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9 0 0 0 0
9 7 8 0 1 3 4 6 0 1 5 3 3
ISBN-13: 978-0-13-460153-3
ISBN-10: 0-13-460153-X
DATABASE
Concepts
David M. Kroenke
David J. Auer
Scott L. Vandenberg
Robert C. Yoder
EIGHTH EDITION
DATABASE
Concepts
Kroenke
•
Auer
•
Vandenberg
•
Yoder
8E
www.pearsonhighered.com

vi Contents
8 Data Warehouses, Business
Intelligence Systems, and Big
Data 488
BUSINESS INTELLIGENCE SYSTEMS 491
THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN OPERATIONAL AND
BI SYSTEMS 491
REPORTING SYSTEMS AND DATA MINING
APPLICATIONS 491
DATA WAREHOUSES AND DATA MARTS 492
OLAP 503
DISTRIBUTED DATABASE PROCESSING 507
OBJECT-RELATIONAL DATABASES 510
VIRTUALIZATION 511
CLOUD COMPUTING 511
BIG DATA AND THE NOT ONLY SQL
MOVEMENT 513
THE ACCESS WORKBENCH SECTION 8—BUSINESS
INTELLIGENCE SYSTEMS USING MICROSOFT
ACCESS 518
Summary 531 • Key Terms 533 • Review
Questions 533 • Exercises 535 • Access
Workbench Exercises 537 • Marcia’s Dry
Cleaning Case Questions 537 • Garden Glory
Project Questions 538 • James River Jewelry
Project Questions 539 • The Queen Anne
Curiosity Shop Project Questions 539
Glossary 542
Index 553
ONLINE APPENDICES: SEE PAGE 541
FOR INSTRUCTIONS
Appendix A: Getting Started with
Microsoft SQL Server
2016
Appendix B: Getting Started with
Oracle Database XE
Appendix C: Getting Started with
MySQL 5.7 Community
Server
Appendix D: James River Jewelry
Project Questions
Appendix E: Advanced SQL
Appendix F: Getting Started in
Systems Analysis and
Design
Appendix G: Getting Started with
Microsoft Visio 2016
Appendix H: The Access Workbench—
Section H—Microsoft
Access 2016
Switchboards
Appendix I: Getting Started with
Web Servers, PHP, and
the NetBeans IDE
Appendix J: Business Intelligence
Systems
Appendix K: Big Data
A01_KROE1533_08_SE_FM.indd 6 11/21/16 7:22 PM

Preface
Colin Johnson is a production supervisor for a small manufacturer in Seattle. Several years
ago, Colin wanted to build a database to keep track of components in product packages. At
the time, he was using a spreadsheet to perform this task, but he could not get the reports
he needed from the spreadsheet. Colin had heard about Microsoft Access, and he tried to
use it to solve his problem. After several days of frustration, he bought several popular
Microsoft Access books and attempted to learn from them. Ultimately, he gave up and
hired a consultant who built an application that more or less met his needs. Over time,
Colin wanted to change his application, but he did not dare try.
Colin was a successful businessperson who was highly motivated to achieve his goals. A
seasoned Windows user, he had been able to teach himself how to use Microsoft Excel,
Microsoft PowerPoint, and a number of production-oriented application packages. He was
flummoxed at his inability to use Microsoft Access to solve his problem. “I’m sure I could do it,
but I just don’t have any more time to invest,” he thought. This story is especially remarkable
because it has occurred tens of thousands of times over the past decade to many other people.
Microsoft, Oracle, IBM, and other database management system (DBMS) vendors are
aware of such scenarios and have invested millions of dollars in creating better graphical inter-
faces, hundreds of multi-panel wizards, and many sample applications. Unfortunately, such
efforts treat the symptoms and not the root of the problem. In fact, most users have no clear
idea what the wizards are doing on their behalf. As soon as these users require changes to data-
base structure or to components such as forms and queries, they drown in a sea of complexity
for which they are unprepared. With little understanding of the underlying fundamentals, these
users grab at any straw that appears to lead in the direction they want. The consequence is
poorly designed databases and applications that fail to meet the users’ requirements.
Why can people like Colin learn to use a word processor or a spreadsheet product yet
fail when trying to learn to use a DBMS product? First, the underlying database concepts
are unnatural to most people. Whereas everyone knows what paragraphs and margins are,
no one knows what a relation (also called a table) is. Second, it seems as though using a
DBMS product ought to be easier than it is. “All I want to do is keep track of something.
Why is it so hard?” people ask. Without knowledge of the relational model, breaking a sales
invoice into five separate tables before storing the data is mystifying to business users.
This book is intended to help people like Colin understand, create, and use databases
in a DBMS product, whether they are individuals who found this book in a bookstore or
students using this book as their textbook in a class.
vii
Students and other readers of this book will benefit from new content and features in this
edition. These include the following:
• The material on Structured Query Lanquage in Chapter 3 has been reorganized
and expanded to provide a more concise and comprehensive presentation of SQL
topics. New material to illustrate the concepts of SQL joins has been added to
Chapter 3 to make this material easier for students to understand.
• The discussion of SQL is continued in a revised and expanded Appendix E, which
is now retitled as “Advanced SQL”, and which contains a discussion of the SQL
NEW TO THIS EDITION

viii Preface
ALTER statement, SQL set operators (UNION), SQL correlated subqueries, SQL
views, and SQL/Persistent Stored Modules (SQL/PSM).
• Microsoft Office 2016, and particularly Microsoft Access 2016, is now the basic
software used in the book and is shown running on Microsoft Windows 10.1
• DBMS software coverage has been updated to include Microsoft SQL Server 2016
Developer Edition, which is now freely available from Microsoft and which has the
full functionality of the Microsoft SQL Server Enterprise edition.
• DBMS software coverage has been updated to include MySQL 5.7 Community Server.
• DBMS software coverage on Microsoft SQL Server 2016 (Appendix A), Oracle
Database Express Edition (Oracle Database XE) (Appendix B), and MySQL 5.7
Community Server (Appendix C) has been extended, and now includes detailed
coverage of software installation and configuration.
• The discussion of importing Microsoft Excel data into a DBMS table has
been moved from Appendix E into the specific coverage of each of the DBMS
products—see coverage of Microsoft SQL Server 2016 in Appendix A, of
Oracle Database Express Edition (Oracle Database XE) in Appendix B, and of
MySQL 5.7 Community Server in Appendix C.
• Chapter 8 has been updated to include material on cloud computing and virtual-
ization in addition to revisions tying together the various topics of the chapter. This
gives a more complete, contextualized treatment of Big Data and its various facets
and relationships to the other topics.
• Appendices J, “Business Intelligence Systems,” and K, “Big Data,” continue to
expand on Chapter 8. Coverage of decision trees is added to Appendix J at a level
similar to that of the coverage of market basket analysis. Appendix K now includes
coverage of JSON modeling (and retains the XML coverage) for document-based
NoSQL databases. Appendix K also now includes basic coverage and examples of
cloud databases and a document-based NoSQL database management system.
We kept all the main innovations included in DBC e06 and DBC e07, including:
• The coverage of Web database applications in Chapter 7 now includes data input
Web form pages. This allows Web database applications to be built with both data-
input and data-reading Web pages.
• The coverage of Microsoft Access 2016 now includes Microsoft Access switchboard
forms (covered in Appendix H, “The Access Workbench—Section H—Microsoft
Access 2016 Switchboards”), which are used to build menus for database applications.
Switchboard forms can be used to build database applications that have a user-friendly
main menu that users can use to display forms, print reports, and run queries.
• Each chapter now features an independent Case Question set. The Case Question
sets are problem sets that generally do not require the student to have completed
work on the same case in a previous chapter (there is one intentional exception
that ties data modeling and database design together). Although in some instances
the same basic named case may be used in different chapters, each instance is still
completely independent of any other instance.
• Material on SQL programming via SQL/Persistent Stored Modules (SQL/PSM)
has been added to Appendix E to provide a better-organized discussion and
expanded discussion of this material, which had previously been spread among
other parts of the book.
1
Microsoft recommends installing and using the 32-bit version of Microsoft Office 2016, even on 64-bit
versions of the Microsoft Windows operating system. We also recommend that you install and use the
32-bit version. The reason for this is that the 64-bit version of Microsoft Office 2016 does not have certain
components (particularly ODBC drivers [discussed in Chapter 7]) needed to implement the Web sites
discussed and illustrated in Chapter 7. While this omission by Microsoft makes no sense to us, there is
nothing we can do about it, and so we will stick with the 32-bit version of Microsoft Office 2016. Hopefully
Microsoft will eventually add the missing pieces to the 64-bit version!

Preface ix
2
David M. Kroenke and David J. Auer, Database Processing: Fundamentals, Design, and Implementation,
14th ed. (Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson/Prentice Hall, 2016).
With today’s technology, it is impossible to utilize a DBMS successfully without first learn-
ing fundamental concepts. After years of developing databases with business users, we
believe that the following database concepts are essential:
• Fundamentals of the relational model
• Structured Query Language (SQL)
• Data modeling
• Database design
• Database administration
And because of the increasing use of the Internet, the World Wide Web, commonly
available analysis tools, and the emergence of the NoSQL movement, four more essential
concepts need to be added to the list:
• Web database processing
• Data warehouse structures
• Business intelligence (BI) systems
• Nonrelational structured data storage (Big Data)
Users like Colin—and students who will perform jobs similar to his—need not learn
these topics to the same depth as future information systems professionals. Consequently,
this textbook presents only essential concepts—those that are necessary for users like Colin
who want to create and use small databases. Many of the discussions in this book are
rewritten and simplified explanations of topics that you will find fully discussed in
David M. Kroenke and David J. Auer’s Database Processing: Fundamentals, Design, and
Implementation.2
However, in creating the material for this text, we have endeavored to
ensure that the discussions remain accurate and do not mislead. Nothing here will need to
be unlearned if students take more advanced database courses.
THE NEED FOR ESSENTIAL CONCEPTS
This book does not assume that students will use any particular DBMS product. The book
does illustrate database concepts with Microsoft Access, Microsoft SQL Server Developer
edition, Oracle Database Express Edition (Oracle Database XE), and MySQL Community
Server so that students can use these products as tools and actually try out the material, but
all the concepts are presented in a DBMS-agnostic manner. When students learn the mate-
rial this way, they come to understand that the fundamentals pertain to any database, from
the smallest Microsoft Access database to the largest Microsoft SQL Server or Oracle
Database database. Moreover, this approach avoids a common pitfall. When concepts and
products are taught at the same time, students frequently confound concepts with product
features and functions. For example, consider referential integrity constraints. When they
are taught from a conceptual standpoint, students learn that there are times when the val-
ues of a column in one table must always be present as values of a column in a second table.
Students also learn how this constraint arises in the context of relationship definition and
how either the DBMS or the application must enforce this constraint. If taught in the con-
text of a DBMS—say, in the context of Microsoft Access—students will only learn that in
some cases you check a check box and in other cases you do not. The danger is that the
underlying concept will be lost in the product feature.
TEACHING CONCEPTS INDEPENDENT OF DBMS PRODUCTS

x Preface
All this is not to say that a DBMS should not be used in this class. On the contrary,
students can best master these concepts by applying them using a commercial DBMS prod-
uct. This edition of the book was written to include enough basic information about
Microsoft Access, SQL Server Express edition, Oracle Database Express Edition, and
MySQL so that you can use these products in your class without the need for a second
book or other materials. Microsoft Access is covered in some depth because of its popular-
ity as a personal database and its inclusion in the Microsoft Office Professional suite of
applications. However, if you want to cover a particular DBMS in depth or use a DBMS
product not discussed in the book, you need to supplement this book with another text or
additional materials. Pearson provides a number of books for Microsoft Access 2016 and
other DBMS products, and many of them can be packaged with this text.
This new edition of the text continues using “The Access Workbench,” a feature first intro-
duced in the third edition. Because Microsoft Access is widely used in introductory database
classes, we feel it is important to include specific information on using Microsoft Access.
Each chapter has an accompanying section of “The Access Workbench,” which illustrates the
chapter’s concepts and techniques using Microsoft Access. “The Access Workbench” topics
start with creating a database and a single table in Chapter 1 and move through various top-
ics, finishing with Web database processing against a Microsoft Access database in Chapter 7
and using Microsoft Access (together with Microsoft Excel) to produce PivotTable OLAP
reports in Chapter 8. This material is not intended to provide comprehensive coverage of
Microsoft Access, but all the necessary basic Microsoft Access topics are covered so that your
students can learn to effectively build and use Microsoft Access databases.
THE ACCESS WORKBENCH
Because it is important for students to apply the concepts they learn, each chapter con-
cludes with sets of key terms, review questions, exercises (including exercises tied to “The
Access Workbench”), Case Question sets, and three projects that run throughout the book.
Students should know the meaning of each of the key terms and be able to answer the
review questions if they have read and understood the chapter material. Each of the exer-
cises requires students to apply the chapter concepts to a small problem or task.
The first of the projects, Garden Glory, concerns the development and use of a data-
base for a partnership that provides gardening and yard maintenance services to individu-
als and organizations. The second project, James River Jewelry, addresses the need for a
database to support a frequent-buyer program for a retail store. The third project, The
Queen Anne Curiosity Shop, concerns the sales and inventory needs of a retail business.
These three projects appear in all of the book’s chapters (although the actual text of the
James River Jewelry project is found in online Appendix D). In each instance, students are
asked to apply the project concepts from the chapter. Instructors will find more informa-
tion on the use of these projects in the instructor’s manual and can obtain databases and
data from the password-protected instructor’s portion of this book’s Web site (www.pear-
sonhighered.com/kroenke).
KEY TERMS, REVIEW QUESTIONS, EXERCISES, CASES, AND PROJECTS
Just as we have treated our discussions in a DBMS-agnostic way, whenever possible, we
have selected software to be as operating system independent as possible. It is amazing how
much excellent software is available online. Many major DBMS vendors provide free ver-
sions of their premier products (for example, Microsoft’s SQL Server Developer edition
and Express edition, Oracle Corporation’s Oracle Database Express Edition (Oracle
Database XE), and MySQL Community Server). Web editors and integrated development
SOFTWARE USED IN THE BOOK

Preface xi
The most significant changes in this edition are:
• The framing of database topic discussions within today’s Internet and mobile
applications based networked environment and economy. Today, databases are no
longer isolated entities found somewhere in obscure server rooms, but rather are
ubiquitous parts of Web sites and tablet and smart phone apps. We are literally
dependent upon databases in our lives, whether exchanging email messages, post-
ing to our Facebook pages, or shopping online.
• The revised discussion of Structured Query Lanaguage (SQL) in Chapter 3 and
Appendix E, “Advanced SQL.” Taken together, this material provides a better
organized and easier to understand coverage of SQL topics previously included in
the book, and also adds a set of new SQL topics into the mix.
• The revised coverage of the rapidly evolving use of Big Data and the associated
NoSQL movement. The need to be able to store and process extremely large datasets
is transforming the database world. Although these developments leave the database
fundamentals covered in this book unchanged, they do require us to put the relational
databases that are the core of this text into the context of the overall database picture
and to provide the reader with an understanding of the nonrelational structured
storage used in the Big Data environment. Therefore, Chapter 8 is now organized
around the topic of Big Data, and the topics of data warehouses, clustered database
servers, distributed databases, and an introduction to business intelligence (BI)
systems find a natural home in that chapter. To provide additional coverage of Big
Data, Appendix K, “Big Data,” contains a more in-depth discussion than the page
limitations of the book itself allow. For those wanting more coverage of BI than found
in Chapter 8, Appendix J, “Business Intelligence Systems,” contains a current and
updated discussion of the topic in depth.
• The extension of coverage of Microsoft SQL Server 2016 Developer edition
(Appendix A), Oracle Database XE (Appendix B), and MySQL 5.7 Community
Server (Appendix C). Complete installation instructions are now included, as well
as other new topics.
CHANGES FROM THE SEVENTH EDITION
environments (IDEs) are also available (for example, Eclipse, NetBeans, and Visual Studio
Express edition). PHP, considered the fourth most commonly used programming lan-
guage, is downloadable for use with many operating systems and Web servers.
So although the examples in this book were created using a Microsoft operating sys-
tem, SQL Server 2016 Developer edition, Microsoft Access 2016, Microsoft Excel 2016,
and the IIS Web Server, most of them could just as easily be accomplished using Linux,
MySQL Server Community edition, Apache OpenOffice Base, Apache OpenOffice Calc,
and the Apache Web server. Some software products used in the book, such as PHP and
NetBeans, are available for multiple operating systems.
Important Note: We are using the Microsoft Windows 10 operating system, and
Microsoft recently released the Windows 10 Anniversary Update (Feature update to
Windows 10, version 1607). As noted in Chapter 7’s section of “The Access Workbench,”
in order to successfully complete all the work in this book, you need to be using the
Windows 10 Anniversary Update version of Windows 10, patched with at least the
Windows 10 Version 1607 update for August 23, 2016 (KB3176936), and the Windows 10
Version 1607 cumulative update for September 29, 2016 (KB3194496).
Over the past 30-plus years, we have found the development of databases and database
applications to be an enjoyable and rewarding activity. We believe that the number, size,
and importance of databases will increase in the future and that the field will achieve even
greater prominence. It is our hope that the concepts, knowledge, and techniques presented
in this book will help students to participate successfully in database projects now and for
many years to come.

xii Preface
Finally, we have maintained the chapter-independent Case Question sets we added in
the sixth edition. Although the chapter projects tie the topics in each chapter together, the
case questions do not require the student to have completed work on the same case in a
previous chapter or chapters. There is one intentional exception that spans Chapters 4
and 5 that ties data modeling and database design together, but each of these chapters also
includes a standalone case. Although in some instances the same basic named case may be
used in different chapters, each instance is still completely independent of any other
instance, and we provide needed Microsoft Access 2016 database and SQL scripts at the
text Web site at www.pearsonhighered.com/kroenke.
We have kept and improved upon several features introduced in earlier editions of the
book:
• The use of “The Access Workbench” sections in each chapter to provide coverage
of Microsoft Access fundamentals now includes Microsoft Access switchboards
(Appendix H, “The Access Workbench—Section H—Microsoft Access 2016
Switchboards,” available online).
• Introductions to the use of Microsoft SQL Server 2016 Developer edition
(Appendix A, “Getting Started with Microsoft SQL Server 2016,” available on-
line), Oracle Database XE (Appendix B, “Getting Started with Oracle Database
XE,” available online) and Oracle MySQL 5.7 Community Server (Appendix C,
“Getting Started with MySQL 5.7 Community Server,” available online).
• The use of fully developed datasets for the three example databases that run
throughout various portions of the book—Wedgewood Pacific, Heather Sweeney
Designs, and Wallingford Motors.
• The use of the PHP scripting language, now used in the NetBeans IDE, in the Web
database processing topics now includes code for Web page input forms.
• Coverage of the dimensional database model is maintained in the restructured
Chapter 8, together with coverage of OLAP.
• In order to make room for this new material, we have had to move some valuable
material previously found in the book itself to online appendices. This includes the
James River Jewelry set of project questions, which is now in online Appendix D,
“James River Jewelry Project Questions.” The material on SQL views is now in
online Appendix E, “Advanced SQL,” with additional material on SQL Persistent
Stored Modules (SQL/PSM). Discussions of how to import Microsoft Excel data
into the DBMS products are now found in each related appendix— for Microsoft
SQL Server 2016 Developer Edition, see online Appendix A, “Getting Started with
Microsoft SQL Server 2016”; for Oracle Database XE, see online Appendix B,
“Getting Started with Oracle Database XE”; and for MySQL 5.7 Community Server,
see online Appendix C, “Getting Started with MySQL 5.7 Community Server.”
• The business intelligence systems material on reporting systems and data mining is
now in online Appendix J, “Business Intelligence Systems.”
This textbook consists of 8 chapters and 11 appendices (all of which are readily available
online at www.pearsonhighered.com/kroenke). Chapter 1 explains why databases are
used, what their components are, and how they are developed. Students will learn the pur-
pose of databases and their applications as well as how databases differ from and improve
on lists in spreadsheets. Chapter 2 introduces the relational model and defines basic rela-
tional terminology. It also introduces the fundamental ideas that underlie normalization
and describes the normalization process.
Chapter 3 presents fundamental SQL statements. Basic SQL statements for data defi-
nition are described, as are SQL SELECT and data modification statements. No attempt is
made to present advanced SQL statements; only the essential statements are described.
BOOK OVERVIEW

Preface xiii
Online Appendix E, “Advanced SQL,” adds coverage of advanced SQL topics, such as the
SQL ALTER TABLE statement, SQL set operators (UNION), SQL views, and SQL/
Persistent Stored Modules (SQL/PSM).
The next two chapters consider database design. Chapter 4 addresses data modeling
using the entity-relationship (E-R) model. This chapter describes the need for data model-
ing, introduces basic E-R terms and concepts, and presents a short case application
(Heather Sweeney Designs) of E-R modeling. Chapter 5 describes database design and
explains the essentials of normalization. The data model from the case example in
Chapter 4 is transformed into a relational design in Chapter 5.
In this edition, we continue to use the prescriptive procedure for normalizing relations
through the use of a four-step process. This approach not only makes the normalization
task easier, it also makes normalization principles easier to understand. For instructors who
want a bit more detail on normal forms, short definitions of most normal forms are
included in Chapter 5.
The last three chapters consider database management and the uses of databases in
applications. Chapter 6 provides an overview of database administration. The case example
database is built as a functioning database, and it serves as the example for a discussion of
the need for database administration. The chapter surveys concurrency control, security,
and backup and recovery techniques. Database administration is an important topic
because it applies to all databases, even personal, single-user databases. In fact, in some
ways this topic is more important for those smaller databases because no professional data-
base administrator is present to ensure that critical tasks are performed.
Chapter 7 introduces the use of Web-based database processing, including a discus-
sion of Open Database Connectivity (ODBC) and the use of the PHP scripting language. It
also discusses the emergence and basic concepts of Extensible Markup Language (XML),
and introduces Java Script Object Notation (JSON).
Chapter 8 discusses the emerging world of Big Data and the NoSQL movement,
including under this umbrella business intelligence (BI) systems and the data warehouse
architectures that support them, which often involve Big Data and NoSQL concepts.
Chapter 8 also provides a discussion of distributed databases, object-relational databases,
virtualization, and cloud computing as they relate to the continuing evolution of NoSQL
systems and Big Data. Many details of BI systems have been moved to online Appendix J,
“Business Intelligence Systems.” More specifically, Chapter 8 discusses dimensional data-
bases as an example of a data warehouse architecture, walking through how to build a
dimensional database for Heather Sweeney Designs and then using it to produce a
PivotTable online analytical processing (OLAP) report as an example of BI reporting.
Appendix A provides an introduction to Microsoft SQL Server 2016 Developer
Edition, Appendix B provides an introduction for Oracle Database XE, and Appendix C
provides a similar introduction for MySQL 5.7 Community Server. Microsoft Access is
covered in “The Access Workbench” sections included in each chapter. Appendix D con-
tains the James River Jewelry project questions. Appendix E covers material on advanced
SQL topics such as SQL views and SQL/PSM. Appendix F provides an introduction to
systems analysis and design and can be used to provide context for Chapter 4 (data model-
ing) and Chapter 5 (database design)—although in this book we focus on databases, data-
bases are used in applications. Appendix F describes the application development process
in more detail. Appendix G is a short introduction to Microsoft Visio 2016, which can be
used as a tool for data modeling (Chapter 4). A useful database design (Chapter 4) tool is
the MySQL Workbench, and this use of the MySQL Workbench is discussed in
Appendix C. Appendix H extends Chapter 5’s section of “The Access Workbench” by
providing coverage of Microsoft Access 2016 switchboards. Appendix I provides detailed
support for Chapter 7 by giving detailed instructions on getting the Microsoft IIS Web
server, PHP, and the NetBeans IDE up and running. Appendix J provides additional mate-
rial on business intelligence (BI) systems to supplement and support Chapter 8 by giving
details on report systems and data mining. Finally, Appendix K provides additional mate-
rial on Big Data and NoSQL databases to also supplement and support Chapter 8.

xiv Preface
In order to keep Database Concepts up to date between editions, we post updates on the
book’s Web site at www.pearsonhighered.com/kroenke as needed. Instructor resources
and student materials are also available on the site, so be sure to check it from time to time.
KEEPING CURRENT IN A RAPIDLY CHANGING WORLD
We would like to thank the following reviewers for their insightful and helpful comments:
Arthur Lee, Lord Fairfax Community College
Behrooz Saghafi, Ph.D., Chicago State University
Betsy Page Sigman, Georgetown University
Bijoy Bordoloi, Southern Illinois University, Edwardsville
Carolyn Carvalho, Kent State University at Ashtabula
David Chou, Eastern Michigan University
David L. Olson, University of Nebraska
Fen Wang, Central Washington University
Gabriel Peterson, North Carolina Central University
Jeffrey Burton, Daytona State College
Jim Pierson, Forsyth Technical Community College
Jing Wang, University of New Hampshire
Jose Nieves, Lord Fairfax Community College
Joshua S White, PhD, State University of New York Polytechnic Institute
Julie Lewis, Baker College
June Lane, Bucks County Community College
Kui Du, University of Massachusetts Boston
Manuel Rossetti, University of Arkansas
Matt Hightower, Cerro Coso Community College
Maya Tolappa, Waubonsee Community College
Meg Murray, Kennesaw State University
Norman Hahn, Thomas Nelson Community College
Patrick Appiah-Kubi, Indiana State University
Paul Pennington, University of Houston
Paul Tallon, Loyola University Maryland
Richard Grant, Seminole State College of Florida
Richard T Evans, South Suburban College
Robert Demers, University of Massachusetts - Lowell
Stephen Larson, Slippery Rock University
We would like to thank Donna Auer (www.donnaauer.com) for letting us use her
painting “out to sea” as the cover art for this book. This artwork was also the basis for
design elements within the book.
We would like to thank Samantha Lewis, our editor; Ann Pullido, our program man-
ager; and Katrina Ostler, our project manager, for their professionalism, insight, support,
and assistance in the development of this project. We would also like to thank Darren Lim
for his comments on the final manuscript and his work on the supplements. Finally, David
Kroenke would like to thank his wife, Lynda; David Auer would like to thank his wife,
Donna; Scott Vandenberg would like to thank his wife, Kristin; and Robert Yoder would
like to thank Diane, Rachael, and Harrison Yoder for their love, encouragement, and
patience while this project was being completed.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
David Kroenke David Auer Scott Vandenberg Robert Yoder

David M. Kroenke entered the computing profession as a summer intern at the RAND
Corporation in 1967. Since then, his career has spanned education, industry, consulting,
and publishing.
He has taught at the University of Washington, Colorado State University, and Seattle
University. Over the years, he has led dozens of teaching seminars for college professors. In
1991 the International Association of Information Systems named him Computer Educator
of the Year.
In industry, Kroenke has worked for the U.S. Air Force and Boeing Computer
Services, and he was a principal in the startup of three companies. He was also vice presi-
dent of product marketing and development for the Microrim Corporation and was chief
technologist for the database division of Wall Data, Inc. He is the father of the semantic
object data model. Kroenke’s consulting clients include IBM Corporation, Microsoft,
Computer Sciences Corporation, and numerous other companies and organizations.
His text Database Processing: Fundamentals, Design, and Implementation, first pub-
lished in 1977, is now in its 14th edition (coauthored with David Auer for the 11th, 12th,
13th, and 14th editions). He introduced Database Concepts (now in the eighth edition that
you are reading) in 2003. Kroenke has published many other textbooks, including the clas-
sic Business Computer Systems (1981). Recently, he has authored Using MIS (8th edition),
Experiencing MIS (6th edition), MIS Essentials (4th edition), Processes, Systems and
Information: An Introduction to MIS (2nd edition) (coauthored with Earl McKinney), and
Essentials of Processes, Systems and Information (coauthored with Earl McKinney).
An avid sailor, Kroenke also wrote Know Your Boat: The Guide to Everything That
Makes Your Boat Work. Kroenke lives in Seattle, Washington. He is married and has two
children and three grandchildren.
David J. Auer is a Senior Instructor Emeritus at the College of Business (CBE) of Western
Washington University in Bellingham, WA. He served as the director of Information
Systems and Technology Services at CBE from 1994 to 2014 and taught in CBE’s
Department of Decision Sciences from 1981 to 2015. He has taught CBE courses in quan-
titative methods, production and operations management, statistics, finance, and manage-
ment information systems. Besides managing CBE’s computer, network, and other
technology resources, he also teaches management information systems courses. He has
taught the Principles of Management Information Systems and Business Database
Development courses, and he was responsible for developing CBE’s network infrastructure
courses, including Computer Hardware and Operating Systems, Telecommunications, and
Network Administration.
He has coauthored several MIS-related textbooks, including Database Processing:
Fundamentals, Design, and Implementation, first published in 1977, is now in its 14th edi-
tion (coauthored with David Kroenke for the 11th, 12th, 13th, and 14th editions), and
Database Concepts, now in the eighth edition that you are reading (coauthored with
David Kroenke for the 3rd, 4th, 5th, 6th, and 7th editions, and coauthored with David
Kroenke, Scott Vandenberg, and Robert Yoder for this 8th edition).
Auer holds a bachelor’s degree in English literature from the University of Washington, a
bachelor’s degree in mathematics and economics from Western Washington University, a
master’s degree in economics from Western Washington University, and a master’s degree in
About the Authors
xv

counseling psychology from Western Washington University. He served as a commissioned
officer in the U.S. Air Force, and he has also worked as an organizational development spe-
cialist and therapist for an employee assistance program (EAP).
Auer and his wife, Donna, live in Bellingham, Washington. He has two children and
four grandchildren.
Scott L. Vandenberg has been on the Computer Science faculty at Siena College since
1993, where he regularly teaches three different database courses at several levels to both
computer science and business majors. Prior to arriving at Siena, he taught undergraduate
and graduate courses in database systems at the University of Massachusetts–Amherst.
Since arriving at Siena, he also taught graduate and undergraduate database courses at the
University of Washington–Seattle. He has developed five different database courses over
this time. His other teaching experience includes introductory computer science, introduc-
tory programming, data structures, management information systems, and three years
teaching Siena’s required interdisciplinary freshman writing course.
Vandenberg’s recent research publications are mainly in the areas of computer science
education and data science applications, with earlier work on query optimization and alge-
braic query languages. He holds a bachelor’s degree in mathematics and computer science
from Cornell University and master’s and PhD degrees in computer science from the
University of Wisconsin–Madison. Medieval history and playing hockey are two things that
can tear him away from a database. Vandenberg lives in Averill Park, NY, with his wife,
Kristin, and two children.
Robert C. Yoder began his professional career at the University at Albany as a systems pro-
grammer managing mainframes and Unix servers. He has two years of research experience
working on 3-D solid modeling systems. Robert holds BS and MS degrees in computer sci-
ence and a PhD in information science, all from the University at Albany.
Yoder joined the Computer Science department at Siena College in 2001 and teaches
Business Database, Management Information Systems, Geographic Information Systems,
Data Structures, Networks, and Operating Systems courses. Yoder lives in Niskayuna, NY,
with his wife, Diane, and two children and enjoys traveling, hiking, and walking his dog.
xvi About the Authors

1
P
art 1 introduces fundamental concepts and techniques of relational
database management. Chapter 1 explains database technology,
discusses why databases are used, and describes the components
of a database system. Chapter 2 introduces the relational model and defines
key relational database terms. It also presents basic principles of relational
database design. Chapter 3 presents Structured Query Language (SQL), an
international standard for creating and processing relational databases.
After you have learned these fundamental database concepts, we will
focus on database modeling, design, and implementation in Part 2. Finally,
we will discuss database management, Web database applications, data ware-
houses, business intelligence (BI) systems, cloud computing, and Big Data
in Part 3.
1
PART
Database
Fundamentals
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3
K
nowledge of database technology increases in importance every
day. Databases are used everywhere: They are key components of
e-commerce and other Web-based applications. They lay at the heart
of organization-wide operational and decision support applications. Databases
are also used by thousands of work groups and millions of individuals. It is
estimated that there are more than 10 million active databases in the world
today.
The purpose of this book is to teach you the essential relational database
concepts, technology, and techniques that you need to begin a career as a
database developer. This book does not teach everything of importance in
relational database technology, but it will give you sufficient background to
be able to create your own personal databases and to participate as a mem-
ber of a team in the development of larger, more complicated databases.
You will also be able to ask the right questions to learn more on your own.
This chapter discusses the importance of databases in the Internet world
and then introduces database processing concepts. We will investigate the
reasons for using a relational database. We begin by describing some of the
problems that can occur when using lists. Using a series of examples, we
illustrate how using sets of related tables helps you to avoid those prob-
lems. Next, we describe the components of a database system and explain
the elements of a database, the purpose of a database management system
(DBMS), and the functions of a database application. Finally, we introduce
nonrelational databases.
■ Understand the importance of databases in Internet
Web applications and mobile apps
■ Understand the nature and characteristics of databases
■ Understand the potential problems with lists
■ Understand the reasons for using a database
■ Understand how using related tables helps you avoid
the problems of using lists
■ Know the components of a database system
■ Learn the elements of a database
■ Learn the purpose of a database management system
(DBMS)
■ Understand the functions of a database application
■ Introduce Web database applications
■ Introduce data warehouses and business intelligence
(BI) systems
■ Introduce Big Data and cloud computing
CHAPTER OBJECTIVES
1
CHAPTER Getting Started
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4 Part 1 Database Fundamentals
Let’s stop for a moment and consider the incredible information technology available for
our use today.
The personal computer (PC) became widely available with the introduction of the
Apple II in 1977 and the IBM Personal Computer (IBM PC) in 1981. PCs were net-
worked into Local Area Networks (LANs) using the Ethernet networking technology,
which was developed at the Xerox Palo Alto Research Center in the early 1970s and ad-
opted as a national standard in 1983.
The Internet—the global computer network of networks—was created as the
ARPANET in 1969 and then grew and was used to connect all the LANs (and other types
of networks). The Internet became widely known and used when the World Wide Web
(also referred to as the Web and WWW) became easily accessible in 1993. Everyone got a
computer software application called a Web browser and starting browsing Web sites.
Online retail Web sites such as Amazon.com (online since 1995) and “brick-and-mortar”
stores with an online presence such as Best Buy appeared, and people started extensively
shopping online.
In the early 2000s, Web 2.01
Web sites started to appear—allowing users to add con-
tent to Web sites that had previously held static content. Web applications such as
Facebook, Wikipedia, and Twitter appeared and flourished.
In a parallel development, the mobile phone or cell phone was demonstrated and de-
veloped for commercial use in the 1970s. After decades of mobile phone and cell phone
network infrastructure development, the smartphone appeared. Apple brought out the
iPhone in 2007. Google created the Android operating system, and the first Android-
based smartphone entered the market in 2008. Eight years later, in 2016 (as this is being
written), smartphones and tablet computers (tablets) are widely used, and thousands of
application programs known as apps are widely available and in daily use. Most Web ap-
plications now have corresponding smartphone and tablet apps (you can “tweet” from ei-
ther your computer or your smartphone)!
What many people do not understand is that in today’s Web application and smart-
phone app environment, most of what they do depends upon databases.
We can define data as recorded facts and numbers. We can initially define a database
(we will give a better definition later in this chapter) as the structure used to hold or store
that data. We process that data to provide information (which we also define in more detail
later in this chapter) for use in the Web applications and smartphone apps.
Do you have a Facebook account? If so, all your posts, your comments, your “likes,”
and other data you provide to Facebook (such as photos) are stored in a database. When
your friend posts an item, it is initially stored in the database and then displayed to you.
Do you have a Twitter account? If so, all your tweets are stored in a database. When
your friend tweets something, it is initially stored in the database and then displayed to you.
Do you shop at Amazon.com? If so, how do you find what you are looking for? You
enter some words in a search text window on the Amazon home Web page (if you are us-
ing a Web browser) and click the Go button. Amazon’s computers then search Amazon’s
databases and return a formatted report on-screen of the items that matched what you
searched for.
The search process is illustrated in Figure 1-1, where we search the Pearson Higher
Education Web site for books authored by David Kroenke. Figure 1-1(a) shows the upper
portion of the Pearson Higher Education Web site home page. While many Web sites (in-
cluding Amazon.com, REI, and Best Buy) have a text box for entering search key words on
1
Web 2.0 was originated by Darcy DiNucci in 1999 and introduced to the world at large in 2004 by pub-
lisher Tim O’Reilly. See the Wikipedia article Web 2.0 (accessed May 2016) at https://en.wikipedia.org/
wiki/Web_2.0.
THE IMPORTANCE OF DATABASES IN THE INTERNET
AND MOBILE APP WORLD
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Chapter 1 Getting Started 5
The Pearson Higher Education Web site home page
The Search button
FIGURE 1-1
Searching a Database in a Web Browser
(a) The Pearson Higher Education Web Site Home Page
Enter the author name Kroenke as the search keyword
The Search button
(b) Entering Author Name Kroenke as the Search Keyword
The Search Results Web page
Each block displays the data on one book by Kroenke
as found in the database—a thumbnail picture of the
cover is shown when the cover art is available,
otherwise a placeholder labeled Pearson is displayed
(c) Books by Author Kroenke Found in the Database
Pearson Education Inc, Microsoft Edge, Microsoft Corporation.
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6 Part 1 Database Fundamentals
Users
Personal computer with
Web browser client
Internet
Cell phone system
data network
Smartphone with
app client
Web server
App data server
Database
Database
Users
Users
Personal computer with
Web browser client
Internet
Cell phone system
data network
Smartphone with
app client
Web server
App data server
Database
Database
Users
the home page itself for immediate use, at the Pearson site we have to click on a Search
catalog button to access the search function on the Advanced Catalog Search page shown in
Figure 1-1(b). On this page, we enter the author name Kroenke in the Author text box, and
then click the Search button. The Pearson catalog database is searched, and the Web ap-
plication returns a Search Results page containing a listing of books authored by David
Kroenke, as shown in Figure 1-1(c).
The use of databases by Web applications and smartphone apps is illustrated in
Figure 1-2. In this figure, people have computers (desktop or notebook) and smartphones,
which are examples of devices used by people, who are referred to as users. On these
It is much more effective to see this process than to just read about it. Take
a minute, open a Web browser, and go to Amazon.com (or any other online
retailer, such as Best Buy, L.L.Bean, or REI). Search for something you are
interested in, and watch the database search results be displayed for you. You
just used a database.
BTW
Even if you are simply shopping in a local grocery store (or a coffee shop or piz-
zeria), you are interacting with databases. Businesses use Point of Sale (POS)
systems to record every purchase in a database, to monitor inventory, and, if you
have a sales promotion card from the store (the one you use to get those special
prices for “cardholders only”), to keep track of everything you buy for marketing
purposes. All the data POS systems gather is stored in, of course, a database.
BTW
FIGURE 1-2
The Internet and Mobile Device World
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Chapter 1 Getting Started 7
devices are client applications (Web browsers, apps) used by people to obtain services such
are searching, browsing, online purchasing, and tweeting over the Internet or cell phone
networks. These services are provided by server computers, and these are the computers
that hold the databases containing the data needed by the client applications.
This structure is known as client-server architecture, and it supports most of the Web
applications in use today. The simple fact is that without databases, we could not have the
ubiquitous Web applications and apps that are currently used by so many people.
A database is used to help people keep track of things, and the most commonly used type
of database is the relational database. We will discuss the relational database model in
depth in Chapter 2, so for now we just need to understand a few basic facts about how a
relational database helps people track things of interest to them.
You might wonder why we need a special term (and course) for such technology when
a simple list could serve the same purpose. Many people do keep track of things by using
lists, and sometimes such lists are valuable. In other cases, however, simple lists lead to data
inconsistencies and other problems.
In this section, we examine several different lists and show some of these problems. As
you will see, we can solve the problems by splitting lists into tables of data. Such tables are
the key components of a database. A majority of this text concerns the design of such tables
and techniques for manipulating the data they contain.
WHY USE A DATABASE?
Figure 1-3 shows a simple list of student data, named the Student List,2
stored in a spread-
sheet. The Student List is a very simple list, and for such a list a spreadsheet works quite
well. Even if the list is long, you can sort it alphabetically by last name, first name, or email
address to find any entry you want. You can change the data values, add data for a new
student, or delete student data. With a list like the Student List in Figure 1-3, none of these
actions is problematic, and a database is unnecessary. Keeping this list in a spreadsheet is
just fine.
Suppose, however, we change the Student List by adding adviser data, as shown in
Figure 1-4. You can still sort the new Student with Adviser List in a number of ways to find
an entry, but making changes to this list causes modification problems. Suppose, for ex-
ample, that you want to delete the data for the student Chip Marino. As shown in
Figure 1-5, if you delete the eighth row (the row numbered 8—this is actually the seventh
row of data because of the column headers, but it is easier to refer to the row number
shown in the figure) you not only remove Chip Marino’s data, you also remove the fact that
WHAT ARE THE PROBLEMS WITH USING LISTS?
2
In order to easily identify and reference the lists being discussed, we capitalize the first letter of each word
in the list names in this chapter. Similarly, we capitalize the names of the database tables associated with the
lists.
FIGURE 1-3
The Student List in a
Spreadsheet
Excel 2016, Windows 10, Microsoft Corporation.
M01_KROE1533_08_SE_C01.indd 7 11/21/16 6:15 PM

Discovering Diverse Content Through
Random Scribd Documents

en masse; they would have been condemned en masse to perpetual
degradation; they would have been deprived even of the hope of
one day entering on the career of civilization.
If the conduct of Europeans at that time with respect to men of
other races—if the conduct of some nations of our own days is to be
deplored, it cannot be said at least that the Catholic religion has not
opposed such excesses with all her strength; it cannot be said that
the Head of the Church has ever allowed these evils to pass without
raising his voice to recall to mind the rights of men, to stigmatize
injustice, to excite abhorrence of cruelty, and energetically to plead
the cause of humanity, without distinction of races, climates, or
colors.
Whence does Europe derive this lofty idea and this generous feeling,
which urge her to declare herself so strongly against the traffic in
men, and to demand the complete abolition of slavery in the
colonies? When posterity shall call to mind these glorious facts;
when it shall adopt them as marking a new era in the annals of
civilization; when, studying and analyzing the causes which have
conducted European legislation and manners to so high a pitch, and,
passing over temporary and unimportant motives, insignificant
circumstances, and secondary agents, it shall seek for the vital
principle which impelled European civilization towards so glorious an
end, it will find that this principle was Christianity; and if, desiring to
fathom the question more and more, it should inquire whether this
was Christianity, under a vague and general form—Christianity
without authority—Christianity without Catholicity—the answer of
history will be this: Catholicity, exclusively prevailing in Europe,
abolished slavery among the European races; she introduced the
principle of the abolition of slavery into European civilization, by
showing practically, and in opposition to the opinion of antiquity, that
slavery was not necessary for society; and she made it understood,
that the sacred work of enfranchisement was the foundation of all
great and life-giving civilization. She has therefore inoculated
European civilization with the principle of the abolition of slavery; it

is owing to her that, wherever this civilization has come into contact
with slavery, it has been profoundly disturbed—an evident proof that
there were at the bottom two opposite elements, two contending
principles, which were compelled to struggle incessantly, until the
more powerful, noble, and fruitful prevailing, and reducing the other
under the yoke, in the end annihilated it. I will say more: by
searching whether facts really confirm this influence of Catholicity,
not only in all that concerns the civilization of Europe, but also in the
countries which Europeans have conquered two centuries ago, in the
East and West, we shall meet with Catholic Bishops and priests
working without intermission in improving the lot of colonial slaves;
we shall call to mind what is due to the Catholic missions; we shall
read and understand the apostolical letters of Pius II., issued in
1482, and mentioned above; those of Paul III., in 1537; those of
Urban VIII., in 1639; those of Benedict XIV., in 1741; and those of
Gregory XVI., in 1839.
In these letters there is taught and defined all that has been or can
be said on this point in favor of humanity. We shall there find
blamed, condemned, and punished, all that European civilization has
at length resolved to condemn and punish; and when calling to mind
also that it was Pius VII., who, at the beginning of this century,
zealously interposed his good offices with men in power for the
complete abolition of slavery among Christians, we shall not be able
to avoid acknowledging and confessing that Catholicity has had the
principal share in this great work. It is she indeed who has laid down
the principle on which the work rests, who has established the
precedents which guide it, who has constantly proclaimed the
principles which have suggested it and has constantly condemned
those who have opposed it; it is she, in fine, who at all times has
declared open war against cruelty and cupidity,—the support and
perpetual motives for injustice and inhumanity. Let us hear the
testimony of a celebrated Protestant author, Robertson, the historian
of America: "From the time that ecclesiastics were sent as
instructors into America, they perceived that the rigor with which
their countrymen treated the natives rendered their ministry

altogether fruitless. The missionaries, in conformity with the mild
spirit of that religion which they were employed to publish, soon
remonstrated against the maxims of the planters with respect to the
Americans, and condemned the repartimientos, or distributions, by
which they were given up as slaves to their conquerors, as no less
contrary to natural justice and the precepts of Christianity, than to
sound policy. The Dominicans, to whom the instruction of the
Americans was originally committed, were the most vehement in
attacking the repartimientos. In the year 1511, Motesino, one of
their most eminent preachers, inveighed against this practice in the
great church at St. Domingo, with all the impetuosity of his natural
eloquence. Don Diego Columbus, the principal officers of the colony,
and all the laymen who had been his hearers, complained of the
monk to his superiors; but they, instead of condemning, applauded
his doctrine, as equally pious and seasonable. The Franciscans,
influenced by the spirit of opposition and rivalship which subsists
between the two orders, discovered some inclination to take part
with the laity, and to espouse the defence of the repartimientos. But
as they could not with decency give their approbation to a system of
oppression so repugnant to the spirit of religion, they endeavored to
palliate what they could not justify, and alleged in excuse for the
conduct of their countrymen, that it was impossible to carry on any
improvement in the colony, unless the Spaniards possessed such
dominion over the natives, that they could compel them to labor.
The Dominicans, regardless of such political and interested
considerations, would not relax in any degree the rigor of their
sentiments, and even refused to absolve, or admit to the sacrament,
such of their countrymen as continued to hold the natives in
servitude. Both parties applied to the king for his decision in a
matter of such importance. Ferdinand empowered a committee of
his Privy Council, assisted by some of the most eminent civilians and
divines in Spain, to hear the deputies sent from Hispaniola in
support of their respective opinions. After a long discussion, the
speculative point in controversy was determined in favor of the
Dominicans; the Indians were declared to be a free people, entitled
to all the natural rights of man; but notwithstanding this decision,

the repartimientos were continued upon their ancient footing. As this
determination admitted the principle upon which the Dominicans
founded their opinion, they renewed their efforts to obtain relief for
the Indians with additional boldness and zeal. At length, in order to
quiet the colony, which was alarmed by their remonstrances and
censures, Ferdinand issued a decree of his Privy Council (1513),
declaring that after mature consideration of the apostolic Bull, and
other titles by which the Crown of Castile claimed a right to its
possessions, in the new world, the servitude of the Indians was
warranted both by the laws of God and man; that unless they were
subjected to the dominion of the Spaniards, and compelled to reside
under their inspection, it would be impossible to reclaim them from
idolatry, or to instruct them in the Christian faith; that no further
scruple ought to be entertained concerning the lawfulness of the
repartimientos, as the King and Council were willing to take the
charge of that upon their own consciences; and that therefore the
Dominicans, and monks of other religious orders, should abstain for
the future from those invectives which, from an excess of charitable
but ill-informed zeal, they had uttered against the practice. That his
intention of adhering to this decree might be fully understood,
Ferdinand conferred new grants of Indians upon several of his
courtiers. But in order that he might not seem altogether inattentive
to the rights of humanity, he published an edict in which he
endeavored to provide for the mild treatment of the Indians under
the yoke to which he subjected them; he regulated the nature of the
work which they should be required to perform; he prescribed the
mode in which they should be clothed and fed, and gave directions
with respect to their instruction in the principles of Christianity. But
the Dominicans, who, from their experience of what had passed,
judged concerning the future, soon perceived the inefficacy of those
provisions, and foretold that, as long as it was the interest of
individuals to treat the Indians with rigor, no public regulations
would render their servitude mild or tolerable. They considered it as
vain to waste their own time and strength in attempting to
communicate the sublime truths to men whose spirits were broken,
and their faculties impaired by oppression. Some of them, in despair,

requested the permission of their superiors to remove to the
continent, and pursue the object of their mission among such of the
natives as were not hitherto corrupted by the example of the
Spaniards, or alienated by their cruelty from the Christian faith. Such
as remained in Hispaniola continued to remonstrate, with decent
firmness, against the servitude of the Indians.
"The violent operations of Albuquerque, the new distributor of the
Indians, revived the zeal of the Dominicans against the
repartimientos, and called forth an advocate for that oppressed
people who possessed all the courage, the talents, and the activity
requisite in supporting such a desperate cause. This was
Bartholomew de las Casas, a native of Seville, and one of the
clergymen sent out with Columbus in his second voyage to
Hispaniola, in order to settle in that Island. He early adopted the
opinion prevalent among ecclesiastics with respect to the
unlawfulness of reducing the natives to servitude; and that he might
demonstrate the sincerity of his conviction, he relinquished all the
Indians who had fallen to his share in the division of the inhabitants
among their conquerors, declaring that he should ever bewail his
own misfortune and guilt, in having exercised for a moment this
impious dominion over his fellow-creatures. From that time he
became the avowed patron of the Indians; and by his bold
interpositions in their behalf, as well as by the respect due to his
abilities and character, he had often the merit of setting some
bounds to the excesses of his countrymen." (History of America,
book 3.)
It would be too long to relate here the energetic efforts of De las
Casas in favor of the colonies of the new world; all know them—all
must know that, filled with zeal for the liberty of the Indians, he
conceived and undertook an attempt at civilization analogous to that
which was realized later, to the immortal honor of the Catholic
clergy, in Paraguay. If the efforts of De las Casas had not all the
success that might naturally have been expected, we find the cause
of this in the thousand passions with which history makes us

acquainted, and perhaps also in the impetuosity of this man, whose
sublime zeal was not always accompanied by the consummate
prudence which the Church displays.
However this may be, Catholicity has completely accomplished her
mission of peace and love; without injustice or catastrophe, she has
broken the chains under which a large portion of the human race
groaned; and if it had been given her to prevail for some time in
Asia and Africa, she would have achieved their destruction in the
four quarters of the globe, by banishing the degradations and the
abominations introduced and established in those countries by
Mahometanism and idolatry. It is melancholy, no doubt, that
Christianity has not yet exercised over these latter countries all the
influence which would have been necessary to ameliorate the social
and political condition of those nations, by changing their ideas and
manners. But if we seek for the causes of this lamentable delay, we
certainly shall not find them in the conduct of Catholicity. This is not
the place to point out these causes; nevertheless, while reserving
the analysis and complete examination of this matter for another
part of the work, I will make the remark en passant, that
Protestantism may justly criminate itself for the obstacles which,
during three centuries, it has opposed to the universality and
efficacy of the Christian influence on infidel nations. These few
words will suffice here; we shall return to this important subject
later.
Note 16, p. 131.
We can scarcely believe how far the ideas of the ancients went
astray with regard to the respect which is due to man. Can it be
believed that they went so far, as to regard the lives of all who could
not be useful to society as of no value? and yet nothing is more
certain. We might lament that this or that city had adopted a
barbarous law; that a ferocious custom was introduced among a
people by the effect of particular circumstances; yet as long as
philosophy protested against such attempts, human reason would
have been unstained, and could not have been accused without

injustice of taking part in infamous attempts at abortion or
infanticide. But when we find crime defended and taught by the
most important philosophers of antiquity; when we see it triumph in
the minds of the most illustrious men, who, with fearful calmness
and serenity, prescribe the atrocities which we have named, we are
confounded, and our blood runs cold; we would fain shut our eyes,
not to see so much infamy thrown upon philosophy and human
reason. Let us hear Plato in his Republic, in that book in which he
undertook to collect all the theories in his opinion the most
distinguished and the best adapted to lead human society towards
its beau ideal. This is his scandalous language: "Oportet profecto
secundum ea quæ supra concessimus, optimos viros mulieribus
optimis ut plurimum congredi: deterrimos autem contra, deterrimis.
Et illorem quidem prolem nutrire, horum minime, si armentum
excellentissimum sit futurum. Et hæc omnia dum agantur, ab
omnibus præterquam a principibus ignorari, si modo armentum
custodum debeat seditione carere." "Prope admodum;" "Very good,"
replies another speaker. (Plat. Rep. l. v.)
Behold, then, the human race reduced to the condition of mere
brutes; in truth, the philosopher had reason to use the word flock
(armentum)! There is this difference, however, that magistrates
imbued with such feelings must have been more harsh towards their
subjects than a shepherd towards his flock. If the shepherd finds
among the lambs which have just been born a weak and lame one,
he does not kill it or allow it to die of hunger; he carries it to the
sheep who ought to nourish it, he caresses it to stop its cries.
But perhaps the expressions which we have just quoted escaped the
philosopher in a moment of inadvertence; perhaps the idea which
they reveal was only one of those sinister inspirations which glide
into the mind of a man, and pass away without leaving any more
impression than is made by a reptile moving through the grass. We
wish it were so, for the fame of Plato; but unhappily he returns to it
so often, and insists on the point with so systematic a coldness, that
no means of justifying him are left. "With respect," he says lower

down, "to the children of citizens of inferior rank, and even those of
other citizens, if they are born deformed, the magistrates shall hide
them, as is proper, in some secure place, which it shall be forbidden
to reveal." "Yes," replies one of the interlocutors; "if we desire to
preserve the race of warriors in its purity."
Plato also lays down various rules with respect to the relations of the
two sexes; he speaks of the case in which the man and woman shall
have reached an advanced age: "Quando igitur jam mulieres et viri
ætatem generationi aptam egressi fuerint, licere viris dicemus,
cuicumque voluerint, præterquam filiæ atque matri et filiarum natis
matrisve majoribus: licere et mulieribus cuilibet, præterquam filio
atque patri, ac superioribus et inferioribus eorumdem. Cum vero
hæc omnia mandaverimus, interdicemus fœtum talem (si contigeret)
edi et in lucem produci. Si quid autem matrem parere coegerit, ita
exponere præcipiemus, quasi ei nulla nutritio sit."
Plato seems to have been very well pleased with his doctrine; for, in
the very book in which he writes what we have just seen, he lays
down the famous maxim, that the evils of states will never be
remedied, that societies will never be well governed, until
philosophers shall become kings, or kings become philosophers. God
preserve us from seeing on the throne a philosophy such as his!
Moreover, his wish for the reign of philosophy has been realized in
modern times. What do I say? It has had more than empire; it has
been deified, and divine honors have been paid to it in public
temples. I do not believe, however, that the happy days of the
worship of reason are now much regretted.
The horrible doctrine which we have just seen in Plato was
transmitted with fidelity to future schools. Aristotle, who on so many
points took the liberty of departing from the doctrines of his master,
did not think of correcting those which regard abortion and
infanticide. In his Politics he teaches the same crimes with the same
calmness as Plato: "In order," he says, "to avoid nourishing weak or
lame children, the law should direct them to be exposed or made
away with." "Propter multitudinem autem liberorum, ne plures sint

quam expediat, si gentium instituta et leges vetent procreata exponi,
definitum esse oportet procreandorum liberorum numerum. Quod si
quibus inter se copulatis et congressis, plures liberi, quam definitum
sit, nascantur, priusquam sensus et vita inseratur, abortus est fœtui
inferendus." (Polit. l. vii. c. 16.)
It will be seen how much reason I had to say that man, as man, was
esteemed as nothing among the ancients; that society entirely
absorbed him; that it claimed unjust rights over him, and regarded
him as an instrument to be used when of service, and which it had a
right to destroy.
We observe in the writings of the ancient philosophers, that they
make of society a kind of whole, consisting of individuals, as the
mass of iron consists of the atoms that compose it; they make of it a
sort of unity, to which all must be sacrificed; they have no
consideration for the sphere of individual liberty; they do not appear
to dream that the object of society is the good, the happiness of
individuals and families. According to them, this unity is the principal
good, with which nothing else can be compared; the greatest evil
that can happen is, that this unity should be broken—an evil which
must be avoided by all imaginable means. "Is not the worst evil of a
state," says Plato, "that which divides it, and makes many out of
one? and is not the greatest excellence of a state, that which binds
all its parts together, and makes it one?" Relying on this principle,
and pursuing the development of his theory, he takes individuals and
families, and kneads them, as it were, in order to form them into
ONE compact whole. Thus, besides education and life in common,
he wishes also to have women and children in common; he
considers it injurious that there should be personal enjoyments or
sufferings; he desires that all should be common and social; he
allows individuals to live, think, feel, and act only as parts of a great
whole. If you read his Republic with attention, and particularly the
fifth book, you will see that the prevailing idea of this philosopher is
what we have just explained. Let us hear Aristotle on the same
point: "As the object of society," he says, "is one, it is clear that the

education of all its members ought necessarily to be one and
identical. Education ought to be public, and not private; as things
now are, each one takes care of his children as he thinks proper, and
teaches them as he pleases. Each citizen is a particle of society, and
the care to be given to a particle ought naturally to extend to what
the whole requires." (Polit. l. viii. c. 1.) In order to explain to us what
he means by this common education, he concludes by quoting with
honor the education which was given at Sparta, which every one
knows consisted in stifling all feelings except a ferocious patriotism,
the traits of which still make us shudder.
With our ideas and customs, we do not know how to confine
ourselves to considering society in this way. Individuals among us
are attached to the social body, forming a part of it, but without
losing their own sphere—that of the family; and they preserve
around them a vast career, where they are allowed to exert
themselves, without coming into collision with the colossus of
society. Nevertheless, patriotism exists; but it is no longer a blind
instinctive passion, urging man on to the sacrifice, like a victim, with
bandaged eyes, but it is no reasonable, noble, and exalted feeling,
which forms heroes like those of Lepanto and Baylen; which
converts peaceful citizens, like those of Gyronna and Saragossa, into
lions; which, as by an electric spark, makes a whole people rise on a
sudden without arms, and brave death from the artillery of a
numerous and disciplined army: such was Madrid, following the
sublime Mourons of Daoiz and of Velarda.
I have already hinted, in the text, that society among the ancients
claimed the right of interfering in all that regards individuals. I will
add, that the thing went to a ridiculous extent. Who would imagine
that the law ought to interfere in the food of a woman who was
enceinte, or in the exercise which she should take every day? This is
what Aristotle gravely says: "It is necessary that women who are
enceinte should take particular care of their bodies; that they should
avoid indulgence in luxury, and using food which is too light and
weak. The legislator easily attains his end by prescribing and

ordering them a daily walk, in order to go to honor and venerate the
gods, to whom it has been confided by fate to watch over the
formation of beings. Atque hoc facile assequitur scriptor legum, si eis
iter aliquod quotidianum ad cultum venerationemque deorum eorum,
quibus sorte obtigit, ut præsint gignendis animantibus, injunxerit ac
mandaverit." (Polit. l. vii. c. 16.)
The action of laws extended to every thing; it seems that, in certain
cases, even the tears of children could not escape this severity.
"Those," says Aristotle, "who, by means of laws, forbid children to
cry and weep, are wrong; cries and tears serve as exercise for
children, and assist them in growing; they are an effort of nature,
which relieves and invigorates those who are in pain." (Polit. l. vii. c.
17.)
These doctrines of the ancients—this manner of considering the
relations of individuals with society—very well explain how castes
and slavery could be regarded as natural among them. Who can be
astonished at seeing whole races deprived of liberty, or regarded as
incapable of partaking of the rights of other superior classes, when
we see generations of innocent beings condemned to death, and
these conscientious philosophers not having the slightest scruple
with respect to the legitimacy of so inhuman an act? It was not that
these philosophers had not happiness in view as the object of
society; but they had monstrous ideas with respect to the means of
obtaining that happiness.
Note 17, p. 146.
The reader will easily dispense with my entering into details on the
abject and shameful condition of women among the ancients, and in
which they still are among the moderns where Christianity does not
prevail; moreover, my pen would be checked every moment by strict
laws of modesty, if I were to attempt to represent the characteristic
features of this wretched picture. The inversion of ideas was such,
that we hear men the most renowned for their gravity and
moderation rave in the most incredible manner on this point. We will

lay aside hundreds of examples which it would be easy to adduce;
but who is ignorant of the scandalous advice of the sage Solon, with
respect to the lending of women for the purpose of improving the
race? Who has not blushed to read what the divine Plato, in his
Republic, says of the propriety and manner of making women share
in the public games? Let us throw a veil over recollections so
dishonourable to human wisdom. When the chief legislators and
sages so far forgot the first elements of morality, and the most
ordinary inspirations of nature, what must have been the case with
the vulgar? How fearfully true those words of the sacred text which
represent to us the nations deprived of the light of Christianity as
sitting in darkness and in the shadow of death!
There is nothing more fatal to woman, nothing more apt to degrade
her, than that which is injurious to modesty; and yet we see that the
unlimited power granted to man over woman contributed to this
degradation, and reduced her, among certain nations, to be nothing
but a slave. Losing sight of the manners of other nations, let us
consider those of the Romans for a moment. Among them the
formula, ubi tu Cayus ego Caya, seemed to indicate a subjection so
slight, that it might almost be called an equality; but in order to
appreciate this equality, it is enough to recollect that, at Rome, a
husband could put his wife to death by his own authority, and that
not only in the case of adultery, but for offences infinitely less
serious. In the time of Romulus, Egnacius Menecius was acquitted of
a similar crime, although his wife had done nothing more than drink
wine from a cask. These traits describe a nation, whatever
importance you may besides think proper to attach to the solicitude
of the Romans to prevent their matrons from becoming addicted to
wine. When Cato directed an embrace, as a proof of affection,
among relations, for the purpose, as Pliny relates, of ascertaining
whether the women smelt of wine, an temetum olerent, it is true he
showed his strictness; but it was an unworthy outrage offered to the
honor of the women themselves whose virtue it pretended to
preserve. There are some remedies worse than the disease.

Note 18, p. 157.
The antichristian philosophy must have had considerable influence
on the desire to find among the barbarians the origin of the
elevation of the female character in Europe, and of some other
principles of our civilization. Indeed as soon as you discover the
source of these admirable qualities in the forests of Germany,
Christianity is stripped of a portion of its honors; and what was its
own and peculiar glory is divided among many. I will not deny that
the Germans of Tacitus are sufficiently poetical; but it is difficult to
believe that the real Germans were so to any extent. Some passages
inserted in the text add great force to our conjecture; but what
appears to me eminently calculated to dissipate all these illusions is,
the history of the invasion by the barbarians, above all that which
has been written by eye-witnesses. The picture, far from continuing
poetical, then becomes disgusting in the extreme. This interminable
succession of nations passes before the eyes of the reader, like an
alarming vision in an evil dream; and certainly the first idea which
occurs to us at the sight of this picture is, not to seek for any of the
qualities of modern civilization in these invading hordes; but the
great difficulty is, to know how this chaos has been reduced to order,
and how it has been possible to produce from such barbarism the
noblest and most brilliant civilization that has ever been seen on
earth. Tacitus appears to be an enthusiast; but Sidonius, who wrote
at no great distance from the barbarians, who saw them, and
suffered from meeting them, does not partake of this enthusiasm. "I
find myself," he said, "among long-haired nations, compelled to hear
the German language, and to applaud, at whatever cost, the song of
the drunken Burgundian, with hair plastered with rancid grease.
Happy your eyes who do not see them; happy your ears who do not
hear them?" If space permitted, it would be easy for me to
accumulate a thousand passages which would evidently show what
the barbarians were, and what could be expected from them in all
respects. It is as clear as the light of day, that it was the design of
Providence to employ these nations to destroy the Roman empire,
and change the face of the world. The invaders seem to have had a

feeling of their terrible mission. They march, they advance, they
know not whither they go; but they know well that they go to
destroy. Attila called himself the scourge of God. The same barbarian
himself defined his formidable duty in these words: "The star falls,
the sea is moved; I am the hammer of the earth. Where my horse
passes, the grass never grows." Alaric, marching towards the capital
of the world, said: "I cannot stop; there is some one urges me, who
excites me to sack Rome." Genseric prepares a naval expedition; his
troops are on board, he himself embarks: no one knows the point
towards which he will direct his sails. The pilot approaches the
barbarian, and asks him; "My lord, against what nations will you
wage war?" "Against those who have provoked the anger of God,"
replies Genseric.
If Christianity, in the midst of this catastrophe, had not existed in
Europe, civilization would have been lost and annihilated, perhaps
forever. But a religion of light and love was sure to triumph over
ignorance and violence. Even during the times of the calamities of
the invasion, that religion prevented many disasters, owing to the
ascendency which it began to exercise over the barbarians; the most
critical moment being past, the conquerors having become in some
degree settled, she immediately employed a system so vast, so
efficacious, so decisive, that the conquerors found themselves
conquered, not by arms, but by charity. It was not in the power of
the Church to prevent the invasion; God had decreed it, and His
decree must be accomplished. Thus the pious monk who went to
meet Alaric approaching Rome, could not stop him on his march,
because the barbarian answered him, that he could not stop,—that
there was some one who urged him on, and that he advanced
against his own will. But the Church awaited the barbarians after the
conquest, knowing that Providence would not abandon His own
work, that the hope of the future lot of nations was left in the hands
of the spouse of Jesus Christ; on this account does Alaric advance
on Rome, sack, and destroy it; but on a sudden, finding himself in
presence of religion, he stops, becomes mollified, and appoints the
Churches of St. Peter and St. Paul as places of refuge. A remarkable

fact, and an admirable symbol of the Christian religion preserving
the universe from total ruin.
Note 19, p. 165.
The great benefit conferred on modern society by the formation of a
pure and correct public conscience, would acquire extraordinary
value in our eyes, if we compared our moral ideas with those of all
other nations, ancient and modern; the result of such an
examination would be, to show in how lamentable a manner good
principles become corrupted, when they are confided to the reason
of man. I will content myself, however, with a few words on the
ancients, in order to show how correct I was in saying that our
manners, however corrupt they may be, would have appeared a
model of morality and dignity to the heathens.
The temples consecrated to Venus in Babylon and Corinth are
connected with abominations such as to be even incomprehensible.
Deified passion required sacrifices worthy of it; a divinity without
modesty required the sacrifice of modesty; and the sacred name of
Temple was applied to asylums of the most unbridled licentiousness.
There was not a veil even for the greatest crimes. It is known how
the daughters of Chypre gained a dowry for their marriage; all have
heard of the mysteries of Adonis, Priapus, and other impure
divinities. There are vices which, as it were, want a name among the
moderns; or if they have one, it is accompanied by the recollection
of a terrible chastisement inflicted on some criminal cities. In reading
the histories of antiquity descriptive of the manners of their times,
the book falls from our hands. On this subject we must be content
with these few hints, calculated to awaken in the minds of our
readers the recollection of what has a thousand times excited their
indignation in reading the history and studying the literature of
pagan antiquity. The author is compelled to be satisfied with a
recollection: he abstains from a description.
Note 20, p. 171.

It is now so common to exalt beyond measure the power of ideas,
that some persons will perhaps consider exaggerated what I have
said with respect to their want of power, not only to influence
society, but even to preserve themselves, while, remaining in the
mere sphere of ideas, they do not become realized in institutions,
which are their organ, and at the same time their rampart and
defence.
I am very far, as I have clearly stated in the text, from denying or
calling in question what is called the power of ideas: I only mean to
show that, alone and by themselves, ideas have little power; and
that science, properly so called, as far as the organization of society
is concerned, is a much less important thing than is generally
supposed. This doctrine has an intimate connection with the system
followed by the Catholic Church, which, while constantly
endeavoring to develop the human mind by means of the
propagation of the sciences, has nevertheless assigned to them a
secondary part in the regulation of society. While religion has never
been opposed to true science, never, on the other hand, has she
ceased to show a certain degree of mistrust with respect to all that
was the exclusive production of human thought; and observe that
this is one of the chief differences between religion and the
philosophy of the last age; or, we should rather say, it was the cause
of their violent antipathy. Religion did not condemn science; on the
contrary, she loved, protected, and encouraged it; but at the same
time she marked out its limits, warned it that it was blind on some
points, announced to it that it would be powerless in some of its
labors, and that in others its action would be destructive and fatal.
Philosophy, on the contrary, loudly proclaimed the sovereignty of
science, declared it to be all-powerful, and deified it; it attributed to
it strength and courage to change the face of the world, and wisdom
and foresight enough to work this change for the good of humanity.
This pride of knowledge, this deification of thought, is, if you
observe closely, the foundation of Protestant doctrine. All authority
being taken away, reason is the only competent judge, the intellect
receives directly and immediately from God all the light which is

necessary. This is the fundamental doctrine of Protestantism, that is
to say, the pride of the mind.
If we closely observe, even the triumph of revolutions has in no
degree nullified the wise anticipations of religion; and knowledge,
properly so called, instead of gaining any credit from this triumph,
has entirely lost what it had: there remains nothing of the
revolutionary knowledge; what remains is the effects of the
revolution, the interests created by it, the institutions which have
arisen from those interests, and which, since that time, have sought
in the department of science itself our principles to support them,—
principles altogether different from those which had been proclaimed
in the beginning.
I have said that every idea has need of being realized in an
institution; this is so true, that revolutions themselves, warned by
the instinct which leads them to preserve, with more or less
integrity, the principles whence they have arisen, tend from the first
to create those institutions in which the revolutionary doctrines may
be perpetuated, or to constitute successors to represent them when
they shall have disappeared from the schools. This may lead to
many reflections on the origin and present condition of several forms
of governments in different countries of Europe.
When speaking of the rapidity with which scientific theories succeed
each other, when pointing out the immense development which the
press has given to the field of discussion, I have shown that this was
not an infallible sign of scientific progress, still less a guarantee for
the fertility of human thought in realizing great things in the material
and social order. I have said that grand conceptions proceed rather
from intuition than from discourses; and on this subject I have
recalled to mind historical events and personages which place this
matter beyond a doubt. In support of this assertion, ideology might
have furnished us with abundant proofs, if it were necessary to have
recourse to science itself to prove its own sterility. But mere good
sense, taught by the lessons of experience daily, is enough to
convince us that the men who are the most able in theory are, often

enough, not only mediocre, but even weak in the exercise of
authority. With regard to the hints which I have thrown out with
respect to "intuition" and "discourses," I leave them to the judgment
of any one who has applied to the study of the human mind. I am
confident that the opinion of those who have reflected will not differ
from my own.
Note 21, p. 175.
I have attributed to Christianity the gentleness of manners which
Europe now enjoys. Yet, in spite of the decline of religious belief in
the last century, this gentleness of manners, instead of being
destroyed, has only been raised to a higher degree. This contrast,
the effect of which, at first sight, is to destroy what I have
established, requires some explanation. First of all, we must recollect
the distinction pointed out in the text between effeminacy and
gentleness of manners. The first is a fault, the second a valuable
quality; the first emanates from enervation of the mind and
weakening of the body; the second is owing to the preponderance of
reason, the empire of the mind over the body, the triumph of justice
over force, of right over might. There is a large portion of real
gentleness in manners at the present day, but luxury has also a
considerable part therein. This luxury of manners has certainly not
arisen from religion, but from infidelity; the latter, never extending
its view beyond the present life, causes the lofty destinies, and even
the very existence of the soul, to be forgotten, puts egotism upon
the throne, constantly excites and keeps alive the love of pleasure,
and makes man the vile slave of his passions. On the contrary, at the
first sight, we perceive that our manners owe all their gentleness to
Christianity; all the ideas, all the feelings, on which this gentleness is
founded, bear the mark of Christianity. The dignity of man, his
rights, the obligation of treating him with the respect which is due to
him, and of appealing to his mind by reason rather than to his body
by violence, the necessity imposed on every one of keeping within
the line of his duty, of respecting the property and the persons of
others,—all this body of principles, to which real gentleness of

manners is owing, is due, in Europe, to the influence of Christianity,
which, after a struggle of many centuries against the barbarism and
ferocity of invading nations, succeeded in destroying the system of
violence which these same nations had made general.
As philosophy has taken care to change the ancient names
consecrated by religion, and authorized by the usage of a succession
of ages, it happens that some ideas, although the produce of
Christianity, are scarcely acknowledged as such, only because they
are disguised under a worldly dress. Who does not know that mutual
love among men and fraternal charity are ideas entirely due to
Christianity? Who does not know that pagan antiquity did not
acknowledge them, that it even despised them? And nevertheless,
this affection, which was formerly called charity, because charity was
the virtue from which it took its legitimate origin, has constantly
taken care to assume other names, as if it were ashamed to be seen
in public with any appearance of religion. The mania for attacking
the Christian religion being passed, it is openly confessed that the
principle of universal charity is owing to her; but language remains
infected with Voltairian philosophy even since the discredit into
which that philosophy has fallen. Whence it follows, that we very
often do not appreciate as we ought the influence of Christianity on
the society which surrounds us, and that we attribute to other ideas
and other causes the phenomena which are evidently owing to
religion. Society at present, in spite of all its indifference, is more
indebted to religion than is commonly supposed; it resembles those
men, who, born of an illustrious family, in which good principles and
a careful education are transmitted as an inheritance from
generation to generation, preserve in their manners and behavior,
even in the midst of their disorders, their crimes, and I will even
venture to say, their degradation, some traits which denote their
noble origin.
Note 22, p. 183.
A few regulations of Councils, quoted in the text, are sufficient to
give an idea of the system pursued by the Church for the purpose of

reforming and softening manners. It may be remarked that, on
previous occasions during this work, I have a strong inclination to
call to mind monuments of this kind; I will state here that I have two
reasons for doing this: 1. When having to compare Protestantism
with Catholicity, I believe that the best means of representing the
real spirit of the latter is, to show it at work; this is done when we
bring to light the measures which were adopted, according to
different circumstances, by Popes and Councils. 2. Considering the
direction which historical studies take in Europe, and the taste,
which is daily becoming more general, not for histories, but for
historical documents, it is proper always to bear in mind that the
proceedings of Councils are of the highest importance, not only in
historical and ecclesiastical matters, but also in political and social
ones; so that to pay no attention to the data which are found in the
records of Councils, is monstrously to mutilate, or rather wholly to
destroy, the history of Europe.
On this account it is very useful, and even necessary in many things,
to consult these records, although it may be painful to our indolence,
on account of their enormous extent and the ennui of finding many
things devoid of interest for our times. The sciences, above all those
which have society for their object, lead to satisfactory results only
by means of painful labors. What is useful is frequently mixed and
confounded with what is not. The most valuable things are
sometimes found by the side of repulsive objects; but in nature, do
we find gold without having removed rude masses of earth?
Those who have attempted to find the germ of the precious qualities
of European civilization among the barbarians of the north, should
undoubtedly have attributed the gentleness of our manners to the
same barbarians; they would have had in support of this paradox a
fact certainly more specious than that which they have relied on to
give the honor of elevating European women to the Germans. I
allude to the well-known custom of avoiding the infliction of corporal
punishments, and of chastising the gravest offences by fines only.
Nothing is more likely to make us believe that these nations were

happily inclined to gentleness of manners, since, in the midst of their
barbarism, they used the right of punishment with a moderation
which is not found even among the most civilized and refined
nations. If we regard the thing in this point of view, it seems as if
the influence of Christianity on the barbarians had the effect of
rendering their manners more harsh instead of more gentle; indeed,
after Christianity was introduced, the infliction of corporal
punishments became general, and even that of death was not
excluded.
But when we attentively consider this peculiarity of the criminal code
of the barbarians, we shall see that, far from showing the
advancement of their civilization and the gentleness of their
manners, it is, on the contrary, the most evident proof that they
were behindhand; it is the strongest index of the harshness and
barbarism which reigned among them. In the first place, inasmuch
as crimes among them were punished by means of fines, or, as it
was called, by composition, it is clear that the law paid much more
attention to repairing an injury than to punishing a crime; a
circumstance which clearly shows us how little they thought about
the morality of the action, as they attended not so much to the
action itself, as to the wrong which it inflicted. Therefore this was
not an element of civilization but of barbarism; this tended to
nothing less than the banishment of morality from the world. The
Church combated this principle, as fatal in public as in private affairs;
she introduced into criminal legislation a new set of ideas, which
completely changed its spirit. On this point M. Guizot has done full
justice to the Catholic Church. I am delighted to acknowledge and to
insert this homage here by transcribing his own words. After having
pointed out the difference which existed between the laws of the
Visigoths, derived in great part from the Councils of Toledo, and the
other barbarian laws, M. Guizot signalizes the immense superiority of
the ideas of the Church in matters of legislation, of justice, and in all
that concerns the search after truth and the lot of men; he adds: "In
criminal matters, the relation of crimes to punishments is fixed (in
the laws of the Visigoths) according to sufficiently just, philosophical,

and moral notions. We there perceive the efforts of an enlightened
legislator, who contends against the violence and rashness of
barbarian manners. The chapter De cæde et morte hominum,
compared with the corresponding laws of other nations, is a very
remarkable example of this. Elsewhere, it is almost exclusively the
injury which seems to constitute the crime, and the punishment is
sought in that material reparation which is the result of composition.
Here, the crime is referred to its real and moral element, the
intention. The different shades of criminality, absolutely voluntary
homicide, homicide by inadvertence, provoked homicide, homicide
with or without premeditation, are distinguished and defined almost
as well as in our own codes, and the punishments vary in a
proportion equally just. The justice of the legislator has gone still
further. He has attempted, if not to abolish, at least to diminish the
diversity of legal value established among men by the other
barbarian laws. The only distinction which it preserves is that of
freeman and slave. With respect to freeman, the punishment varies
neither with the origin nor the rank of the deceased, but only
according to the different degrees of the culpability of the murderer.
With regard to slaves, not venturing completely to withdraw from
the masters the right of life and death, it has been attempted at
least to restrain it by subjecting it to a public and regular procedure.
The text of the law deserves to be cited.
"'If no one guilty of, or an accomplice in, a crime ought to remain
unpunished, with how much more reason ought he to be
condemned who has wickedly and rashly committed a homicide!
Thus, as masters, in their pride, often put their slaves to death
without any fault of the latter, it is proper altogether to extirpate this
license, and to ordain that the present law shall be forever observed
by all. No master or mistress shall put to death, without public trial,
any of their slaves, male or female, or any person dependent on
them. If a slave or any other servant shall commit a crime which
may subject him to capital punishment, his master or his accuser
shall immediately inform the judge or the count or duke of the place
where the deed has been committed. After the affair has been

inquired into, if the crime be proved, let the criminal undergo, either
by the judge or his own master, the sentence of death which he has
deserved; so that, nevertheless, if the judge be unwilling to put the
accused to death, he shall draw up in writing a capital sentence, and
then it shall be in the power of the master to put him to death or
not. Indeed, if the slave, with a fatal audacity, resisting his master,
has struck, or attempted to strike, him with a weapon, with a stone,
or with any other kind of blow, and if the master, in defending
himself, has killed the slave in his passion, the master shall be in no
way subject to the punishment of homicide. But it shall be necessary
to prove that the event took place thus, and that by the testimony or
oath of the slaves, male or female, who shall have been present,
and by the oath of the author of the deed himself. Whoever from
mere malice, either by his own hand or that of another, shall have
killed his slave without public trial, shall be marked with infamy,
declared incapable of appearing as a witness, shall be obliged to
pass the rest of his life in exile and penance, and his goods shall go
to the nearest relations to whom they are given by the law.'—For.
Jud. liv. vi. tit. xv. l. 12." (Hist. Génér. de la Civilisation en Europe,
leçon 6.)
I have copied this passage from M. Guizot with pleasure, because I
find there a confirmation of what I have just said on the subject of
the influence of the Church in softening manners, and of what I
have before stated with respect to the great amelioration which the
Church made in the condition of slaves, by limiting the excessive
power of their masters. This truth is proved in its place by so many
documents, that it seems useless to revert to it here; it is enough
now for my purpose, to point out that M. Guizot fully allows that the
Church gave morality to the legislation of the barbarians, by making
them consider the wickedness of the crime, whereas they had
previously attended only to the injury of which it was the cause; she
has thus transferred the action from the physical to the moral order,
giving to punishments their real character, and not allowing them to
remain reduced to the level of a mere material reparation. Hence we
see that the criminal system of the barbarians, which, at the first

view, seemed to indicate progress in civilization, was, in reality,
owing to the little ascendency which moral principles exercised over
these nations, and to the fact, that the views of the legislator were
very slightly raised above the purely material order.
There is another observation to be made on this point, viz. that the
mildness with which crimes were punished is the best proof of the
frequency with which they were committed. When in a country
assassinations, mutilations, and other similar attempts are very rare,
they are regarded with horror; those who are guilty of them are
chastised with severity. But when crimes are very frequently
committed, they insensibly lose their enormity; not only those who
commit them, but all the world become accustomed to their hideous
aspect, and the legislator is then naturally induced to treat them
with indulgence. This is shown us by the experience of every day;
and the reader will have no difficulty in finding in society at the
present time more than one crime to which the remark which I have
just made is applicable. Among the barbarians, it was common to
appeal to force, not only with respect to property, but also to
persons; wherefore it was natural that crimes of this kind should not
be regarded by them with the same aversion, it may be said with the
same horror, as among a people where the triumph of the ideas of
reason, justice, right, and law, render it impossible to conceive even
the existence of a society where each individual should believe
himself self-entitled to do justice to himself. Thus the laws against
these crimes naturally became milder, the legislator contenting
himself with repairing the injury, without paying much attention to
the culpability of the delinquent. And this is intimately connected
with what I have said above with respect to public conscience; for
the legislator is always more or less the organ of this public
conscience. Where an action, in any society whatever, is regarded as
a heinous offence, the legislator cannot decree a mild punishment
for it; on the other hand, it is not possible for him to chastise with
great severity what the society absolves or excuses. It will
sometimes happen that this proportion will be altered, that this
harmony will be destroyed; but things soon quitting the path into

which violence forced them, will not be long in returning to their
ordinary course. Manners being chaste and pure, offences against
them will be covered with abhorrence and infamy; but if morals be
corrupted, the same acts will be regarded with indifference; at the
most they will be denominated slight weaknesses. Among a people
where religious ideas exercise great influence, the violation of all
that is consecrated to God is regarded as a horrible outrage, worthy
of the greatest chastisements; among another people, where
infidelity has made its ravages, the same violation is not even placed
on the list of ordinary offences; instead of drawing on the guilty the
justice of the law, scarcely does it draw on them the slight correction
of the police. The reader will understand the appropriateness of this
digression on the criminal legislation of the barbarians, when he
reflects that, in order to examine the influence of Catholicity on the
civilization of Europe, it is indispensable to take into consideration
the other elements which have concurred in forming that civilization.
Without this, it would be impossible properly to appreciate the
respective action of each of these elements, either for good or evil;
impossible to bring to light the share which the Church can
exclusively claim in the great work of our civilization; impossible to
resolve the high question which has been raised by the partisans of
Protestantism on the subject of the assumed advantages which the
religious revolution of the sixteenth century has conferred on
modern society. It is because the barbarian nations are one of these
elements, that it is so often necessary to attend to them.
Note 23, p. 189.
In the middle ages, almost all the monasteries and colleges of
canons had a hospital annexed to them, not only to receive pilgrims,
but also to aid in the support and consolation of the poor and the
sick. If you desire to see the noblest symbol of religion sheltering all
kinds of misfortune, consider the houses devoted to prayer and the
most sublime virtues converted into asylums for the miserable. This
was exactly what took place at that time, when the public authority
not only wanted the strength and knowledge necessary to establish

a good administration for the relief of the unfortunate, but did not
even succeed in covering with her ægis the most sacred interests of
society; this shows us that when all was powerless, religion was still
strong and fruitful; that when all perished, religion not only
preserved herself, but even founded immortal establishments. And
pay attention to what we have so many times pointed out, viz. that
the religion which worked these prodigies was not a vague and
abstract religion—the Christianity of the Protestants; but religion
with all her dogmas, her discipline, her hierarchy, her supreme
Pontiff, in a word, the Catholic Church.
They were far from thinking in ancient times that the support of the
unfortunate could be confided to the civil administration alone, or to
individual charity; it was then thought, as I have already said, that it
was a very proper thing that the hospitals should be subjected to the
Bishops; that is to say, that there should be a kind of assimilation
made between the system of public beneficence and the hierarchy of
the Church. Hence it was that, by virtue of an ancient regulation, the
hospitals were under the control of the Bishops as well in temporals
as in spirituals, whether the persons appointed to the care of the
establishments were clerical or lay, whether the hospital had been
erected by order of the Bishop or not.
This is not the place to relate the vicissitudes which this discipline
underwent, nor the different causes which produced the successive
changes; it is enough to observe, that the fundamental principle,
that is, the interference of the ecclesiastical authority in
establishments of beneficence, always remained unimpaired, and
that the Church never allowed herself to be entirely deprived of so
noble a privilege. Never did she think that it was allowable for her to
regard with indifference the abuses which were introduced on this
point to the prejudice of the unfortunate; wherefore she has
reserved at least the right to remedy the evils which might result
from the wickedness or the indolence of the administrators. The
Council of Vienne ordains, that if the administrators of a hospital, lay
or clerical, become relaxed in the exercise of their charge,

proceedings shall be taken against them by the Bishops, who shall
reform and restore the hospital of their own authority, if it has no
privilege of exemption, and by delegation, if it has one. The Council
of Trent also granted to Bishops the power of visiting the hospitals,
even with the power of delegates of the Apostolic See in the cases
fixed by law; it ordains, moreover, that the administrators, lay or
clerical, shall be obliged every year to render their accounts to the
ordinary of the place, unless the contrary has been provided in the
foundation; and that if, by virtue of a particular privilege, custom, or
statute, the accounts must be presented to any other than the
ordinary, at least he shall be added to those who are appointed to
receive them.
Without paying attention to the different modifications which the
laws and customs of various countries may have introduced in this
matter, we will say that one thing remains manifest, viz. the
vigilance of the Church in all that regards beneficence; it is her
constant tendency, by virtue of her spirit and maxims, to take part in
affairs of this kind, sometimes to direct them exclusively, sometimes
to remedy the evils which may have crept in. The civil power
acknowledged the motives of this holy and charitable ambition; we
see that the Emperor Justinian does not hesitate to give public
authority over the hospitals to the Bishops, thereby conforming to
the discipline of the Church and the general good.
On this point there is a remarkable fact, which it is necessary to
mention here, in order to signalize its beneficent influence; I mean,
the regulation by which the property of hospitals was looked upon as
Church property,—a regulation which was very far from being a
matter of indifference, although at first sight it might appear so.
Their property, thereby invested with the same privileges as that of
the Church, was protected by an inviolability so much the more
necessary as the times were the more difficult, and the more
abounding in outrages and usurpations. The Church which,
notwithstanding all the public troubles, preserved great authority
and a powerful ascendency over governments and nations, had thus

a simple and powerful claim to extend her protection over the
property of hospitals, and to withdraw them as much as possible
from the cupidity and the rapacity of the powerful. And it must not
be supposed that this doctrine was introduced with any indirect
design, nor that this kind of community, this assimilation between
the Church and the poor, was an unheard-of novelty; on the
contrary, this assimilation was so well suited to the common order of
things, it was so entirely founded on the relations between the
Church and the poor, that if the property of the hospitals had the
privilege of being considered as the property of the Church, that of
the Church, on the other hand, was called the property of the poor.
It is in these terms that the holy Fathers express themselves on this
point: these doctrines had so much affected the ordinary language,
that when, at a later period, the canonical question with respect to
the ownership of the goods of the Church had to be solved, there
were found by the side of those who directly attributed this property
to God, to the Pope, to the clergy, some who pointed out the poor as
being the real proprietors. It is true that this opinion was not the
most conformable to the principles of law; but the mere fact of its
appearing on the field of controversy is a matter for grave
consideration.
Note 24, p. 196.
A few reflections, in the form of a note, on a certain maxim of
toleration professed by a philosopher of the last century, Rousseau,
would not be out of place here; but the analogy of the following
chapter with that which we have just finished induces us to reserve
them for note 25. The considerations to which the opinion of
Rousseau will lead, apply to the question of toleration in religious
matters, as well as to the right of coercion exercised by the civil and
political power; I therefore beg my reader to reserve for the
following note the attention which he might be willing to afford me
now.
Note 25, p. 203.

For the purpose of clearing up ideas on toleration as far as lay in my
power, I have presented this matter in a point of view but little
known; in order to throw still more light upon it, I will say a few
words on religious and civil intolerance,—things which are entirely
different, although Rousseau absolutely affirms the contrary.
Religious or theological intolerance consists in the conviction, that
the only true religion is the Catholic,—a conviction common to all
Catholics. Civil intolerance consists in not allowing in society any
other religions than the Catholic. These two definitions are sufficient
to make every man of common sense understand that the two kinds
of intolerance are not inseparable; indeed, we may very easily
conceive that men firmly convinced of the truth of Catholicity may
tolerate those who profess another religion, or none at all. Religious
intolerance is an act of the mind, an act inseparable from faith;
indeed, whoever has a firm belief that his own religion is true, must
necessarily be convinced that it is the only true one; for the truth is
one. Civil intolerance is an act whereby the will rejects those who do
not profess the same religion; this act has different results,
according as the intolerance is in the individuals or in the
government. On the other hand, religious tolerance consists in
believing that all religions are true; which, when rightly understood,
means that none are true, since it is impossible for contradictory
things to be true at the same time. Civil tolerance is, to allow men
who entertain a different religion to live in peace. This tolerance, as
well as the co-relative intolerance, produces different effects,
according as it exists in individuals or in the government.
This distinction, which, from its clearness and simplicity, is within the
reach of the most ordinary minds, has nevertheless been mistaken
by Rousseau, who affirms that it is a vain fiction, a chimera, which
cannot be realized, and that the two kinds of intolerance cannot be
separated from each other. Rousseau might have been content with
observing, that religious intolerance, that is to say, as I have
explained above, the firm conviction that a religion is true, if it is
general in a country, must produce, in the ordinary intercourse of life
as well as in legislation, a certain tendency not to tolerate any one

who thinks differently, principally when those who dissent are very
limited in number; his observation would then have been well
founded, and would have agreed with the opinion which I have
expressed on this point, when I attempted to represent the natural
course of ideas and events in this matter. But Rousseau does not
consider things under this aspect: desiring to attack Catholicity, he
affirms that the two kinds of intolerance are inseparable; "for," says
he, "it is impossible to live in peace with those whom one believes to
be damned; to love them would be to hate God, who punishes
them." It is impossible to carry misrepresentation further: who told
Rousseau that the Catholics believe in the damnation of any man,
whoever he may be, as long as he lives; and that they think that to
love a man who is in error would be to hate God? On the contrary,
could he be ignorant that it is a duty, an indispensable precept, a
dogma, for Catholics to love all men? Could he be ignorant that even
children, in the first rudiments of Christian doctrine, learn that we
are obliged to love our neighbor as ourselves, and that by this word
neighbor is meant whoever has gained heaven, or may gain it; so
that no man, so long as he lives, is excluded from this number? But
Rousseau will say, you are at least convinced that those who die in
that fatal state are condemned. Rousseau does not observe that we
think exactly the same with respect to sinners, although their sin be
not that of heresy; now, it has not come into the head of any body
that good Catholics cannot tolerate sinners, and that they consider
themselves under the obligation of hating them. What religion shows
more eagerness to convert the wicked? The Catholic Church is so far
from teaching that we ought to hate them, that she causes to be
repeated a thousand times, in pulpits, in books, and in
conversations, those words whereby God shows that it is His will
that sinners shall not perish, that He wills that they shall be
converted and live, that there is more joy in heaven when one of
them has done penance, than upon the ninety-nine just who need
not penance. And let it not be imagined that the man who thus
expresses himself against the intolerance of Catholics was the
partizan of complete toleration; on the contrary, in society, such as
he imagined it, he did not desire toleration for those who did not

belong to the religion which the civil power thought proper to
establish. It is true that he is not at all anxious that the citizens
should belong to the true religion. "Laying aside," he says, "political
considerations, let us return to the right, and let us lay down
principles on this important point. The right which the social pact
gives to the sovereign over his subject does not exceed, as I have
said, the bounds of public utility. Subjects, therefore, are
accountable to their sovereign for their opinions, inasmuch as those
opinions are of importance to the community. Now, it is of great
importance to the state, that every citizen should have a religion
which shall make him love his duties; but the dogmas of that religion
interest the state and its members only inasmuch as those dogmas
affect morality and the duties which those who profess it are bound
to perform towards others. As for the rest, each one may have what
opinions he pleases, without being subject to the cognizance of the
sovereign, for he has no power in the other world; it is not his affair
what may be the lot of his subjects in the life to come, provided they
be good citizens in this. There is, therefore, a profession of faith
purely civil, the articles whereof it belongs to the sovereign to fix,
not exactly as dogmas of religion, but as social sentiments, without
which it is impossible to be a good citizen or a faithful subject.
Without being able to compel any one to believe them, it can banish
from the state him who does not believe them; it can banish him,
not as wicked, but as anti-social, as incapable of sincerely loving the
laws and justice, and of sacrificing his life to his duty. If any one,
after having publicly acknowledged these dogmas, conducts himself
as if he did not believe them, let him be punished with death; he has
committed the greatest of crimes, he has lied against the laws." (Du
Contrat Social, l. iv. c. 8.)
Such, then, is the final result of the toleration of Rousseau, viz. to
give to the sovereign the power of fixing articles of faith, to grant to
him the right of punishing with banishment, or even death, those
who will not conform to the decisions of this new Pope, or who shall
violate after having embraced them. However strange the doctrine
of Rousseau may appear, it is not excluded from the general system

of those who do not acknowledge the supremacy of authority in
religious matters. When this supremacy is to be attributed to the
Catholic Church, or its head, it is rejected; and, by the most striking
contradiction, it is granted to the civil power. It is very singular that
Rousseau, when banishing or putting to death the man who quits
the religion fashioned by the sovereign, does not wish him to be
punished as impious, but as anti-social. Rousseau, following an
impulse very natural in him, did not wish that impiety should be at
all taken into account when punishments were to be inflicted; but of
what consequence is the name given to his crime to the man who is
banished or put to death? In the same chapter, he allows an
expression to escape him, which reveals at once the object which he
had in view in all this show of philosophy: "Whoever dares to affirm
that out of the Church there is no salvation, ought to be driven from
the state." Which means, in other words, that toleration ought to be
given to all except Catholics. It has been said, that the Contrat Social
was the code of the French revolution; and, indeed, the latter did
not forget what the tolerant legislator has prescribed with respect to
Catholics. Few persons now venture to declare themselves the
disciples of the philosopher of Geneva, although some of his timid
partisans still lavish on him unmeasured eulogies. Let us have
sufficient confidence in the good sense of the human race, to hope
that all posterity, with a unanimous voice, will confirm the stamp of
ignominy with which all men of sense have already marked that
turbulent sophist, the impudent author of the Confessions.
When comparing Protestantism with Catholicity, I was obliged to
treat of intolerance, as it is one of the reproaches which are most
frequently made against the Catholic religion; but my respect for
truth compels me to state, that all Protestants have not preached
universal toleration; and that many of them have acknowledged the
right of checking and punishing certain errors. Grotius, Puffendorf,
and some more of the wisest men that Protestantism can boast of,
are agreed on this point; therein they have followed the example of
all antiquity, which, in theory as well as in practice, has constantly
conformed to these principles. A cry has been raised against the

intolerance of Catholics, as if they had been the first to teach it to
the world; as if intolerance was a cursed monster, which was
engendered only where the Catholic Church prevailed. In default of
any other reason, good faith at least required that it should not be
forgotten that the principle of universal toleration was never
acknowledged in any part of the world; the books of philosophers,
and the codes of legislators, contain the principle of intolerance with
more or less rigor. Whether it were desired to condemn this principle
as false, or to limit it, or to leave it without application, it is clear
that an accusation ought not to have been made against the Catholic
Church in particular, on account of a doctrine and conduct, wherein
she only conformed to the example of the whole human race.
Refined as well as barbarous nations would be culpable therein, if
there were any crime; and the stigma, far from deserving to fall
upon governments directed by Catholicity, or on Catholic writers,
ought to be inflicted on all the governments of antiquity, including
those of Greece and Rome; on all the ancient sages, including Plato,
Cicero, and Seneca; on modern governments and sages, including
Protestants. If men had had this present to their minds, the doctrine
would not have appeared so erroneous, nor the facts so black; they
would have seen that intolerance, as old as the world, was not the
invention of Catholics, and that the whole world, ought to bear the
responsibility of it.
Assuredly the toleration which, in our days, has become so general,
from causes previously pointed out, will not be affected by the
doctrines, more or less severe, more or less indulgent, which shall
be proclaimed in this matter; but for the very reason, that
intolerance, such as it was practised in other times, has at last
become a mere historical fact, whereof no one can fear the
reappearance, it is proper to enter into an attentive examination of
questions of this kind, in order to remove the reproach which her
enemies have attempted to cast upon the Catholic Church.
The recollection of the encyclical letter of the Pope against the
doctrines of M. de Lamennais, and the profound wisdom contained

therein appropriately presents itself here. That writer maintained
that universal toleration, the absolute liberty of worship, is the
normal and legitimate state of society,—a state which cannot be
changed without injury to the rights of the man and the citizen. M.
de Lamennais, combating the encyclical letter, attempted to show
that it established new doctrines, and attacked the liberty of nations.
No; the Pope, in his encyclical letter, does not maintain any other
doctrines than those which have been professed up to this time by
the Church—we may say by all governments—with respect to
toleration. No government can sustain itself if it is refused the right
of repressing doctrines dangerous to social order, whether those
doctrines are covered with the mantle of philosophy, or disguised
under the veil of religion. The liberty of man is not thereby assailed;
for the only liberty which is worthy of the name, is liberty in
conformity with reason. The Pope did not say that governments
cannot, in certain cases, tolerate different religions; but he did not
allow it to be established as a principle, that absolute toleration is an
obligation on all governments. This proposition is contrary to sound
religious doctrines, to reason, to the practice of all governments, in
all times and countries, and the good sense of mankind. The talent
and eloquence of the unfortunate author have not availed against
this, and the Pope has obtained the most solemn assent of all
sensible men of all creeds; while the man of genius, covering his
brow with the shades of obstinacy, has not feared to seize upon the
ignoble arms of sophistry. Unhappy genius! who scarcely preserves a
shadow of himself, who has folded up the splendid wings on which
he sailed through the azure sky, and now, like a bird of evil omen,
broods over the impure waters of a solitary lake.
Note 26, p. 219.
When speaking of the Spanish Inquisition, I do not undertake to
defend all its acts either in point of justice, or of the public
advantage. Without denying the peculiar circumstances in which this
institution was placed, I think that it would have done much better,
after the example of the Inquisition of Rome, to avoid as much as

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