data-
base structure or to components such as forms and queries, they drown in a sea of complexity
for which they are unprepared. With little understanding of the underlying fundamentals, these
users grab at any straw that appears to lead in the direction they want. The consequence is
poorly designed databases and applications that fail to meet the users’ requirements.
Why can people like Colin learn to use a word processor or a spreadsheet product yet
fail when trying to learn to use a DBMS product? First, the underlying database concepts
are unnatural to most people. Whereas everyone knows what paragraphs and margins are,
no one knows what a relation (also called a table) is. Second, it seems as though using a
DBMS product ought to be easier than it is. “All I want to do is keep track of something.
Why is it so hard?” people ask. Without knowledge of the relational model, breaking a sales
invoice into five separate tables before storing the data is mystifying to business users.
This book is intended to help people like Colin understand, create, and use databases
in a DBMS product, whether they are individuals who found this book in a bookstore or
students using this book as their textbook in a class.
vii
Students and other readers of this book will benefit from new content and features in this
edition. These include the following:
• The material on Structured Query Lanquage in Chapter 3 has been reorganized
and expanded to provide a more concise and comprehensive presentation of SQL
topics. New material to illustrate the concepts of SQL joins has been added to
Chapter 3 to make this material easier for students to understand.
• The discussion of SQL is continued in a revised and expanded Appendix E, which
is now retitled as “Advanced SQL”, and which contains a discussion of the SQL
NEW TO THIS EDITION

viii Preface
ALTER statement, SQL set operators (UNION), SQL correlated subqueries, SQL
views, and SQL/Persistent Stored Modules (SQL/PSM).
• Microsoft Office 2016, and particularly Microsoft Access 2016, is now the basic
software used in the book and is shown running on Microsoft Windows 10.1
• DBMS software coverage has been updated to include Microsoft SQL Server 2016
Developer Edition, which is now freely available from Microsoft and which has the
full functionality of the Microsoft SQL Server Enterprise edition.
• DBMS software coverage has been updated to include MySQL 5.7 Community Server.
• DBMS software coverage on Microsoft SQL Server 2016 (Appendix A), Oracle
Database Express Edition (Oracle Database XE) (Appendix B), and MySQL 5.7
Community Server (Appendix C) has been extended, and now includes detailed
coverage of software installation and configuration.
• The discussion of importing Microsoft Excel data into a DBMS table has
been moved from Appendix E into the specific coverage of each of the DBMS
products—see coverage of Microsoft SQL Server 2016 in Appendix A, of
Oracle Database Express Edition (Oracle Database XE) in Appendix B, and of
MySQL 5.7 Community Server in Appendix C.
• Chapter 8 has been updated to include material on cloud computing and virtual-
ization in addition to revisions tying together the various topics of the chapter. This
gives a more complete, contextualized treatment of Big Data and its various facets
and relationships to the other topics.
• Appendices J, “Business Intelligence Systems,” and K, “Big Data,” continue to
expand on Chapter 8. Coverage of decision trees is added to Appendix J at a level
similar to that of the coverage of market basket analysis. Appendix K now includes
coverage of JSON modeling (and retains the XML coverage) for document-based
NoSQL databases. Appendix K also now includes basic coverage and examples of
cloud databases and a document-based NoSQL database management system.
We kept all the main innovations included in DBC e06 and DBC e07, including:
• The coverage of Web database applications in Chapter 7 now includes data input
Web form pages. This allows Web database applications to be built with both data-
input and data-reading Web pages.
• The coverage of Microsoft Access 2016 now includes Microsoft Access switchboard
forms (covered in Appendix H, “The Access Workbench—Section H—Microsoft
Access 2016 Switchboards”), which are used to build menus for database applications.
Switchboard forms can be used to build database applications that have a user-friendly
main menu that users can use to display forms, print reports, and run queries.
• Each chapter now features an independent Case Question set. The Case Question
sets are problem sets that generally do not require the student to have completed
work on the same case in a previous chapter (there is one intentional exception
that ties data modeling and database design together). Although in some instances
the same basic named case may be used in different chapters, each instance is still
completely independent of any other instance.
• Material on SQL programming via SQL/Persistent Stored Modules (SQL/PSM)
has been added to Appendix E to provide a better-organized discussion and
expanded discussion of this material, which had previously been spread among
other parts of the book.
1
Microsoft recommends installing and using the 32-bit version of Microsoft Office 2016, even on 64-bit
versions of the Microsoft Windows operating system. We also recommend that you install and use the
32-bit version. The reason for this is that the 64-bit version of Microsoft Office 2016 does not have certain
components (particularly ODBC drivers [discussed in Chapter 7]) needed to implement the Web sites
discussed and illustrated in Chapter 7. While this omission by Microsoft makes no sense to us, there is
nothing we can do about it, and so we will stick with the 32-bit version of Microsoft Office 2016. Hopefully
Microsoft will eventually add the missing pieces to the 64-bit version!

Preface ix
2
David M. Kroenke and David J. Auer, Database Processing: Fundamentals, Design, and Implementation,
14th ed. (Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson/Prentice Hall, 2016).
With today’s technology, it is impossible to utilize a DBMS successfully without first learn-
ing fundamental concepts. After years of developing databases with business users, we
believe that the following database concepts are essential:
• Fundamentals of the relational model
• Structured Query Language (SQL)
• Data modeling
• Database design
• Database administration
And because of the increasing use of the Internet, the World Wide Web, commonly
available analysis tools, and the emergence of the NoSQL movement, four more essential
concepts need to be added to the list:
• Web database processing
• Data warehouse structures
• Business intelligence (BI) systems
• Nonrelational structured data storage (Big Data)
Users like Colin—and students who will perform jobs similar to his—need not learn
these topics to the same depth as future information systems professionals. Consequently,
this textbook presents only essential concepts—those that are necessary for users like Colin
who want to create and use small databases. Many of the discussions in this book are
rewritten and simplified explanations of topics that you will find fully discussed in
David M. Kroenke and David J. Auer’s Database Processing: Fundamentals, Design, and
Implementation.2
However, in creating the material for this text, we have endeavored to
ensure that the discussions remain accurate and do not mislead. Nothing here will need to
be unlearned if students take more advanced database courses.
THE NEED FOR ESSENTIAL CONCEPTS
This book does not assume that students will use any particular DBMS product. The book
does illustrate database concepts with Microsoft Access, Microsoft SQL Server Developer
edition, Oracle Database Express Edition (Oracle Database XE), and MySQL Community
Server so that students can use these products as tools and actually try out the material, but
all the concepts are presented in a DBMS-agnostic manner. When students learn the mate-
rial this way, they come to understand that the fundamentals pertain to any database, from
the smallest Microsoft Access database to the largest Microsoft SQL Server or Oracle
Database database. Moreover, this approach avoids a common pitfall. When concepts and
products are taught at the same time, students frequently confound concepts with product
features and functions. For example, consider referential integrity constraints. When they
are taught from a conceptual standpoint, students learn that there are times when the val-
ues of a column in one table must always be present as values of a column in a second table.
Students also learn how this constraint arises in the context of relationship definition and
how either the DBMS or the application must enforce this constraint. If taught in the con-
text of a DBMS—say, in the context of Microsoft Access—students will only learn that in
some cases you check a check box and in other cases you do not. The danger is that the
underlying concept will be lost in the product feature.
TEACHING CONCEPTS INDEPENDENT OF DBMS PRODUCTS

x Preface
All this is not to say that a DBMS should not be used in this class. On the contrary,
students can best master these concepts by applying them using a commercial DBMS prod-
uct. This edition of the book was written to include enough basic information about
Microsoft Access, SQL Server Express edition, Oracle Database Express Edition, and
MySQL so that you can use these products in your class without the need for a second
book or other materials. Microsoft Access is covered in some depth because of its popular-
ity as a personal database and its inclusion in the Microsoft Office Professional suite of
applications. However, if you want to cover a particular DBMS in depth or use a DBMS
product not discussed in the book, you need to supplement this book with another text or
additional materials. Pearson provides a number of books for Microsoft Access 2016 and
other DBMS products, and many of them can be packaged with this text.
This new edition of the text continues using “The Access Workbench,” a feature first intro-
duced in the third edition. Because Microsoft Access is widely used in introductory database
classes, we feel it is important to include specific information on using Microsoft Access.
Each chapter has an accompanying section of “The Access Workbench,” which illustrates the
chapter’s concepts and techniques using Microsoft Access. “The Access Workbench” topics
start with creating a database and a single table in Chapter 1 and move through various top-
ics, finishing with Web database processing against a Microsoft Access database in Chapter 7
and using Microsoft Access (together with Microsoft Excel) to produce PivotTable OLAP
reports in Chapter 8. This material is not intended to provide comprehensive coverage of
Microsoft Access, but all the necessary basic Microsoft Access topics are covered so that your
students can learn to effectively build and use Microsoft Access databases.
THE ACCESS WORKBENCH
Because it is important for students to apply the concepts they learn, each chapter con-
cludes with sets of key terms, review questions, exercises (including exercises tied to “The
Access Workbench”), Case Question sets, and three projects that run throughout the book.
Students should know the meaning of each of the key terms and be able to answer the
review questions if they have read and understood the chapter material. Each of the exer-
cises requires students to apply the chapter concepts to a small problem or task.
The first of the projects, Garden Glory, concerns the development and use of a data-
base for a partnership that provides gardening and yard maintenance services to individu-
als and organizations. The second project, James River Jewelry, addresses the need for a
database to support a frequent-buyer program for a retail store. The third project, The
Queen Anne Curiosity Shop, concerns the sales and inventory needs of a retail business.
These three projects appear in all of the book’s chapters (although the actual text of the
James River Jewelry project is found in online Appendix D). In each instance, students are
asked to apply the project concepts from the chapter. Instructors will find more informa-
tion on the use of these projects in the instructor’s manual and can obtain databases and
data from the password-protected instructor’s portion of this book’s Web site (www.pear-
sonhighered.com/kroenke).
KEY TERMS, REVIEW QUESTIONS, EXERCISES, CASES, AND PROJECTS
Just as we have treated our discussions in a DBMS-agnostic way, whenever possible, we
have selected software to be as operating system independent as possible. It is amazing how
much excellent software is available online. Many major DBMS vendors provide free ver-
sions of their premier products (for example, Microsoft’s SQL Server Developer edition
and Express edition, Oracle Corporation’s Oracle Database Express Edition (Oracle
Database XE), and MySQL Community Server). Web editors and integrated development
SOFTWARE USED IN THE BOOK

Preface xi
The most significant changes in this edition are:
• The framing of database topic discussions within today’s Internet and mobile
applications based networked environment and economy. Today, databases are no
longer isolated entities found somewhere in obscure server rooms, but rather are
ubiquitous parts of Web sites and tablet and smart phone apps. We are literally
dependent upon databases in our lives, whether exchanging email messages, post-
ing to our Facebook pages, or shopping online.
• The revised discussion of Structured Query Lanaguage (SQL) in Chapter 3 and
Appendix E, “Advanced SQL.” Taken together, this material provides a better
organized and easier to understand coverage of SQL topics previously included in
the book, and also adds a set of new SQL topics into the mix.
• The revised coverage of the rapidly evolving use of Big Data and the associated
NoSQL movement. The need to be able to store and process extremely large datasets
is transforming the database world. Although these developments leave the database
fundamentals covered in this book unchanged, they do require us to put the relational
databases that are the core of this text into the context of the overall database picture
and to provide the reader with an understanding of the nonrelational structured
storage used in the Big Data environment. Therefore, Chapter 8 is now organized
around the topic of Big Data, and the topics of data warehouses, clustered database
servers, distributed databases, and an introduction to business intelligence (BI)
systems find a natural home in that chapter. To provide additional coverage of Big
Data, Appendix K, “Big Data,” contains a more in-depth discussion than the page
limitations of the book itself allow. For those wanting more coverage of BI than found
in Chapter 8, Appendix J, “Business Intelligence Systems,” contains a current and
updated discussion of the topic in depth.
• The extension of coverage of Microsoft SQL Server 2016 Developer edition
(Appendix A), Oracle Database XE (Appendix B), and MySQL 5.7 Community
Server (Appendix C). Complete installation instructions are now included, as well
as other new topics.
CHANGES FROM THE SEVENTH EDITION
environments (IDEs) are also available (for example, Eclipse, NetBeans, and Visual Studio
Express edition). PHP, considered the fourth most commonly used programming lan-
guage, is downloadable for use with many operating systems and Web servers.
So although the examples in this book were created using a Microsoft operating sys-
tem, SQL Server 2016 Developer edition, Microsoft Access 2016, Microsoft Excel 2016,
and the IIS Web Server, most of them could just as easily be accomplished using Linux,
MySQL Server Community edition, Apache OpenOffice Base, Apache OpenOffice Calc,
and the Apache Web server. Some software products used in the book, such as PHP and
NetBeans, are available for multiple operating systems.
Important Note: We are using the Microsoft Windows 10 operating system, and
Microsoft recently released the Windows 10 Anniversary Update (Feature update to
Windows 10, version 1607). As noted in Chapter 7’s section of “The Access Workbench,”
in order to successfully complete all the work in this book, you need to be using the
Windows 10 Anniversary Update version of Windows 10, patched with at least the
Windows 10 Version 1607 update for August 23, 2016 (KB3176936), and the Windows 10
Version 1607 cumulative update for September 29, 2016 (KB3194496).
Over the past 30-plus years, we have found the development of databases and database
applications to be an enjoyable and rewarding activity. We believe that the number, size,
and importance of databases will increase in the future and that the field will achieve even
greater prominence. It is our hope that the concepts, knowledge, and techniques presented
in this book will help students to participate successfully in database projects now and for
many years to come.

xii Preface
Finally, we have maintained the chapter-independent Case Question sets we added in
the sixth edition. Although the chapter projects tie the topics in each chapter together, the
case questions do not require the student to have completed work on the same case in a
previous chapter or chapters. There is one intentional exception that spans Chapters 4
and 5 that ties data modeling and database design together, but each of these chapters also
includes a standalone case. Although in some instances the same basic named case may be
used in different chapters, each instance is still completely independent of any other
instance, and we provide needed Microsoft Access 2016 database and SQL scripts at the
text Web site at www.pearsonhighered.com/kroenke.
We have kept and improved upon several features introduced in earlier editions of the
book:
• The use of “The Access Workbench” sections in each chapter to provide coverage
of Microsoft Access fundamentals now includes Microsoft Access switchboards
(Appendix H, “The Access Workbench—Section H—Microsoft Access 2016
Switchboards,” available online).
• Introductions to the use of Microsoft SQL Server 2016 Developer edition
(Appendix A, “Getting Started with Microsoft SQL Server 2016,” available on-
line), Oracle Database XE (Appendix B, “Getting Started with Oracle Database
XE,” available online) and Oracle MySQL 5.7 Community Server (Appendix C,
“Getting Started with MySQL 5.7 Community Server,” available online).
• The use of fully developed datasets for the three example databases that run
throughout various portions of the book—Wedgewood Pacific, Heather Sweeney
Designs, and Wallingford Motors.
• The use of the PHP scripting language, now used in the NetBeans IDE, in the Web
database processing topics now includes code for Web page input forms.
• Coverage of the dimensional database model is maintained in the restructured
Chapter 8, together with coverage of OLAP.
• In order to make room for this new material, we have had to move some valuable
material previously found in the book itself to online appendices. This includes the
James River Jewelry set of project questions, which is now in online Appendix D,
“James River Jewelry Project Questions.” The material on SQL views is now in
online Appendix E, “Advanced SQL,” with additional material on SQL Persistent
Stored Modules (SQL/PSM). Discussions of how to import Microsoft Excel data
into the DBMS products are now found in each related appendix— for Microsoft
SQL Server 2016 Developer Edition, see online Appendix A, “Getting Started with
Microsoft SQL Server 2016”; for Oracle Database XE, see online Appendix B,
“Getting Started with Oracle Database XE”; and for MySQL 5.7 Community Server,
see online Appendix C, “Getting Started with MySQL 5.7 Community Server.”
• The business intelligence systems material on reporting systems and data mining is
now in online Appendix J, “Business Intelligence Systems.”
This textbook consists of 8 chapters and 11 appendices (all of which are readily available
online at www.pearsonhighered.com/kroenke). Chapter 1 explains why databases are
used, what their components are, and how they are developed. Students will learn the pur-
pose of databases and their applications as well as how databases differ from and improve
on lists in spreadsheets. Chapter 2 introduces the relational model and defines basic rela-
tional terminology. It also introduces the fundamental ideas that underlie normalization
and describes the normalization process.
Chapter 3 presents fundamental SQL statements. Basic SQL statements for data defi-
nition are described, as are SQL SELECT and data modification statements. No attempt is
made to present advanced SQL statements; only the essential statements are described.
BOOK OVERVIEW

Preface xiii
Online Appendix E, “Advanced SQL,” adds coverage of advanced SQL topics, such as the
SQL ALTER TABLE statement, SQL set operators (UNION), SQL views, and SQL/
Persistent Stored Modules (SQL/PSM).
The next two chapters consider database design. Chapter 4 addresses data modeling
using the entity-relationship (E-R) model. This chapter describes the need for data model-
ing, introduces basic E-R terms and concepts, and presents a short case application
(Heather Sweeney Designs) of E-R modeling. Chapter 5 describes database design and
explains the essentials of normalization. The data model from the case example in
Chapter 4 is transformed into a relational design in Chapter 5.
In this edition, we continue to use the prescriptive procedure for normalizing relations
through the use of a four-step process. This approach not only makes the normalization
task easier, it also makes normalization principles easier to understand. For instructors who
want a bit more detail on normal forms, short definitions of most normal forms are
included in Chapter 5.
The last three chapters consider database management and the uses of databases in
applications. Chapter 6 provides an overview of database administration. The case example
database is built as a functioning database, and it serves as the example for a discussion of
the need for database administration. The chapter surveys concurrency control, security,
and backup and recovery techniques. Database administration is an important topic
because it applies to all databases, even personal, single-user databases. In fact, in some
ways this topic is more important for those smaller databases because no professional data-
base administrator is present to ensure that critical tasks are performed.
Chapter 7 introduces the use of Web-based database processing, including a discus-
sion of Open Database Connectivity (ODBC) and the use of the PHP scripting language. It
also discusses the emergence and basic concepts of Extensible Markup Language (XML),
and introduces Java Script Object Notation (JSON).
Chapter 8 discusses the emerging world of Big Data and the NoSQL movement,
including under this umbrella business intelligence (BI) systems and the data warehouse
architectures that support them, which often involve Big Data and NoSQL concepts.
Chapter 8 also provides a discussion of distributed databases, object-relational databases,
virtualization, and cloud computing as they relate to the continuing evolution of NoSQL
systems and Big Data. Many details of BI systems have been moved to online Appendix J,
“Business Intelligence Systems.” More specifically, Chapter 8 discusses dimensional data-
bases as an example of a data warehouse architecture, walking through how to build a
dimensional database for Heather Sweeney Designs and then using it to produce a
PivotTable online analytical processing (OLAP) report as an example of BI reporting.
Appendix A provides an introduction to Microsoft SQL Server 2016 Developer
Edition, Appendix B provides an introduction for Oracle Database XE, and Appendix C
provides a similar introduction for MySQL 5.7 Community Server. Microsoft Access is
covered in “The Access Workbench” sections included in each chapter. Appendix D con-
tains the James River Jewelry project questions. Appendix E covers material on advanced
SQL topics such as SQL views and SQL/PSM. Appendix F provides an introduction to
systems analysis and design and can be used to provide context for Chapter 4 (data model-
ing) and Chapter 5 (database design)—although in this book we focus on databases, data-
bases are used in applications. Appendix F describes the application development process
in more detail. Appendix G is a short introduction to Microsoft Visio 2016, which can be
used as a tool for data modeling (Chapter 4). A useful database design (Chapter 4) tool is
the MySQL Workbench, and this use of the MySQL Workbench is discussed in
Appendix C. Appendix H extends Chapter 5’s section of “The Access Workbench” by
providing coverage of Microsoft Access 2016 switchboards. Appendix I provides detailed
support for Chapter 7 by giving detailed instructions on getting the Microsoft IIS Web
server, PHP, and the NetBeans IDE up and running. Appendix J provides additional mate-
rial on business intelligence (BI) systems to supplement and support Chapter 8 by giving
details on report systems and data mining. Finally, Appendix K provides additional mate-
rial on Big Data and NoSQL databases to also supplement and support Chapter 8.

xiv Preface
In order to keep Database Concepts up to date between editions, we post updates on the
book’s Web site at www.pearsonhighered.com/kroenke as needed. Instructor resources
and student materials are also available on the site, so be sure to check it from time to time.
KEEPING CURRENT IN A RAPIDLY CHANGING WORLD
We would like to thank the following reviewers for their insightful and helpful comments:
Arthur Lee, Lord Fairfax Community College
Behrooz Saghafi, Ph.D., Chicago State University
Betsy Page Sigman, Georgetown University
Bijoy Bordoloi, Southern Illinois University, Edwardsville
Carolyn Carvalho, Kent State University at Ashtabula
David Chou, Eastern Michigan University
David L. Olson, University of Nebraska
Fen Wang, Central Washington University
Gabriel Peterson, North Carolina Central University
Jeffrey Burton, Daytona State College
Jim Pierson, Forsyth Technical Community College
Jing Wang, University of New Hampshire
Jose Nieves, Lord Fairfax Community College
Joshua S White, PhD, State University of New York Polytechnic Institute
Julie Lewis, Baker College
June Lane, Bucks County Community College
Kui Du, University of Massachusetts Boston
Manuel Rossetti, University of Arkansas
Matt Hightower, Cerro Coso Community College
Maya Tolappa, Waubonsee Community College
Meg Murray, Kennesaw State University
Norman Hahn, Thomas Nelson Community College
Patrick Appiah-Kubi, Indiana State University
Paul Pennington, University of Houston
Paul Tallon, Loyola University Maryland
Richard Grant, Seminole State College of Florida
Richard T Evans, South Suburban College
Robert Demers, University of Massachusetts - Lowell
Stephen Larson, Slippery Rock University
We would like to thank Donna Auer (www.donnaauer.com) for letting us use her
painting “out to sea” as the cover art for this book. This artwork was also the basis for
design elements within the book.
We would like to thank Samantha Lewis, our editor; Ann Pullido, our program man-
ager; and Katrina Ostler, our project manager, for their professionalism, insight, support,
and assistance in the development of this project. We would also like to thank Darren Lim
for his comments on the final manuscript and his work on the supplements. Finally, David
Kroenke would like to thank his wife, Lynda; David Auer would like to thank his wife,
Donna; Scott Vandenberg would like to thank his wife, Kristin; and Robert Yoder would
like to thank Diane, Rachael, and Harrison Yoder for their love, encouragement, and
patience while this project was being completed.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
David Kroenke David Auer Scott Vandenberg Robert Yoder

David M. Kroenke entered the computing profession as a summer intern at the RAND
Corporation in 1967. Since then, his career has spanned education, industry, consulting,
and publishing.
He has taught at the University of Washington, Colorado State University, and Seattle
University. Over the years, he has led dozens of teaching seminars for college professors. In
1991 the International Association of Information Systems named him Computer Educator
of the Year.
In industry, Kroenke has worked for the U.S. Air Force and Boeing Computer
Services, and he was a principal in the startup of three companies. He was also vice presi-
dent of product marketing and development for the Microrim Corporation and was chief
technologist for the database division of Wall Data, Inc. He is the father of the semantic
object data model. Kroenke’s consulting clients include IBM Corporation, Microsoft,
Computer Sciences Corporation, and numerous other companies and organizations.
His text Database Processing: Fundamentals, Design, and Implementation, first pub-
lished in 1977, is now in its 14th edition (coauthored with David Auer for the 11th, 12th,
13th, and 14th editions). He introduced Database Concepts (now in the eighth edition that
you are reading) in 2003. Kroenke has published many other textbooks, including the clas-
sic Business Computer Systems (1981). Recently, he has authored Using MIS (8th edition),
Experiencing MIS (6th edition), MIS Essentials (4th edition), Processes, Systems and
Information: An Introduction to MIS (2nd edition) (coauthored with Earl McKinney), and
Essentials of Processes, Systems and Information (coauthored with Earl McKinney).
An avid sailor, Kroenke also wrote Know Your Boat: The Guide to Everything That
Makes Your Boat Work. Kroenke lives in Seattle, Washington. He is married and has two
children and three grandchildren.
David J. Auer is a Senior Instructor Emeritus at the College of Business (CBE) of Western
Washington University in Bellingham, WA. He served as the director of Information
Systems and Technology Services at CBE from 1994 to 2014 and taught in CBE’s
Department of Decision Sciences from 1981 to 2015. He has taught CBE courses in quan-
titative methods, production and operations management, statistics, finance, and manage-
ment information systems. Besides managing CBE’s computer, network, and other
technology resources, he also teaches management information systems courses. He has
taught the Principles of Management Information Systems and Business Database
Development courses, and he was responsible for developing CBE’s network infrastructure
courses, including Computer Hardware and Operating Systems, Telecommunications, and
Network Administration.
He has coauthored several MIS-related textbooks, including Database Processing:
Fundamentals, Design, and Implementation, first published in 1977, is now in its 14th edi-
tion (coauthored with David Kroenke for the 11th, 12th, 13th, and 14th editions), and
Database Concepts, now in the eighth edition that you are reading (coauthored with
David Kroenke for the 3rd, 4th, 5th, 6th, and 7th editions, and coauthored with David
Kroenke, Scott Vandenberg, and Robert Yoder for this 8th edition).
Auer holds a bachelor’s degree in English literature from the University of Washington, a
bachelor’s degree in mathematics and economics from Western Washington University, a
master’s degree in economics from Western Washington University, and a master’s degree in
About the Authors
xv

counseling psychology from Western Washington University. He served as a commissioned
officer in the U.S. Air Force, and he has also worked as an organizational development spe-
cialist and therapist for an employee assistance program (EAP).
Auer and his wife, Donna, live in Bellingham, Washington. He has two children and
four grandchildren.
Scott L. Vandenberg has been on the Computer Science faculty at Siena College since
1993, where he regularly teaches three different database courses at several levels to both
computer science and business majors. Prior to arriving at Siena, he taught undergraduate
and graduate courses in database systems at the University of Massachusetts–Amherst.
Since arriving at Siena, he also taught graduate and undergraduate database courses at the
University of Washington–Seattle. He has developed five different database courses over
this time. His other teaching experience includes introductory computer science, introduc-
tory programming, data structures, management information systems, and three years
teaching Siena’s required interdisciplinary freshman writing course.
Vandenberg’s recent research publications are mainly in the areas of computer science
education and data science applications, with earlier work on query optimization and alge-
braic query languages. He holds a bachelor’s degree in mathematics and computer science
from Cornell University and master’s and PhD degrees in computer science from the
University of Wisconsin–Madison. Medieval history and playing hockey are two things that
can tear him away from a database. Vandenberg lives in Averill Park, NY, with his wife,
Kristin, and two children.
Robert C. Yoder began his professional career at the University at Albany as a systems pro-
grammer managing mainframes and Unix servers. He has two years of research experience
working on 3-D solid modeling systems. Robert holds BS and MS degrees in computer sci-
ence and a PhD in information science, all from the University at Albany.
Yoder joined the Computer Science department at Siena College in 2001 and teaches
Business Database, Management Information Systems, Geographic Information Systems,
Data Structures, Networks, and Operating Systems courses. Yoder lives in Niskayuna, NY,
with his wife, Diane, and two children and enjoys traveling, hiking, and walking his dog.
xvi About the Authors

1
P
art 1 introduces fundamental concepts and techniques of relational
database management. Chapter 1 explains database technology,
discusses why databases are used, and describes the components
of a database system. Chapter 2 introduces the relational model and defines
key relational database terms. It also presents basic principles of relational
database design. Chapter 3 presents Structured Query Language (SQL), an
international standard for creating and processing relational databases.
After you have learned these fundamental database concepts, we will
focus on database modeling, design, and implementation in Part 2. Finally,
we will discuss database management, Web database applications, data ware-
houses, business intelligence (BI) systems, cloud computing, and Big Data
in Part 3.
1
PART
Database
Fundamentals
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3
K
nowledge of database technology increases in importance every
day. Databases are used everywhere: They are key components of
e-commerce and other Web-based applications. They lay at the heart
of organization-wide operational and decision support applications. Databases
are also used by thousands of work groups and millions of individuals. It is
estimated that there are more than 10 million active databases in the world
today.
The purpose of this book is to teach you the essential relational database
concepts, technology, and techniques that you need to begin a career as a
database developer. This book does not teach everything of importance in
relational database technology, but it will give you sufficient background to
be able to create your own personal databases and to participate as a mem-
ber of a team in the development of larger, more complicated databases.
You will also be able to ask the right questions to learn more on your own.
This chapter discusses the importance of databases in the Internet world
and then introduces database processing concepts. We will investigate the
reasons for using a relational database. We begin by describing some of the
problems that can occur when using lists. Using a series of examples, we
illustrate how using sets of related tables helps you to avoid those prob-
lems. Next, we describe the components of a database system and explain
the elements of a database, the purpose of a database management system
(DBMS), and the functions of a database application. Finally, we introduce
nonrelational databases.
■ Understand the importance of databases in Internet
Web applications and mobile apps
■ Understand the nature and characteristics of databases
■ Understand the potential problems with lists
■ Understand the reasons for using a database
■ Understand how using related tables helps you avoid
the problems of using lists
■ Know the components of a database system
■ Learn the elements of a database
■ Learn the purpose of a database management system
(DBMS)
■ Understand the functions of a database application
■ Introduce Web database applications
■ Introduce data warehouses and business intelligence
(BI) systems
■ Introduce Big Data and cloud computing
CHAPTER OBJECTIVES
1
CHAPTER Getting Started
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4 Part 1 Database Fundamentals
Let’s stop for a moment and consider the incredible information technology available for
our use today.
The personal computer (PC) became widely available with the introduction of the
Apple II in 1977 and the IBM Personal Computer (IBM PC) in 1981. PCs were net-
worked into Local Area Networks (LANs) using the Ethernet networking technology,
which was developed at the Xerox Palo Alto Research Center in the early 1970s and ad-
opted as a national standard in 1983.
The Internet—the global computer network of networks—was created as the
ARPANET in 1969 and then grew and was used to connect all the LANs (and other types
of networks). The Internet became widely known and used when the World Wide Web
(also referred to as the Web and WWW) became easily accessible in 1993. Everyone got a
computer software application called a Web browser and starting browsing Web sites.
Online retail Web sites such as Amazon.com (online since 1995) and “brick-and-mortar”
stores with an online presence such as Best Buy appeared, and people started extensively
shopping online.
In the early 2000s, Web 2.01
Web sites started to appear—allowing users to add con-
tent to Web sites that had previously held static content. Web applications such as
Facebook, Wikipedia, and Twitter appeared and flourished.
In a parallel development, the mobile phone or cell phone was demonstrated and de-
veloped for commercial use in the 1970s. After decades of mobile phone and cell phone
network infrastructure development, the smartphone appeared. Apple brought out the
iPhone in 2007. Google created the Android operating system, and the first Android-
based smartphone entered the market in 2008. Eight years later, in 2016 (as this is being
written), smartphones and tablet computers (tablets) are widely used, and thousands of
application programs known as apps are widely available and in daily use. Most Web ap-
plications now have corresponding smartphone and tablet apps (you can “tweet” from ei-
ther your computer or your smartphone)!
What many people do not understand is that in today’s Web application and smart-
phone app environment, most of what they do depends upon databases.
We can define data as recorded facts and numbers. We can initially define a database
(we will give a better definition later in this chapter) as the structure used to hold or store
that data. We process that data to provide information (which we also define in more detail
later in this chapter) for use in the Web applications and smartphone apps.
Do you have a Facebook account? If so, all your posts, your comments, your “likes,”
and other data you provide to Facebook (such as photos) are stored in a database. When
your friend posts an item, it is initially stored in the database and then displayed to you.
Do you have a Twitter account? If so, all your tweets are stored in a database. When
your friend tweets something, it is initially stored in the database and then displayed to you.
Do you shop at Amazon.com? If so, how do you find what you are looking for? You
enter some words in a search text window on the Amazon home Web page (if you are us-
ing a Web browser) and click the Go button. Amazon’s computers then search Amazon’s
databases and return a formatted report on-screen of the items that matched what you
searched for.
The search process is illustrated in Figure 1-1, where we search the Pearson Higher
Education Web site for books authored by David Kroenke. Figure 1-1(a) shows the upper
portion of the Pearson Higher Education Web site home page. While many Web sites (in-
cluding Amazon.com, REI, and Best Buy) have a text box for entering search key words on
1
Web 2.0 was originated by Darcy DiNucci in 1999 and introduced to the world at large in 2004 by pub-
lisher Tim O’Reilly. See the Wikipedia article Web 2.0 (accessed May 2016) at https://en.wikipedia.org/
wiki/Web_2.0.
THE IMPORTANCE OF DATABASES IN THE INTERNET
AND MOBILE APP WORLD
M01_KROE1533_08_SE_C01.indd 4 11/21/16 6:15 PM

Chapter 1 Getting Started 5
The Pearson Higher Education Web site home page
The Search button
FIGURE 1-1
Searching a Database in a Web Browser
(a) The Pearson Higher Education Web Site Home Page
Enter the author name Kroenke as the search keyword
The Search button
(b) Entering Author Name Kroenke as the Search Keyword
The Search Results Web page
Each block displays the data on one book by Kroenke
as found in the database—a thumbnail picture of the
cover is shown when the cover art is available,
otherwise a placeholder labeled Pearson is displayed
(c) Books by Author Kroenke Found in the Database
Pearson Education Inc, Microsoft Edge, Microsoft Corporation.
M01_KROE1533_08_SE_C01.indd 5 11/21/16 6:15 PM

6 Part 1 Database Fundamentals
Users
Personal computer with
Web browser client
Internet
Cell phone system
data network
Smartphone with
app client
Web server
App data server
Database
Database
Users
Users
Personal computer with
Web browser client
Internet
Cell phone system
data network
Smartphone with
app client
Web server
App data server
Database
Database
Users
the home page itself for immediate use, at the Pearson site we have to click on a Search
catalog button to access the search function on the Advanced Catalog Search page shown in
Figure 1-1(b). On this page, we enter the author name Kroenke in the Author text box, and
then click the Search button. The Pearson catalog database is searched, and the Web ap-
plication returns a Search Results page containing a listing of books authored by David
Kroenke, as shown in Figure 1-1(c).
The use of databases by Web applications and smartphone apps is illustrated in
Figure 1-2. In this figure, people have computers (desktop or notebook) and smartphones,
which are examples of devices used by people, who are referred to as users. On these
It is much more effective to see this process than to just read about it. Take
a minute, open a Web browser, and go to Amazon.com (or any other online
retailer, such as Best Buy, L.L.Bean, or REI). Search for something you are
interested in, and watch the database search results be displayed for you. You
just used a database.
BTW
Even if you are simply shopping in a local grocery store (or a coffee shop or piz-
zeria), you are interacting with databases. Businesses use Point of Sale (POS)
systems to record every purchase in a database, to monitor inventory, and, if you
have a sales promotion card from the store (the one you use to get those special
prices for “cardholders only”), to keep track of everything you buy for marketing
purposes. All the data POS systems gather is stored in, of course, a database.
BTW
FIGURE 1-2
The Internet and Mobile Device World
M01_KROE1533_08_SE_C01.indd 6 11/21/16 6:15 PM

Chapter 1 Getting Started 7
devices are client applications (Web browsers, apps) used by people to obtain services such
are searching, browsing, online purchasing, and tweeting over the Internet or cell phone
networks. These services are provided by server computers, and these are the computers
that hold the databases containing the data needed by the client applications.
This structure is known as client-server architecture, and it supports most of the Web
applications in use today. The simple fact is that without databases, we could not have the
ubiquitous Web applications and apps that are currently used by so many people.
A database is used to help people keep track of things, and the most commonly used type
of database is the relational database. We will discuss the relational database model in
depth in Chapter 2, so for now we just need to understand a few basic facts about how a
relational database helps people track things of interest to them.
You might wonder why we need a special term (and course) for such technology when
a simple list could serve the same purpose. Many people do keep track of things by using
lists, and sometimes such lists are valuable. In other cases, however, simple lists lead to data
inconsistencies and other problems.
In this section, we examine several different lists and show some of these problems. As
you will see, we can solve the problems by splitting lists into tables of data. Such tables are
the key components of a database. A majority of this text concerns the design of such tables
and techniques for manipulating the data they contain.
WHY USE A DATABASE?
Figure 1-3 shows a simple list of student data, named the Student List,2
stored in a spread-
sheet. The Student List is a very simple list, and for such a list a spreadsheet works quite
well. Even if the list is long, you can sort it alphabetically by last name, first name, or email
address to find any entry you want. You can change the data values, add data for a new
student, or delete student data. With a list like the Student List in Figure 1-3, none of these
actions is problematic, and a database is unnecessary. Keeping this list in a spreadsheet is
just fine.
Suppose, however, we change the Student List by adding adviser data, as shown in
Figure 1-4. You can still sort the new Student with Adviser List in a number of ways to find
an entry, but making changes to this list causes modification problems. Suppose, for ex-
ample, that you want to delete the data for the student Chip Marino. As shown in
Figure 1-5, if you delete the eighth row (the row numbered 8—this is actually the seventh
row of data because of the column headers, but it is easier to refer to the row number
shown in the figure) you not only remove Chip Marino’s data, you also remove the fact that
WHAT ARE THE PROBLEMS WITH USING LISTS?
2
In order to easily identify and reference the lists being discussed, we capitalize the first letter of each word
in the list names in this chapter. Similarly, we capitalize the names of the database tables associated with the
lists.
FIGURE 1-3
The Student List in a
Spreadsheet
Excel 2016, Windows 10, Microsoft Corporation.
M01_KROE1533_08_SE_C01.indd 7 11/21/16 6:15 PM

Other documents randomly have
different content

root in a pot of sandy soil, with a bell glass placed over them, in a
cool house or frame.
A. Barba-Jovis (Jupiter's beard).* fl. pale yellow, numerous, in
globose, bracteate heads. March. l. pinnate, and are as well as
the branches, clothed with silky tomentum; leaflets nine to
thirteen, oblong-linear. h. 4ft. to 8ft. Spain, 1640. Shrub.
A. erinacea (prickly).* fl. bluish-purple; heads few flowered, on
short peduncles, bracteate. April. l. very few, oval, or oblong. h.
6in. to 12in. Spain, 1759. A much branched, spiny, almost
leafless, and slow-growing species; hardy in a dry sunny
position on the rockery. SYN. Erinacea hispanica.
A. Hermanniæ (Hermann's). fl. yellow; heads few flowered,
nearly sessile in the axils of the upper leaves. April. l. almost
sessile, simple, or trifoliate; leaflets oblong-cuneated, glabrous
or clothed with adpressed pubescence. h. 2ft. to 4ft. Corsica,
1739. Shrubby, much branched.
A. montana (mountain).* fl. pink or purplish, in dense heads,
on peduncles, with a leafy involucre. June. l. pinnate, and are as
well as the branches, silky and hoary; leaflets numerous, oval-
oblong, acute, small, entire. h. 3in. to 6in. Alps of Europe, 1769.
A very handsome little rock plant, with a dwarf and tufted habit.
A. tetraphylla (four-leaved). fl. white; heads axillary, sessile,
few flowered. July. l. pinnate, the terminal leaflets ovate and
large, the other three small and acute. South Europe, 1640. A
procumbent annual.
A. Vulneraria (Common Woundwort).* fl. generally yellow,
sometimes white, red, or pinkish, in crowded twin heads.
Summer. l. pinnate, with five or more unequal leaflets; the lower
ones smallest. An elegant native herbaceous, perennial,
admirably adapted for rockwork. It is plentiful in most dry
pastures. There are several varieties, the best of which is alba.

ANTIARIS TOXICARIA. This is the famous Upas tree of Java, from
which is obtained poison of a most deadly nature. It belongs to the
NAT. ORD. Urticaceæ.
ANTIGONON (from anti, against, or opposite, and gonia, an angle).
ORD. Polygonaceæ. Elegant stove climbers. Flowers racemose,
cirrhose at the apex of the rachides; petals five, three outer ones
broadly cordate, two inner oblong. Leaves alternate, cordate.
Although extremely handsome plants, they are difficult to flower.
They seem to succeed best when planted out in a very thoroughly
drained border over hot-water pipes or flues, the long climbing
stems being trained near the glass in full light.
A. amabile (lovely).* fl. bright rose, profusely borne in axillary
and terminal racemes. l. 3in. to 5in. long, ovate-cordate, and
deeply lobed at the base. It is of free slender growth, the young
shoots are pubescent, and having a slight reddish tinge. An
exceedingly attractive and effective species.
A. guatemalensis (Guatemala). Probably the same as A.
insigne.
A. insigne (remarkable).* fl. very numerous, borne in tufts
along the sides of long racemes or panicles, which terminate in
branched tendrils; the calyx, which is the showy part of the
flower, has five membranous sepals, the three outer are of a
beautiful rosy pink colour, about 1in. in length by rather less in
breadth, cordate at the base, oblong, rounded towards the
apex; the two inner sepals about the same length as the outer
ones, but much narrower, falcate, lanceolate; pedicels ¾in.
long. l. broadly ovate oblong, deeply cordate at the base, with
two rounded lobes; 4in. by 3in., the upper ones smaller,
supported on short terete downy stalks. Stems slender, angular,
pubescent. Columbia, 1876.
A. leptopus (slender-stemmed). fl. numerous; the outer three
sepals of a beautiful rose colour, the centre of a much deeper
tint; racemes secund, bearing several coloured bracts as well as

flowers, and end in a branched tendril. l. alternate, cordate,
petiolate. Stem slender, sub-pubescent. Mexico, 1868.
ANTIGRAMME. See Scolopendrium.
FIG. 113. ANTIRRHINUM CAPSULE, with Persistent Style.
FIG. 114. ANTIRRHINUM ASARINA, showing Habit and Flower.
ANTIRRHINUM (from anti, like, and rhin, a nose or snout; alluding
to the shape of the corolla). Snapdragon. ORD. Scrophulariaceæ.
Hardy herbaceous plants. Flowers in terminal racemes, or solitary

and axillary; corolla personate; tube ample, saccate at the base;
lobes of the upper lip erect; lower lip spreading, having the middle
lobes smaller than the lateral ones, with an ample bearded palate,
which closes the throat. Seed pod or capsule two-celled, upper cell
bursting by one pore, lower by two many-toothed pores. See Fig.
113. Leaves entire, rarely lobed. The genus contains several very
handsome species, suitable for borders and the rockery, while
innumerable varieties have originated from A. majus, which are very
popular, and extremely useful for bedding purposes; these may be
increased by cuttings or seeds; if it is desired to increase certain
colours or varieties, the former is the only sure method to adopt.
They should be taken in September, when they will readily root in a
cold frame, or under a hand glass, or they may be rapidly
propagated in gentle heat in spring. Seeds should be sown in July or
August, when they will produce good plants by the following season;
or if sown in March in warmth, the plants will bloom late in the same
year. The "Tom Thumb" strain is especially desirable for bedding,
being very dwarf and free. All the other species may be increased by
cuttings and seeds treated in the same way. Light soil, well enriched
with manure, is most suitable for all of them, especially for the
varieties of A. majus.

FIG. 115. FLOWER-SPIKE OF ANTIRRHINUM MAJUS.
A. angustifolium (narrow-leaved). Synonymous with A.
siculum.
A. Asarina (Asarina).* fl. axillary, solitary; corolla 1½in. long,
white, sometimes tinged with red; palate yellow; tube glabrous,
compressed on the back, marked by purple spots, and bearded
by yellow hairs inside. June. l. opposite, on long petioles, five-
nerved, five-lobed, cordate, and crenated. South France, &c.,
1699. A greyish clammy procumbent plant, requiring a warm
position on the rockery. See Fig. 114.
A. hispanicum (Spanish). fl. in loose spikes; corolla hardly an
inch long, purple, with a golden yellow palate; tube villous.
Summer. l. oblong-lanceolate, contracted at the base, bluntish;

lower ones opposite; superior ones alternate, narrower. h. 1ft.
Spain, 1878. SYN. A. latifolium.
A. latifolium (broad-leaved). Synonymous with A. hispanicum.
A. majus (large).* Greater, or Common Snapdragon. fl.
racemose, approximate; corolla 1in. to 2in. long, shades infinite;
palate yellow at top, very prominent; tube downy outside.
Spring, summer, and autumn. l. oblong-lanceolate, 1in. to 3in.
long; upper ones narrower, attenuated at both ends, glabrous.
Branches erect, usually branched again. h. 2ft. Europe
(naturalised in Britain). The named varieties are numerous, but
it is unnecessary to enumerate any, as an equal amount of
variation can be obtained from seed. See Fig. 115.
A. molle (soft).* fl. few, at the tops of the branchlets; corolla
1in. long, whitish, with a yellow palate; upper lip striped with
purple. July. l. opposite, petiolate, clothed with glandular and
clammy hairs, about ½in. long, and little more than ¼in. broad;
branches procumbent, slender, clothed with woolly hairs.
Pyrenees, 1752. A very pretty plant, which should have a warm
position on the rockery. A. sempervirens comes close to this
species.
A. Orontium (Orontium). fl. axillary, distant; corolla rose-
coloured or white, striped with purple; tube furnished with a few
glandular hairs; palate veined with purple; sepals linear-
lanceolate, large. June. l. oblong-lanceolate, acutish, attenuated
at both ends, glabrous, 2in. long. h. 6in. to 12in. Europe (British
cornfields). Annual. See Fig. 116.
A. O. grandiflorum (large-flowered). A variety with larger,
paler, and more approximate flowers, and with broader leaves,
than the type. Europe (British cornfields).
A. siculum (Sicilian). fl. in loose racemes; corolla hardly 1in.
long, white or yellowish, rarely purple; tube rather hairy; lobes
of the upper lip and the middle lobe of the lower lip emarginate.
July. l. 1in. to 1½in. long, linear-lanceolate, opposite, alternate

FIG. 116. ANTIRRHINUM
ORONTIUM.
or three in a whorl, narrowed into
petioles at the base. Branches
erect. h. 1ft. to 2ft. Sicily, 1804.
SYN. A. angustifolium.
A. tortuosum (twisted).* fl.
disposed in spiked racemes,
approximating by threes and fours;
corolla (the largest of the genus)
purple; tube short; upper lip large.
June. l. linear, acute, opposite or
three in a whorl, 2in. long,
attenuated at both ends; upper
ones very narrow. Branches erect.
h. 1ft. to 1½ft. Italy.
ANTONIA. A synonym of Rhynchoglossum (which see).
ANTROPHYUM (from antron, a cavern, and phuo, to grow;
referring to its place of growth). Including Polytænium. ORD. Filices.
A small genus of stove ferns, very rarely seen in cultivation, all with
simple fronds, of firm but fleshy texture, and copious, uniform,
hexagonal areolæ. Sori carried along the veins, imperfectly
reticulated. For culture, &c., see Ferns.
A. cayennense (Cayenne). sti. 1in. to 4in. long. fronds 6in. to
9in. long, 1in. to 1½in. broad, lanceolate-oblong, narrowed at
both ends; edge thickened, entire; areolæ half as broad as long.
sori sub-superficial, often forked. Guiana, &c.
A. coriaceum (leathery). fronds 6in. to 8in. long, about ½in.
broad, narrowed very gradually from the centre to the base,
very acute at the apex, very thick; areolæ very long and narrow,
distinctly raised on the upper surface. sori quite immersed,
sometimes confluent. Himalayas, &c.
A. lanceolatum (lance-leaved).* fronds 1ft. or more long, ¼in.
to ½in. broad, point acute, edge entire, the lower half narrowed

very gradually to the base; areolæ two or three times as long as
broad, about three rows between the midrib and the edge. sori
slender, superficial, often joining. West Indies, southwards to
New Grenada, 1793.
ANTS (Formicidæ). Well-known pests, easily distinguished from all
other insects. There are a great number of species, differing more or
less in habits; but, as a rule, they dwell underground in
communities, and construct extensive ant-cities, which are occupied
by three classes—the neuters or workers (by far the most
numerous), the males, and the females. There are often, in addition
to these, larger and stronger neuters, known as the "soldiers," or
defenders of the community. Ants have a long, slender body,
supported on long and slender legs. The head bears a pair of
elbowed horns or antennæ, constantly waving about and touching
everything the insect comes across. They have powerful mandibles
for cutting, sawing, and biting, and it is with these instruments that
Ants do mischief in gardens. The winged males and females become
mature in summer, and on a warm day they ascend in a body into
the air; after a short time, they fall to the ground, the females at
once free themselves from the henceforth useless wings, and begin
to form new colonies. Vast numbers of eggs are laid, from which
issue larvæ, and these soon become pupæ, and then perfect Ants.
Some kinds are injurious from their habit (in some species) of
collecting aphides together, and farming them for the sake of the
honey secreted by the aphides, and that passes out from their
honey-tubes (thus helping to perpetuate the stock of these most
injurious insects); and also from the mechanical damage they do in
pots, and other receptacles for plants. They likewise cause unsightly
hills on lawns and paths, and the large black species that live in
decayed wood often injure the framing of greenhouses, &c., when
the woodwork has become somewhat decayed. Where fruit, such as
peaches or wall pears, are grown, Ants will at times inflict damage,
and, therefore, they should be kept away; but this is a comparatively
easy matter, as the placing of an obnoxious substance along the
base of the walls and around the stems of the trees will deter them.

For the extirpation of Ants from indoors, the Arsenical solution
described below is most efficacious, but it is extremely dangerous.
Lime. Air-slaked lime plentifully dusted, in warm, dry, weather, over
and around the hills and other places infested, will cause the Ants to
vacate them in a short time. A thick chalk line drawn round a smooth
tree, or across an upright board or post, will render it impassable.
Arsenic. This must be used with the utmost caution, as it is a poison
most fatal to animal life. Recipe: 1oz. of ordinary arsenic is placed in
an old iron pot with a quart of water, and then boiled until reduced
to a pint or a little more of liquid, to which is added ½lb. of coarse
sugar. This mixture can either be dropped about the runs and
around the nests, or placed in saucers in the Ants' haunts.
Ferrocyanide of Potassium. This is also very dangerous: Ferrocyanide
of potassium, 1dr.; raspings of quassia, 1dr.; and enough sugar to
form a syrup. Use in the same way as the preceding.
Calomel and Sugar. Mix together one part of calomel and ten parts
of finely-powdered loaf sugar, and lay it in little heaps about their
nests and runs; the Ants will eat it and die. Spring is the best season
for this method.
Guano, when fresh, if sprinkled on and around their quarters, is said
to be efficacious in driving them away.
Camphor. If a piece of camphor, about the size of a filbert, be placed
in two quarts of hot water, and this, when cool enough, applied to
pot or other plants infested with Ants, the insects will be driven off
without injury to the plants.
Bones. Lay a quantity of partially-picked boiled bones in the haunts,
and they will be quickly covered with insects. As soon as this occurs,
throw the bones into hot water. Before laying them down again, let
all superfluous moisture drain off. This is a cheap remedy, and, if
persisted in, is very effectual.

Carbolic Acid. This, if of good strength, diluted with about ten or
twelve times its bulk of water, and well sprinkled over paths or other
places where there is no vegetation, will keep the Ants away. It has,
however, an objectionable smell.
Paraffin Oil. Paraffin, mixed with six times its bulk of water, and
sprinkled over the nests every few days, will kill and drive away
Ants; but the smell is disagreeable.
Quassia. 4oz. of quassia chips, boiled in a gallon of water for about
ten minutes, and 4oz. of soap added to the liquor as it cools, if used
like the preceding, is fairly effectual; but this, like the other
remedies, must be persisted in for some time.
Fly pans or saucers, nearly filled with thin honey or sweet oil, attract
Ants, and they are drowned in them. Ants are very hard to clear
effectually out of a place, and therefore it is very desirable, in all
attempts to be rid of them, to persist in the above remedies. When
not living close to the roots or stems of plants, the best and surest
remedy of all is to flood them out or scald them in with boiling water.
The specifics are endless, but the best are mentioned above.
ANTWERP HOLLYHOCK. See Althæa ficifolia.
AOTUS (from a, without, and ous, an ear; in allusion to the absence
of appendages in the calyx, which distinguishes it from its allied
genus, Pultenæa). ORD. Leguminosæ. Elegant little greenhouse
evergreen shrubs, with yellow flowers, and simple, linear-subulate
leaves, revolute at the margins, alternate or nearly opposite, or
three in a whorl. They should be grown in a compost of equal parts
loam, sand, and peat, with a little charcoal, and the pots should be
well drained. Cuttings of half-ripened wood, made in April, root
freely in sand, under a bell glass.
A. gracillima (most slender).* fl. yellow and crimson, small, on
long, dense, graceful spikes, which are often over a foot long;
pedicels short. May. h. 3ft. New Holland, 1844. A very pretty
slender growing shrub.

A. villosa (soft-haired). fl. axillary, disposed in racemose spikes
along the branches; calyx silky. April. l. smoothish on the upper
surface. h. 1ft. to 2ft. New Holland, 1790.
APEIBA (the native name in Guiana.) ORD. Tiliaceæ. Very handsome
stove evergreen trees or shrubs, clothed with starry down. Flowers
large, golden yellow, pedunculate, bracteate. Capsule spherical,
depressed, rough from rigid bristles. Leaves broad, alternate, entire
or serrate. They thrive in a mixture of loam and peat. The best way
to induce them to flower in this country is by cutting a ring round
the bark of a large branch; by this means the growth is stopped.
Well ripened cuttings should be planted in sand in heat, under a bell
glass, which should be tilted occasionally, so as to give a little air to
the cuttings, otherwise they are apt to damp off.
A. aspera (rough).* fl. golden yellow; peduncles opposite the
leaves, branched, many flowered. May. l. ovate-oblong,
somewhat cordate, quite entire, smooth. h. 30ft. to 40ft.
Guiana, 1792.
A. Petoumo (Petoumo). fl. yellow, similarly disposed to A.
aspera. August. fr. densely clothed with bristles. l. ovate-oblong,
somewhat cordate at the base, entire, hoary beneath. h. 40ft.
Guiana, 1817.
A. Tibourbou (Tibourbou).* fl. dark yellow. August. fr. densely
clothed with bristles. l. cordate, ovate-oblong, serrated, hairy
beneath. h. 10ft. Guiana, 1756.
APETALOUS. Without petals.
APEX. The summit or point of anything.
APHELANDRA (from apheles, simple, and aner, a male; the
anthers being one-celled). ORD. Acanthaceæ. Very handsome stove
evergreen shrubs, mostly of an erect habit of growth, and having
handsome shining leaves, which in some instances are variegated.
Flowers produced in terminal four-sided spikes—the preponderating

colours being brilliant shades of orange or scarlet—conspicuously
situated above the foliage; they are exceedingly attractive; corolla
ringent, two-lipped, upper lip three-lobed; central lobe large. They
bloom generally during the autumn months, and if the plants are
removed to a warm dry atmosphere so soon as the flowers begin to
open, they will continue much longer in perfection than if left in the
moisture-laden atmosphere of the stove. From the time the flower
spikes are at first seen till they bloom, the plants will derive much
benefit from frequent applications of clear manure water. When the
plants have finished flowering, they should be allowed to rest, by
reducing the supply of water, but never allow them to shrivel. During
this time they may be kept in a house or pit, where the atmosphere
is rather dry, with a night temperature of 50deg. to 55deg. Here they
may remain till March, when they should be pruned. This operation
is commenced by thinning out the weakest shoots altogether, and
cutting the others back to one or two of the strongest joints or buds
above the old wood in order to keep the plants dwarf and bushy.
When pruned, the plants should be placed in the stove, giving
moderate supplies of water at the roots, and occasionally sprinkling
the stems overhead till growth commences. When the young shoots
have attained an inch or so in length, the plants should be turned
out of the pots, removing the crocks and as much of the old soil as
can be got away easily, at the same time shortening-in any of the
straggling roots. They should then be placed into smaller-sized pots,
keeping them rather close, and watering them carefully for a time till
growth has commenced. When fairly started, they may be
transferred into larger-sized pots, in which they are to flower. During
the summer, these plants require a moist atmosphere, with a
temperature of 65deg. by night, allowing it to rise 15deg. or 20deg.
by day, and whilst active growth is taking place they should be
frequently supplied with moisture at the roots, keeping them well
exposed on all sides to the light. After growth has commenced, it is
not advisable to stop the shoots, for the stouter and stronger they
grow up the finer will be the flower spikes when they appear. The
compost should consist of equal parts fibry loam, leaf soil, and peat,
with a good proportion of sand added. In preparing it, it should be

rather lumpy, and, before using, should be warmed to about the
temperature of the house in which the plants are grown. Clean pots
and perfect drainage are most essential. Cuttings are best prepared
from half ripened wood, or taken off when young with a heel. The
base of each cutting should invariably be cut clean across. These
may be inserted an inch apart, in pots of sandy soil, and plunged in
a brisk bottom heat. To obtain young shoots for cuttings, if the old
plants break freely after pruning, and very large specimens are not
required, when the shoots are 2in. long they should be thinned out,
leaving the requisite number of the strongest to form the plant. If
the surplus pieces are removed with a slight heel of the older wood,
they make good cuttings, and should be treated the same as the
others. These cuttings strike root quickest, and when rooted, if
potted into 5in. or 6in. pots, and allowed to grow up without
stopping or pinching out the tops, they will flower the first season.
Although Aphelandras can be grown into large sized specimens, it
will be found to be more generally satisfactory to have specimens of
neat and moderate dimensions. The mealy bug and scale insects are
very troublesome, and must be kept down, otherwise they will prove
most prejudicial to the plants.
A. acutifolia (acute-leaved). fl. large, deep vermilion red; the
upper lip of corolla concave, and projected forward, the lower
one consists of three oblong-obtuse spreading lobes. October. l.
broad, oblong-ovate, acuminate. Columbia, 1868.
A. aurantiaca (orange-coloured).* fl. deep orange scarlet;
upper lip of corolla erect, bidentate, concave; lower one
spreading horizontally, three lobed. December. l. broad, ovate,
opposite, dark green, somewhat wavy at the edge. h. 3ft.
Mexico, 1844.
A. a. Roezlii (Roezl's).* Differs chiefly from the type in the
curiously twisted leaves, which are dark green, shaded with a
silvery hue between the primary veins; in the brighter scarlet of
the flowers; and a few other, but purely technical, points. It is
one of the best. Mexico, 1867. SYN. A. Roezlii.

A. cristata (crested).* fl. brilliant orange scarlet, 2in. or 3in.
long, in large terminal branching spikes. August to November. l.
large, broadly ovate, and tapering to a point. h. 3ft. West
Indies, 1733. A handsome and continuous bloomer. SYN. Justicia
pulcherrima.
A. fascinator (fascinating).* fl. bright vermilion, in very large
spikes. Autumn. l. ovate acuminate, olive green, beautifully
banded with silvery white, whilst the under side is of a uniform
purplish violet. h. 1½ft. New Grenada, 1874.
A. Leopoldi (Leopold's).* fl. citron-yellow. l. opposite, ovate-
oblong, acuminate; ground colour on the upper surface dark
green, the midrib and primary veins pure white; under surface
uniformly pale green. Brazil, 1854.
A. medio-aurata (golden-centred). fl. unknown. l. ovate-
lanceolate, sinuate, bright green, with yellow central brand.
Brazil, 1871. SYN. Graptophyllum medio-auratum.
A. nitens (shining).* fl. glowing vermilion-scarlet, very large, in
erect, simple, terminal spikes, which, after the flowers have
fallen, are clothed with the imbricating, lanceolate, appressed
bracts. l. ovate, sub-acute, leathery, brilliant glossy on the upper
surface, dark vinous purple underneath. h. 2ft. to 3ft. Columbia,
1867.
A. Porteana (Porte's).* fl. in fine terminal heads; corolla and
bracts bright orange. l. rich green, with metallic silvery-white
veins. h. 2ft. Brazil, 1854.
A. pumila (dwarfish).* fl. orange-coloured; upper lip erect,
concave, entire; bracts large, purplish. l. large, cordate, ovate-
oblong, acute. h. 8in. Brazil, 1878. Very distinct from all others.
A. punctata (dotted).* fl. bright yellow, in large and rather
dense spikes; the spiny-edged long pointed bracts are also
yellow, with the exception of the tip, which is green, and forms
a pleasing contrast. November. l. opposite, elliptic, acuminate;
the green midrib is conspicuous in the middle of a white central

band, which also extends beside the green veins, this silvery
band breaking up on its margin into numerous small white dots,
producing a pretty and distinct form of variegation. South
America, 1881.
A. Roezlii. A synonym of A. aurantiaca Roezlii.
A. variegata (variegated). fl. yellow; spike, 6in. long, with
bright orange-red bracts. l. ovate-lanceolate, acuminate, dark
green with white veins. h. 1½ft. Brazil.
APHELEXIS (from apheles, simple, and exis, habit). ORD.
Compositæ. A genus of elegant dwarf evergreen greenhouse shrubs.
Flower-heads large, solitary, or small and two or more together.
Leaves small. These plants are valuable for exhibition purposes, on
account of their bright colours, and the length of time they last in
perfection; they are included among what are familiarly known as
"everlastings." The most suitable soil is a compost of two parts of
good fibrous peat and one of leaf mould, with a liberal supply of
silver sand, and a few pieces of charcoal added to it. Repot the
plants firmly in February, and allow thorough drainage. Cuttings can
be made in spring or summer; small half-ripened side shoots are
best; and these will root in sandy soil, under a bell glass, in a cool
greenhouse.
A. ericoides (heath-like).* fl.-heads white. April. l. very small,
three-cornered, imbricated, appressed; branches numerous,
very fine, filiform. h. 1ft. Cape of Good Hope, 1796.
A. fasciculata (fascicled). fl.-heads purplish, solitary, terminal;
peduncles scaly. March. l. acerose linear, roundish, downy
above; lower spreading; upper appressed. h. 2ft. Cape of Good
Hope, 1779. There are two or three forms of this species,
varying in the colour of the flowers.
A. humilis (humble, or dwarf).* fl.-heads pink, solitary,
terminal, opening only in sunshine; peduncles scaly. April. l.
subulate, erect, imbricate. Branches numerous, slender, covered

with white tomentum. h. 2ft. Cape of Good Hope, 1810. A
handsome greenhouse plant, with much-branched stems,
terminated by the flower-head. SYNS. A. macrantha and
Helipterum humile.
A. h. grandiflora (large-flowered).* fl.-heads rosy-purple,
produced in great abundance. Habit rather dwarf, and free
branching. Very highly esteemed.
A. h. purpurea (purple).* fl. dark purple, very abundant. l.
silvery white and shining. A vigorous grower, and perhaps the
best for exhibition purposes. It is known in gardens as A.
macrantha purpurea; also under the name of A. spectabilis.
A. h. rosea (rose-coloured).* fl.-heads delicate rose, very
profuse. Habit very compact and free-branching. A very showy
and desirable variety, known in gardens as A. macrantha rosea.
A. macrantha (large-flowered). Synonymous with A. humilis.
A. sesamoides (Sesamum-like). fl.-heads purple and white,
sessile, solitary, terminal. April. l. acerose linear, keeled, smooth,
appressed. h. 2ft. Cape of Good Hope, 1739.
APHIDES, or PLANT LICE. These belong to the order Homoptera,
meaning "same winged," and the name has reference to the fact
that the fore wings are uniform in their structure from base to apex,
not divided into a leathery base and a membranous tip. Aphides are
all minute in size, soft bodied, and generally long legged; the mouth
is furnished with a curiously-constructed beak, or rostrum, for
sucking the juice of plants; the antennæ, or feelers, are long and
slender; the legs have usually two joints in the tarsi, one of which is
generally very ill-developed; and near the tip of the abdomen, on
the back of a ring, in many kinds, stand two prominent tubes, called
honey-tubes, from which a sweet secretion, much sought after by
ants, is emitted. They are very destructive, and nearly every plant
has its own peculiar Aphis; but among the worst are the cherry fly
and bean fly. All these insects are very destructive to the young
shoots and foliage of plants, on which they cluster in large numbers,

sometimes completely hiding the stems, increasing with marvellous
rapidity. They produce eggs in autumn, which lie dormant through
the winter, and upon the approach of warm weather in spring, hatch
and produce individuals which, during the summer, are viviparous,
budding off young insects at a surprising rate, which quickly in turn
become possessed of the same marvellous power; hence the
enormous number which are produced in so surprisingly short a
time. It has been computed that in a few weeks many millions of
young might be produced directly or descended from a single
female. See also Black Fly and Bean Fly.
The following remedies may be successfully employed:
Tobacco. This is applied, as a rule, in three forms, each of which is
useful for particular purposes. Tobacco powder is useful as a dry
application to plants where, from any cause, the other modes of
employing it are not desirable. It causes no smell, and is useful in
conservatories, &c., for that reason. The mode of applying it is to
dredge or dust it over the foliage of the plants affected, and to
syringe off in from three to thirty hours, according to the nature of
the plants. Fumigation with tobacco, if done in a proper way, is very
effective, but it leaves an unpleasant smell. The foliage of the plants
should be quite dry, and a still day must be chosen for the work; the
house should be filled with smoke, but no flame must arise in the
burning. The plants should be well syringed the next morning, and
full ventilation allowed; if the fumigation is repeated twice or thrice,
it will prove very effectual. Tobacco water is made by soaking a
pound of coarse shag in 6gals. of hot water, to which ½lb. of size or
soft soap has been added. The plants should be dipped into or
syringed with this mixture, and well syringed with clean tepid water
about twelve hours after. It should not be employed for plants
having woolly or hairy foliage. Tobacco paper and cloth are used for
fumigating in the same manner as tobacco; but as they vary in
strength, more care is necessary, as they sometimes cause the
leaves to become spotted. Judiciously employed, they are cheaper
than Tobacco.

Quassia. Boil 1lb. quassia chips in 4gals. of soft water, for about ten
minutes, and after straining off the chips, add 1lb. of soft soap.
Apply in the same way as Tobacco water, and syringe the plants with
clean water after ten minutes or a quarter of an hour.
Soft Soap. This, in proportion of 8lb. to 12gals. of rain water, and
1gal. of tobacco water added after it is cold, is a cheap and good
remedy out of doors, and requires the same mode of application as
tobacco water.
Soap Suds. Where bleaching powder, or much soda, is not mixed
with these, they make a good insect killer for hard-foliaged plants,
but should be washed off with clean water in twelve hours. No
mixture containing chloride of lime should be used.
Various. Fir-tree Oil, Gishurst's Compound, and Fowler's Insecticide,
are all serviceable, if used as directed on the labels. Hardeman's
Beetle Powder, applied with the little French powder-bellows which is
sold with it, is very efficacious. For outdoor work, nothing surpasses
clean cold water, applied often and forcibly with a syringe.
The best mode of clearing Aphis off Beaus, Currants, &c., is to
remove the tops of the infested shoots, and to wash the plants with
soapy water, or a solution of Gishurst's Compound. In some cases, a
good dusting with soot and wood ashes, while the plants are wet,
will keep them in check. The "Golden Eyes" or "Lacewing" fly, and
also ladybirds, are to be encouraged, as the larvæ of each of these
wage incessant war against Aphides, especially the green varieties,
and thin them out considerably.
APHROPHORA. See Frog Hopper.
APHYLLANTHES (from aphyllos, leafless, and anthos, a flower; the
flowers are on rush-like branches). ORD. Liliaceæ. A very pretty rush-
like hardy perennial, forming dense, erect tufts. It thrives best in
sandy peat, requires a warm sunny situation, and slight protection in
winter. Increased by division of the roots, and seeds; the latter
should be sown in pots in a cool greenhouse as soon as ripe.

A. monspeliensis (Montpelier).* fl., perianth six-cleft,
spreading at the apex, deep blue, nearly an inch across,
disposed in a small head, on slender scapes. June. l. absent; the
very slender scapes are leaflike, with membranous sheaths at
the base. South of France, 1791.
APHYLLOUS. Without leaves.
APICRA (from apicros, not bitter). ORD. Liliaceæ. A group of
succulents allied to Aloe, and having the following among other
characters:—Flowers small, loosely sub-spicate; perianth regular,
cylindrical, with short spreading segments; peduncles simple or
forked. Plants small; rosette leaves always elongated. Leaves thick,
diffuse, never spinosely dentated. They require treatment similar to
Aloes, under which genus they are included by some authors.
A. aspera (rough).* fl., perianth ½in. long; raceme loose, 3in.
to 4in.; pedicels three to four lines long; peduncle slender,
simple, nearly 1ft. l. dense, in many rows, spreading, rounded,
deltoid, six to seven lines long and broad; face rather flat;
middle three to four lines thick; back convex hemispherical,
wrinkled. Cape of Good Hope, 1795.
A. bicarinata (double-keeled).* fl. unknown. l. dense, in many
rows, ascending, deltoid-lanceolate, nine to twelve lines long,
six lines broad, dirty green; face flat; middle two lines thick;
margin scabrous; back copiously tubercled. Cape of Good Hope,
1824.
A. congesta (congested). fl., perianth six to seven lines,
whitish; raceme loose, sub-spicate, about 1ft.; pedicels short;
peduncles 6in. long, simple. l. dense, spreading, in many rows,
deltoid-lanceolate, eighteen to twenty-one lines long, three to
four lines thick; back convex; top unevenly keeled towards the
margins. 1843.
A. deltoidea (deltoid). fl., perianth greenish, five to six lines
long; raceme about 1ft. long, sub-spicate; pedicels short;

peduncles 6in., simple or branched. l. in five regular rows,
spreading, nine to twelve lines long, deltoid, shining green;
when mature, upper surface rather flat, apex pungent; middle
two to three lines thick; back distinctly keeled upwards; margins
and keels minutely serrated. South Africa, 1873.
A. foliolosa (small-leafy).* fl., perianth greenish, five to six
lines long; raceme loose, sub-spicate, about 1ft.; pedicels two to
three lines long; peduncle 6in., simple. l. dense, spreading, in
many rows, rounded deltoid, cuspidate, six to eight lines long
and broad, without spots or tubercles; face rather flat; middle
one and a half to two lines thick; back obliquely keeled upwards
towards the margins. Cape of Good Hope, 1795.
A. imbricata (imbricated). Synonymous with A. spiralis.
A. pentagona (five-angled).* fl., perianth whitish, ½in. long;
raceme about 1ft., loose; lower pedicels two to three lines long;
peduncles 1ft., often branched. l. dense, regular, lower ones
spreading, upper ones ascending, lanceolate-deltoid, fifteen to
eighteen lines long; bottom six to eight lines broad, shining
green; face flat; middle three to four lines thick; apex pungent;
margin scabrous; back irregularly one to two keeled at top.
Cape of Good Hope, 1731.
A. p. bullulata (little-blistered). l. irregularly spiral, five rowed;
back with spreading close wrinkled tubercles.
A. p. spirella (small spiral). l. smaller and more deltoid, 1in.
long, six to eight lines broad at the bottom, irregularly five
rowed, or as if in many rows.
A. spiralis (spiral).* fl., perianth reddish-white, ½in. long;
raceme loose, nearly 1ft.; pedicels ascending, two to three lines
long; peduncles 6in., simple or branched. l. dense, in many
rows, strong, ascending, lanceolate-deltoid, twelve to fifteen
lines long, six to eight lines broad; face almost flat, without
tubercles; apex pungent; back swollen, scarcely keeled; margins

obscurely crenulated. Cape of Good Hope, 1790. SYN. A.
imbricata.
APICULATE, APICULATED. Terminated in a little point.
APIOS (from apion, a pear; in reference to the form of the tubers of
the root). ORD. Leguminosæ. An elegant little hardy twining
perennial, easily trained into almost any shape. It must have a well-
exposed, sunny position, and the soil should be of a warm or light
sandy nature. Propagated by division of the tubers.
FIG. 117. APIOS TUBEROSA, showing Habit and Flower.
A. tuberosa (tuberous).* Ground Nut. fl. brownish-purple,
sweet-scented, in axillary racemes. Summer and early autumn.
l. pinnate. Tubers edible, farinaceous. Habit very light and
graceful. Pennsylvania, 1640. SYN. Glycine Apios. See Fig. 117.
APIOSPERMUM. A synonym of Pistia (which see).

APIUM (from apon, Celtic for water; in reference to the habitat).
ORD. Umbelliferæ. This genus contains no species worth growing for
ornament, and nearly all are more or less acrid and poisonous. A.
graveolens is the Celery of gardens, for culture of which, see
Celery.
APLECTRUM (from a, without, and plectron, a spur; flower
spurless). ORD. Orchideæ. A monotypic genus from North America. A
curious, hardy, terrestrial orchid, requiring a shady spot in light loam
and leaf mould, moderately damp. Very difficult to cultivate.
A. hyemale (wintry).* fl. greenish-brown, large, racemose,
borne on a naked scape after the leaves have died down;
labellum as long as the sepals; column sessile, rather long,
wingless. April. Stem pseudo-bulbous, with one large, broad,
ribbed leaf. h. 1ft. 1827.
APLOTAXIS. Included under Saussurea (which see).
APOCARPOUS. Having the carpels or fruit separate, or disunited.
APOCYNACEÆ. A large order of trees, shrubs, or rarely herbs,
usually with a poisonous, milky sap. Flowers regular, solitary or
corymbose; corolla salver-shaped or campanulate. Leaves simple,
opposite, sometimes alternate or whorled. Well known genera
belonging to this order are: Allamanda, Nerium, Tabernæmontana
and Vinca.
APOCYNUM (from apo, away, and kyon, a dog; adopted by
Dioscorides, because the plant was supposed to be poisonous to
dogs). ORD. Apocynaceæ. Dog's Bane. Perennial erect herbs, with
cymose flowers and membranous, opposite leaves. There are several
species belonging to this genus, but only the one described below is
worthy of being cultivated. They are of extremely easy culture,
thriving in any ordinary soil; and may be propagated by suckers,
divisions, or seeds. The best time to divide is just as they are
starting into fresh growth in spring.

A. androsæmifolium (Tutsan-leaved).* fl. pale red, with
darker stripes; corolla campanulate; cymes terminal and lateral.
July. l. ovate, glabrous, petiolate, pale beneath. h. 1ft. to 2ft.
Virginia, and Canada, 1683. A very old garden favourite, thriving
best in peaty soil, with Azaleas, &c. See Fig. 118.
FIG. 118. INFLORESCENCE OF APOCYNUM ANDROSÆMIFOLIUM.
APONOGETON (from apon, Celtic for water, and geiton, neighbour;
alluding to the habitat of these plants). ORD. Naiadaceæ. Very
ornamental aquatic perennials. There are several species, but A.
distachyon is superior to the others. This species may be cultivated
in small tanks or aquaria; it delights in an abundance of light and air,
and is perfectly hardy, having become naturalised in many parts of
the country. Pot the plants in rich sandy loam and rotten cow
manure, using, of course, small pots, if the vessel in which it is to be
grown is restricted. When introducing it to large tanks or lakes,
commence with strong, previously well-established plants, in large
pots, breaking the latter when the plants are immersed. Place them

in positions where the water is about 1ft. 6in. to 2ft. deep; they will
then rapidly increase by offsets and seeds, and, when established,
will flower nearly all the year round. The other kinds will thrive with
the same treatment; but they are neither so hardy nor so vigorous,
and should only be grown in small tanks or aquaria.
FIG. 119. APONOGETON DISTACHYON, showing Habit and Flower-spikes.
A. angustifolium (narrow-leaved). fl. white. July. Cape of
Good Hope, 1788. Half hardy.

FIG. 120. APONOGETON DISTACHYON, showing Flower-spikes, Leaf, and Root.
A. distachyon (two-spiked).* Cape Pond Weed; Winter
Hawthorn. fl. with a delicious Hawthorn-like perfume; petals
none; bracts, or showy portion oval, entire, white; anthers
purple-brown; scape two-spiked, each spike being from 2in. to
4in. long. l. oblong-lanceolate, entire, bright green, on long
stalks, floating. Cape of Good Hope, 1788. See Figs. 119 and
120.
A. monostachyon (simple-spiked). fl. pink. September. h. 1ft.
East Indies, 1803. Stove species. Rare.
A. spathaceum junceum (rush-like).* A very pretty, but rare,
half-hardy aquatic plant, with the forked inflorescence having
both bracts and flowers suffused with a delicate blush colour. l.
rush-like, standing clear up out of the water. South Africa, 1879.

APORETICA. A synonym of Schmidelia (which see).
APPENDICULATE, APPENDICULATED. Having appendages.
APPLANATE. Flattened out.
FIG. 121. APPLE BLOSSOM.
APPLE (Pyrus Malus). The Apple is one of the most useful, and
probably most largely cultivated, of our hardy fruits. It is known as
the Crab in its wild state, and is indigenous to Britain and to all the
temperate and warmer parts of Europe. It is supposed that the
progenitors of the varieties now grown were introduced to this
country at various times from the Continent, and not obtained here
as direct improvements on the native Crab. Those now cultivated are
extremely numerous, and include good varieties that can be made to
prolong the season all the year round. Apart from its great value as
a fruit, the apple is a strikingly handsome tree when in flower (see
Fig. 121). A fruiting branch is shown at Fig. 122.

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