Deeper Learning Dialogic Learning and Critical Thinking Research based Strategies for the Classroom 1st Edition Emmanuel Manalo
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- 5. ‘The book provides a roadmap for teachers who want to provide their students with the knowledge and skills they will need to thrive in the 21st century.’ - Allan Collins, Professor Emeritus of Learning Sciences, Northwestern University, US
- 7. DEEPER LEARNING, DIALOGIC LEARNING, AND CRITICAL THINKING Deeper learning, dialogic learning, and critical thinking are essential capabilities in the 21st-century environments we now operate. Apart from being important in themselves, they are also crucial in enabling the acquisition of many other 21st-century skills/capabilities such as problem solving, collaborative learning, innovation, information and media literacy, and so on. However, the majority of teachers in schools and instructors in higher education are inadequately prepared for the task of promoting deeper learning, dialogic learning, and critical think- ing in their students. This is despite the fact that there are educational researchers who are developing and evaluating strategies for such promotion. The problem is bridging the gap between the educational researchers’ work and what gets con- veyed to teachers and instructors as evidence-based, usable strategies. This book addresses that gap: in it, leading scholars from around the world describe strategies they have developed for successfully cultivating students’ capabilities for deeper learning and transfer of what they learn, dialogic learning and effective communication, and critical thought. They explore connections in the promotion of these capabilities, and they provide, in accessible form, research evidence demonstrating the efficacy of the strategies. They also discuss answers to the questions of how and why the strategies work. A seminal resource, this book creates tangible links between innovative edu- cational research and classroom teaching practices to address the all-important question of how we can realize our ideals for education in the 21st century. It is a must read for pre-service and in-service teachers, teacher educators and pro- fessional developers, and educational researchers who truly care that we deliver education that will prepare and serve students for life.
- 8. Emmanuel Manalo is a professor at the Graduate School of Education of Kyoto University in Japan.He teaches educational psychology and academic communica- tion skills to undergraduate and graduate students.His research interests include the promotion of effective learning and instructional strategies; diagram use for com- munication, problem solving, and thinking; and critical and other thinking skills.
- 9. Edited by Emmanuel Manalo DEEPER LEARNING, DIALOGIC LEARNING, AND CRITICAL THINKING Research-based Strategies for the Classroom
- 10. First published 2020 by Routledge 2 Park Square, Milton Park,Abingdon, Oxon OX14 4RN and by Routledge 52Vanderbilt Avenue, NewYork, NY 10017 Routledge is an imprint of theTaylor & Francis Group, an informa business © 2020 selection and editorial matter, Emmanuel Manalo; individual chapters, the contributors The right of Emmanuel Manalo to be identified as the author of the editorial material, and of the authors for their individual chapters, has been asserted in accordance with sections 77 and 78 of the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988. All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reprinted or reproduced or utilised in any form or by any electronic, mechanical, or other means, now known or hereafter invented, including photocopying and recording, or in any information storage or retrieval system, without permission in writing from the publishers. Trademark notice: Product or corporate names may be trademarks or registered trademarks, and are used only for identification and explanation without intent to infringe. British Library Cataloguing-in-Publication Data A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library Library of Cataloging-in-Publication Data A catalog record for this book has been requested ISBN: 978-0-367-33958-6 (hbk) ISBN: 978-0-367-26225-9 (pbk) ISBN: 978-0-429-32305-8 (ebk) Typeset in Bembo Std by Cenveo® Publisher Services
- 11. To my parents, Antero and Cecilia, for their constant love, support and encouragement
- 13. CONTENTS Acknowledgements xiii List of contributors xv Introduction: Establishing a case for sharing research-based instructional strategies1 Emmanuel Manalo PART 1 Structuring dialogue 15 1 The Playground of Ideas: Developing a structured approach to the Community of Inquiry for young children 17 Laura Kerslake 2 The ThinkingTogether approach to dialogic teaching 32 Neil Phillipson and RupertWegerif 3 Compare and Discuss to promote deeper learning 48 Bethany Rittle-Johnson, Jon R. Star, Kelley Durkin, and Abbey Loehr
- 14. x Contents PART 2 Facilitating meaning construction 65 4 Refining student thinking through scientific theory building 67 Hillary Swanson 5 Extending students’ communicative repertoires: A culture of inquiry perspective for reflexive learning 84 BethV .Yeager, Maria Lucia Castanheira, and Judith Green 6 Transforming classroom discourse as a resource for learning:Adapting interactional ethnography for teaching and learning 105 W . Douglas Baker PART 3 Cultivating questioning 121 7 Question Based Instruction (QBI) promotes learners’ abilities to ask more questions and express opinions during group discussions 123 Yoshinori Oyama andTomokoYagihashi 8 AugmentedWorld: A location-based question-generating platform as a means of promoting 21st-century skills 141 Shadi Asakle and Miri Barak 9 Effective ways to prepare for deeper learning of history 160 Keita Shinogaya PART 4 Promoting engagement and reflection 175 10 “Laughter is the best medicine”: Pedagogies of humor and joy that support critical thinking and communicative competence 177 Jean J. Ryoo
- 15. Contents xi 11 Improving college students’ critical thinking through the use of a story tool for self-regulated learning training 193 Pedro Rosário, José Carlos Núñez, Paula Magalhães, Sonia Fuentes, Cleidilene Magalhães, and Kyle Busing 12 Debugging as a context for fostering reflection on critical thinking and emotion 209 David DeLiema, Maggie Dahn,Virginia J. Flood, Ana Asuncion, Dor Abrahamson, Noel Enyedy, and Francis Steen PART 5 Training specific competencies 229 13 Showing what it looks like: Teaching students to use diagrams in problem solving, communication, and thinking 231 Emmanuel Manalo,Yuri Uesaka, Ouhao Chen, and Hiroaki Ayabe 14 Class design for developing presentation skills for graduate research students 247 EtsukoTanaka and Emmanuel Manalo 15 Online written argumentation: Internal dialogic features and classroom instruction 263 Naomi Rosedale, Stuart McNaughton, Rebecca Jesson, Tong Zhu, and Jacinta Oldehaver 16 Cultivating pre-service and in-service teachers’ abilities to deepen understanding and promote learning strategy use in pupils 279 Tatsushi Fukaya andYuri Uesaka PART 6 Program/course teaching 297 17 Cultivation of a critical thinking disposition and inquiry skills among high school students 299 Takashi Kusumi
- 16. xii Contents 18 Using task-based language teaching in the second language classroom: Developing global communication competencies 321 Chris Sheppard 19 Collective reasoning in elementary engineering education 339 Christine M. Cunningham and Gregory J. Kelly Index 356
- 17. This book has only been made possible because of the generous help of many people. I would like to sincerely thank the following colleagues who freely gave of their time and knowledge to read and provide constructive comments on the chapters during the review process. All chapters were double-blind peer reviewed, except for the two that I co-authored and the Introduction section (which were also peer reviewed, but not blind). Mohammad Javad Ahmadian, University of Leeds, UK Susan Carter, University of Auckland, New Zealand Monaliza Chian, University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong Ban Heng Choy, National Institute of Education, Singapore James E. Corter, Columbia University, USA Rachel Dryer, Australian Catholic University, Australia Hanna Dumont, DIPF/Leibniz Institute for Research and Information in Education, Germany Junya Fukuta, Shizuoka University, University Andrea Gomoll, Indiana University, USA Alexandria Hansen, California State University, Fresno, USA Huili Hong, Towson University, USA Takamichi Ito, Kyoto University of Education, Japan So-Hee Kim, Korea University, Korea Po Yuk Ko, Education University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong Masuo Koyasu, Konan University, Japan Chris Krägeloh, Auckland University of Technology, New Zealand Kristiina Kumpulainen, University of Helsinki, Finland Richard Lehrer, Vanderbilt University, USA Debora Lui, University of Pennsylvania, USA ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
- 18. xiv Acknowledgements Adam Maltese, Indiana University, USA Richard E. Mayer, University of California, Santa Barbara, USA Yasushi Michita, University of the Ryukyus, Japan Ai Mizokawa, Nagoya University, Japan Kou Murayama, University of Reading, UK Ryo Okada, Kagawa University, Japan Michael Paton, University of Sydney, Australia Helena Pedrosa-de-Jesus, University of Aveiro, Portugal Paula Pinto, Polytechnic Institute of Santarém, Portugal Alina Reznitskaya, Montclair State University, USA J. Elizabeth Richey, Carnegie Mellon University, USA Ronald Rinehart, University of Northern Iowa, USA Ryan Rish, State University of New York at Buffalo, USA Albert D. Ritzhaupt, University of Florida, USA Lisa Scharrer, Ruhr-University Bochum, Germany Déana Scipio, IslandWood, USA Robert Stebbins, University of Calgary, Canada Pat Strauss, Auckland University of Technology, New Zealand Jan T’Sas, University of Antwerp, Belgium Yuri Uesaka, University of Tokyo, Japan Stan van Ginkel, HU University of Applied Sciences Utrecht, Netherlands Amy Vetter, University of North Carolina at Greensboro, USA Abeer Watted, Technion, Israel Institute of Technology, Israel Ian A. G. Wilkinson, University of Auckland, New Zealand Emma Williams, University of Warwick, UK In addition to the above colleagues, I would like to thank Ayano Tsuda and Becki Paterson (Kyoto University, Japan) for carefully proofreading and check- ing the readability of all the chapters prior to submission. Thank you also to Agustina Yohena (Kyoto University, Japan) for assisting with the compilation of the index. The work I have undertaken in producing this book was supported by a grant-in-aid (15H01976) I received from the Japan Society for the Promotion of Science. Any opinions, findings, and conclusions or recommendations expressed in this book are those of the authors and do not necessarily reflect the views of the Japan Society for the Promotion of Science.
- 19. Dor Abrahamson, PhD, is a professor at the Graduate School of Education, University of California, Berkeley, where he directs the Embodied Design Research Laboratory. With training in cognitive psychology and the learning sciences, Abrahamson develops theory of mathematical cognition, teaching, and learning through engineering, implementing and evaluating pedagogical resources. Email: dor@berkeley.edu Shadi Asakle is a PhD student in the Faculty of Education in Science and Technology, Technion, Israel Institute of Technology. His doctoral dissertation is about promoting scientific thinking and motivation through situated, online, collaborative and interactive learning. Led by Asst. Prof. Miri Barak, Shadi developed AugmentedWorld, a collaborative, location-based, question-generating platform. He is currently Head of Software Department of Practical Engineering at Ort Braude College. Email: as.shadi@campus.technion.ac.il Ana Asuncion is a Learning Designer at 9 Dots, a Learning technology nonprofit organization in Los Angeles, California. Her interest is in transforming the classroom into a space where students are engaging in fun, rigorous problem solving through accessible computer science curriculum. Email: ana.asuncion@9dots.org Hiroaki Ayabe is a doctoral candidate at the Graduate School of Education of Kyoto University in Japan. His research examines the design and implementation of effective learning and instructional strategies, student diagram use, and cognitive load – from the perspectives of educational psychology and brain science. Email: ayabe.hiroaki.56c@st.kyoto-u.ac.jp CONTRIBUTORS
- 20. xvi Contributors W. Douglas Baker, PhD, is associate dean of the College of Arts Sciences and professor of English Education at Eastern Michigan University in the USA. His research adapts an ethnographic perspective to explore discourse processes and interactions in classrooms and other educational settings. Email: wbakerii@emich.edu Miri Barak, PhD, is a professor at the Faculty of Education in Science and Technology, Technion, Israel Institute of Technology. She is Head of the Science and Learning Technologies group, and her research involves the design and implementation of web-based environments for the advancement of 21st-century education. Her studies examine cognitive and sociocultural aspects of online learning and the constructs of innovative and flexible thinking. She is a principal investigator (PI) and co-PI of national and international projects on location- based learning and massive online open courses (MOOCs). Email: bmiriam@ technion.ac.il Kyle Busing, PhD, is the Director of Academic Innovation and Development at Schreiner University in the USA. His interest is in conducting and using research to develop and implement best practices to improve student learning, success, and retention. Email: jkbusing@schreiner.edu Maria Lucia Castanheira, PhD, is a professor in the School of Education, Federal University of Minas Gerais, Brazil. She is also a researcher in a literacy research center in the same institution, Centro de Alfabetização, Leitura e Escrita. Her research interests focus on the examination of literacy practices in and out of school and university. She is particularly interested in examining the social construction of opportunities for learning through exploring discourse analysis and interactional ethnographic approaches. Email: lalucia@fae.ufmg.br Ouhao Chen, PhD, is a lecturer/research scientist at the National Institute of Education, Nanyang Technological University in Singapore. He teaches primary mathematics and educational research skills to pre-service teachers and graduate students. His research interests include cognitive load, working memory, math education, and drawing to learn. Email: ouhao.chen@nie.edu.sg Christine M. Cunningham, PhD, is a professor of engineering and education at the Pennsylvania State University in the USA. Her work focuses on making engineering and science more relevant and understandable, especially for populations underrepresented and underserved in these disciplines. Her interest is in developing research-based curricular materials that foster equity and access and engage children with engineering and science knowledge and practices. Previously, Cunningham was the Founding Director of Engineering is Elementary (EiE). Email: ccunningham@psu.edu
- 21. Contributors xvii Maggie Dahn is a doctoral candidate in the Urban Schooling Division of UCLA’s Graduate School of Education Information Studies and a 2018 NAEd/Spencer Dissertation Fellow. Her research focuses on how students learn in and through the arts, and the development of voice and identity through art making. Email: maggiedahn@gmail.com David DeLiema, PhD, is a postdoctoral researcher at the University of California, Berkeley, where he studies collaborative storytelling about failure, specifically in the context of debugging computer code. His research also investigates play-based learning, viewpoint and spatial reasoning in gesture, and epistemic cognition. Email: deliema@berkeley.edu Kelley Durkin, PhD, is a research assistant professor in Teaching and Learning and in Psychology and Human Development at Vanderbilt University in Nashville, Tennessee, in the USA. Her research focuses on evaluating educational programs and how ideas from cognitive science and psychology can be applied in educational settings to improve learning. Email: kelley.durkin@vanderbilt.edu Noel Enyedy, PhD, is a professor at the Department of Teaching and Learning, Vanderbilt University’s Peabody College, where he studies how people learn through social interaction. In particular, he studies how mixed reality environments, play-based learning, and embodied learning spark conversations between students and support instructional conversations in productive ways. Email: noel.d.enyedy@vanderbilt.edu Virginia J. Flood is a PhD candidate in education at UC Berkeley and a 2018 NAEd/Spencer Dissertation Fellow. Her research investigates the role embodied meaning making resources like gesture play in technology-rich STEM learning environments. Email: flood@berkeley.edu Sonia Fuentes, PhD, is a postdoctoral researcher in self-regulation of learning in the Universidade do Minho, Portugal. She is also a trainer in cognitive mediation at ICELP (International Center for the Enhancement of Learning Potential) in Israel, Director and founder of the Center for Self-Regulated Studies of Mediated Learning, and professor and university researcher in educational psychology. Her research interests include learning strategies for effective and autonomous learning, cognitive mediation, critical thinking development, and promotion of self-regulated learning processes. Email: sofu2028@gmail.com Tatsushi Fukaya, PhD, is an associate professor at the Graduate School of Education of Hiroshima University in Japan. His research interests include metacognition and teacher education. He conducts practicing-based research such as cognitive counseling and explores how it could change teachers’ way of teaching students. Email: fukaya@hiroshima-u.ac.jp
- 22. xviii Contributors Judith Green, PhD, is Professor Emerita and Founding Director of the Center for Literacy and Learning in Networking Communities at the University of California, Santa Barbara, in the USA. Her research draws on theories of culture and learning from anthropology, sociolinguistics, and discourse studies to examine how linguistically, culturally, socially and academically diverse students socially and discursively construct knowledge and ways of learning in and across times in classrooms and community settings. Email: judithlgreen@me.com Rebecca Jesson, PhD, is Associate Director of the Woolf Fisher Research Centre, senior lecturer and Associate Head of School: Research, at the School of Curriculum and Pedagogy, Faculty of Education and Social Work at the University of Auckland in New Zealand. Her research interests involve applying theories of learning and teaching to achieve acceleration in literacy learning. Email: r.jesson@auckland.ac.nz Gregory J. Kelly, PhD, is senior associate dean and a distinguished professor of science education at the Pennsylvania State University in the USA. His research draws from history, philosophy, and sociology of science to study the construction of knowledge through discourse processes in educational settings. Recent work examines epistemic practices in science and engineering education. Email: gkelly@psu.edu Laura Kerslake is a researcher in the Faculty of Education, University of Cambridge, in the UK. Her research interests include Philosophy with Children, classroom dialogue and dialogic interaction. Recent work includes Theory of Teaching Thinking: International Perspectives (Routledge). Email: lsk30@cam.ac.uk Takashi Kusumi, PhD, is a professor at the Graduate School of Education of Kyoto University in Japan. He teaches cognitive and educational psychology. His research interests include the promotion of critical thinking, inquiry skills, multiple literacies, practical knowledge, and wisdom in school and the workplace. Email: kusumi.takashi.7u@kyoto-u.ac.jp Abbey Loehr, PhD, is a postdoctoral researcher in education at Washington University in St. Louis in the USA. She aims to understand and develop ways to support learning, primarily within academic domains such as mathematics. Her research examines how incorrect knowledge changes as people learn, and how misunderstandings affect the construction of correct knowledge. Email: abbey. loehr@wustl.edu Cleidilene Magalhães, PhD, is an associate professor in the Department of Education and Humanities of the Federal University of Health Sciences of Porto Alegre, Brazil. Her research interests include education and health promotion in formal and informal contexts, psycho-pedagogical support for college students,
- 23. Contributors xix teaching in health, and the training of teachers to promote critical thinking and student autonomy. Email: cleidilene.ufcspa@gmail.com Paula Magalhães, PhD, is a postdoctoral fellow at the School of Psychology at the University of Minho in Portugal. Her research interests include self- regulation of learning and academic procrastination among university students, the promotion of self-regulation strategies for health across the lifespan, and the use of gamification strategies and “serious games” in educational interventions. Email: pmagalhaes@psi.uminho.pt Emmanuel Manalo, PhD, is a professor at the Graduate School of Education of Kyoto University in Japan. He teaches educational psychology and academic communication skills to undergraduate and graduate students. His research interests include the promotion of effective learning and instructional strategies; diagram use for communication, problem solving, and thinking; and critical and other thinking skills. Email: manalo.emmanuel.3z@kyoto-u.ac.jp Stuart McNaughton, PhD, is Director of the Woolf Fisher Research Centre, Faculty of Education and Social Work at the University of Auckland, and Science Advisor to the Minister of Education, in New Zealand. His research work informs explanations of teaching, learning and development, and the design and evaluation of large-scale interventions in literacy and 21st-century skills. Email: s.mcnaughton@auckland.ac.nz José Carlos Núñez, PhD, is a full professor in the Departamento de Psicologia at Universidade de Oviedo, Spain. He is the Director of the Department of Psychology and one of the editors of the journal, Psicothema. His research interests include approaches to learning and learning strategies among secondary and university students. Email: josecarlosn@uniovi.es Jacinta Oldehaver is a PhD student and a professional teaching fellow at the Faculty of Education and Social Work at the University of Auckland in New Zealand. She is also a researcher/facilitator on the Developing in Digital Worlds project at the Woolf Fisher Research Centre. Jacinta’s doctoral research seeks to investigate patterns of “dialogic talk” in primary schools with high numbers of Pacific students in Aotearoa, New Zealand. Email: j.oldehaver@ auckland.ac.nz Yoshinori Oyama, PhD, is an associate professor in the Department of Education at Chiba University in Japan. He is in charge of teacher education for students training to become teachers in elementary through to high schools. His main research areas include teachers’ questioning skills training, and development of students’ questioning skills to enhance spontaneous use. Email: y_oyama@ chiba-u.jp
- 24. xx Contributors Neil Phillipson, DPhil, has 20 years of experience as a teacher, a consultant and a trainer. He is a Sapere-registered trainer in Philosophy for Children (P4C) and works closely with schools to develop their practice in P4C and dialogic teaching. He co-authored the book Dialogic Education: Mastering Core Concepts through Thinking Together with Rupert Wegerif and is a facilitator of international dialogues with Generation Global. Email: phillipson7@gmail.com Bethany Rittle-Johnson, PhD, is a professor in psychology and human development at Vanderbilt University, in Nashville, Tennessee, in the USA. Her research focuses on how people learn and how to improve their learning, especially in mathematics. She collaborates with teachers and educational researchers to apply and test her research in classroom settings. Email: b.rittle-johnson@vanderbilt.edu Pedro Rosário, PhD, is an associate professor with tenure in the Escola de Psicologia at the Universidade do Minho, Portugal. His research interests include students’ self-regulation of their learning and procrastination. Dr. Pedro runs projects to enhance self-regulation in Portugal, Brazil, and Chile. He is the Director of the Research Centre (CiPsi) at the Escola de Psicologia. Email: prosario@psi.uminho.pt Naomi Rosedale is a senior researcher on the Developing in Digital Worlds project and is in her final year of PhD studies at the Woolf Fisher Research Centre, Faculty of Education and Social Work at the University of Auckland in New Zealand. Her research examines school and wider community influences on students’ 21st-century skills in online digital contexts and student creation of digital learning objects. Email: n.rosedale@auckland.ac.nz Jean J. Ryoo, PhD, is the Director of Research of the Computer Science Equity Projects in Center X at the University of California, Los Angeles, in the USA. Her work focuses on building research-practice partnerships that support equity- oriented science and computing learning experiences/research valuing the wealth of knowledge and cultural backgrounds youth bring to the table. Email: jeanryoo@ucla.edu Chris Sheppard, PhD, is a professor at the Faculty of Science and Engineering at Waseda University in Tokyo, Japan. He teaches on an ESP (English for specific purposes) program designed to develop the academic communication skills of science and engineering students. His research interests are in task-based language teaching, curriculum design, and second language acquisition. Email: chris@waseda.jp Keita Shinogaya, PhD in education, is an associate professor in the College of Economics at Nihon University, Japan. He teaches educational psychology
- 25. Contributors xxi to undergraduate students who aspire to become school teachers. His main research interest is in developing and evaluating effective ways of connecting learning at home and at school to improve students’ self-regulated learning skills. Email: shinogaya.keita@nihon-u.ac.jp Jon R. Star, PhD, is a professor of education at the Harvard Graduate School of Education in the USA. Star is an educational psychologist who studies children’s learning of mathematics in middle and high school, particularly algebra. Star’s current research explores instructional and curricular interventions that may promote the development of mathematical understanding. Email: jon_star@ harvard.edu FrancisSteen,PhD,isanassociateprofessorattheDepartmentofCommunication, University of California, Los Angeles, where he studies how we learn from mass media. His research addresses how people use the multimodal information in mass media to form complex and integrated models of reality, using language, images, gesture, and emotion. Email: steen@comm.ucla.edu Hillary Swanson, PhD, is a research assistant professor of learning sciences in the School of Education and Social Policy at Northwestern University in the USA. Her research examines the productive role of prior knowledge in learning and how classroom science instruction can be designed to refine students’ everyday thinking through theory-building practices. Email: hillary.swanson@ northwestern.edu Etsuko Tanaka, PhD, is an assistant professor in the Doctoral Education Consortium of Nagoya University in Japan, where she contributes to fostering young professionals to becoming global leaders. Her research interests include class design for the development of interest in learning, and effective collaborative learning. Email: tanaka.etsuko@h.mbox.nagoya-u.ac.jp Yuri Uesaka, PhD, is an associate professor at the Center for Research and Development on Transition from Secondary to Higher Education, the University of Tokyo, Japan. Her interest is in using psychological approaches to develop effective instructional environments for enhancing the quality of student learning. She also participates in studies focused on practical applications of research in real school settings. Email: yuri.uesaka@ct.u-tokyo.ac.jp Rupert Wegerif, PhD, is professor of education at the University of Cambridge, where he teaches educational psychology. His research focuses on education for dialogue in the context of the Internet age. He researches dialogic theory in education and ways of teaching through dialogue and teaching for dialogue in classrooms with and without technology. He is co-lead with Sara Hennessy of the Cambridge Educational Dialogue Research group (CEDiR) and founder
- 26. xxii Contributors and co-convenor of the Educational Theory Special Interest Group of the European Association of Research on Learning and Instruction (EARLI). Email: rw583@cam.ac.uk Tomoko Yagihashi holds a bachelor’s degree in social welfare and has been an elementary school teacher for 26 years. She currently teaches at Chiba University’s Faculty of Education-affiliated elementary school, in Japan. Her main research area is ethics education through role-play and discussion. Beth V. Yeager, PhD, is a consultant with Rio School District in Oxnard, California, USA. She draws on an interactional ethnographic perspective to focus, at the nexus of research/practice, on practitioner inquiry, literacy, disciplinary practices and identities, and transdisciplinary inquiry-based instructional design, with/for linguistically, culturally, socially, and academically diverse students. She was a bilingual pre-K-6 teacher. She is retired as a researcher from California State University, East Bay, and University of California, Santa Barbara, where she was also Executive Director of the Center for Literacy and Learning in Networking Communities. Email: eyeager76@gmail.com Tong Zhu is a PhD student and a research fellow at the Woolf Fisher Research Centre, Faculty of Education and Social Work at the University of Auckland in New Zealand. His research interests include the analysis of hierarchical structured data (with particular application to New Zealand primary and secondary student achievement data), categorical data analysis, applied statistics, and data visualization. Email: t.zhu@auckland.ac.nz
- 27. Preamble As its title indicates, this book is about promoting deeper learning, dialogic learning, and critical thinking. Very briefly, “deeper learning” refers to pro- found (rather than superficial) understanding of knowledge, “dialogic learning” means learning through dialogue, and “critical thinking” pertains to careful and reflective thinking about what to believe or do. More detailed explanations of each of these will be provided later in this Introduction. Deeper learning, dialogic learning, and critical thinking can all be considered as being both processes (i.e., ways of achieving a particular goal or purpose) and outcomes (i.e., results or consequences of actions taken). For example, where crit- ical thinking is concerned, we can approach a task by taking the necessary steps to think critically about it (i.e., this is the process we follow), and the result of our effort can be described as critical thinking (i.e., the outcome we get, which in this case is the quality of our thinking). All three are also capabilities in that they refer to abilities to carry out certain processes and/or achieve certain outcomes (e.g., the ability to think critically). For the sake of simplicity, and to avoid poten- tial confusion as a consequence of using multiple descriptors, from here onward in this Introduction they will simply be referred to as capabilities. This Introduction will first describe the pressing challenge that is addressed in this book: that of providing education to meet some of the essential requirements of the 21st century. It will then explain these three capabilities, and why equip- ping teachers with the ability to promote them in their classrooms is particularly crucial in addressing that challenge. Finally, an outline of the structure of this book and the 19 chapters it contains will be provided. INTRODUCTION Establishing a case for sharing research-based instructional strategies Emmanuel Manalo
- 28. 2 Manalo The challenge addressed in this book We are now well into the 21st century, and by all accounts the provision of educa- tion should now be different compared to how it was provided in the previous cen- tury, during which it was usual for the teacher to stand in front of the class and tell students what they needed to learn, for the students to listen quietly and diligently learn from the teacher, and for the teacher to test students on their retention of what had been taught. Education should by now have evolved so that it is address- ing the requirements of learners in the current century’s fast-changing environ- ments, where information is ubiquitous (we no longer need to keep everything in our heads), and the many facets of technology have advanced and continue to advance in leaps and bounds. In those environments, the emphasis is no longer on how much people know but on how well they can acquire knowledge and use the knowledge they possess – especially in new and novel situations (e.g., Ananiadou Claro, 2009; Griffin, McGaw, Care, 2012). But has education really changed adequately to meet the current century’s requirements? The short answer to this question is “no.” Of course, there will be some exceptions, and most of us can probably think of at least a few examples of classrooms we have observed that would be “near enough” matches to how we might imagine education provision in the 21st century ought to be. (We might even conduct our own classrooms in such a manner.) However, for the vast majority of classrooms around the world, not a lot has changed. The blackboard might have been replaced by a whiteboard or even an electronic board/screen. A lecture management system might be used so that records are now stored electronically, and teachers and students can distribute/submit information (e.g., reading materials, lecture notes, assignments, opinions) online. But in most class- rooms around the world, the teacher still stands in front of the class to impart knowledge to students, who still by and large listen quietly so that they can learn what they need to know from the teacher, and the teacher tests the students’ ability to retain what they have been taught. The teacher may now empha- size to students the importance of understanding what they learn (something which had always been important, even prior to the 21st century, but which had previously been largely overlooked in favor of retention). But what teachers require students to do, and how they assess students, remains heavily focused on retention of information – whether it be to define and explain concepts (accord- ing to the teacher and/or the textbook), or to execute problem solving or some other procedure (again, according to the teacher and/or the textbook). As the US National Research Council’s Committee on Defining Deeper Learning and 21st Century Skills noted, “current educational policies and associated accountability systems rely on assessments that focus primarily on recall of facts and procedures, posing a challenge to wider teaching and learning of transferable 21st century competencies” (National Research Council, 2012, p. 11). “Understanding” in such assessment more or less equates to whether you can remember what you have been told or shown to learn (facts, procedures, etc.). The problem is that
- 29. Introduction 3 such “understanding” is far from adequate in terms of the knowledge, skills, and competencies that most people would need to successfully operate in the real world outside of school (i.e., at work, in personal life, in family and social situations, and so on). In fact, it is very unlikely that recall of much of those facts, definitions, explanations, and procedures that students have memorized at school would ever be required once they leave school – and yet, that is how most of our education systems continue to evaluate the achievement and merit of students. The question of why most systems of education delivery have changed little compared to how they were in much of the previous century is a pressing and important one. However, answering it is not easy – and it is outside of the scope of this book to consider this question in any extensive manner. Suffice it to say, there are many factors that conspire against change. It has been known for a long time that change generally causes people a lot of stress (e.g., Holmes Rahe, 1967; Rabkin Struening, 1976). So, irrespective of what the change is, it is bound to encounter some resistance in society, especially when the change required is of this magnitude. Andreas Schleicher, the OECD’s (Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development) Director of Education and Skills, expressed the view that it is difficult to implement the educational reforms required in the 21st century because there are many interests, beliefs, motivations, and fears of people involved in educational decision-making that act against them. This happens because the vast structure of established education providers entails extensive vested interests. If changes are made to the current systems, there would be many stakeholders who would lose some power or influence, and so they feel it neces- sary to protect the status quo (Schleicher, 2018). One crucial point that Schleicher (2018) made when considering the question of “what successful reform requires” is that capacity development is indispensa- ble. This means that we need to ensure that those who will be responsible for implementing the reforms – most importantly, the educational administrators and teachers – will actually have the required knowledge, skills, and resources for doing so. We cannot, for instance, expect teachers to modify their current approaches to teaching or to cultivate new sets of student capabilities if they lack the corresponding know-how and instructional resources. How teachers are provided with training and professional development is an area that requires attention. At present, much of pre-service and in-service training tends to focus almost exclusively on subject instruction (i.e., how to teach particu- lar subjects like math, science, English, history, and so on). While cultivation of subject/disciplinary knowledge remains an important component of 21st-century education (OECD, 2018), there are many other forms of knowledge, skills, capa- bilities, attitudes, and values that teachers need also to be able to cultivate and guide students toward development. For instance, we know that students need to develop effective learning strategies that will serve them not only while they are in school but also afterward, at work, as well as generally in their everyday life as self-regulated, lifelong learners. However, as Dunlosky (2013) observed, many students are not learning about such strategies, and one of the reasons he attributed
- 30. 4 Manalo this to was inadequacy in teacher knowledge about how to teach or cultivate such strategies in their students. While most pre-service teachers are introduced to the notion of effective learning strategies through their training and in educational psychology textbooks, the coverage of those strategies is usually minimal and insufficient. As Dunlosky noted, textbooks for example tend to leave out discus- sion of the most effective strategies, and they do not deal with the practicalities of how to actually teach students to use those strategies. The same problem concerning the instruction of effective learning strategies that Dunlosky (2013) identified applies to the development of the broad aims/objectives of 21st-century education, including the capabilities that the present book deals with. Pre-service teachers get introduced to concepts such as deeper learning, effec- tive communication1, and critical thinking in their training and textbooks, but they receive limited instruction or guidance on how to actually teach to promote their achievement. Like the educational psychology textbooks that Dunlosky referred to, most academic books dealing with 21st-century education contain the relevant theories and research about what such education needs to provide, but they rarely address the question of how we can actually teach to meet those requirements. Thus, most teachers for example would be well informed about critical thinking and its importance in modern societies, but would be limited in their ability to describe specific strategies they use – or could use – for cultivating critical thinking in their students. Part of the problem is that there is a widespread but erroneous belief that teachers already know how to teach to promote 21st-century skills and capabilities (Rotherham Willingham, 2010), so insufficient effort is being placed on ensur- ing that they would have the necessary professional development and instructional materials for such purposes. It should be noted here that “strategies” for promoting 21st-century skills and capabilities are actually not hard to find. There are many how-to books and other publications for teachers and students – both in print and online (e.g., on Internet websites) – focusing on the improvement of teaching and learning, and dealing with various aspects of 21st-century education. However, more often than not, such publications are written not by education experts but by pro- fessional education writers, and the strategies they describe are usually based only on common sense and intuition, the authors’ personal experiences, and/or their personal views and opinions about what teachers and/or students should do. Often, the strategies described have not been evaluated by research, and there is usually little or no evidence provided to demonstrate their effectiveness.2 At the same time, there are many educational researchers who are undertak- ing studies relating to the promotion of skills and capabilities considered impor- tant in 21st-century environments. However, they usually publish their findings in academic books and journals, using language and reporting formats that are largely inaccessible to the majority of classroom teachers. Hence, their valuable findings about effective strategies often fail to make their way into the read- ing lists of teachers and consequently the conduct of teaching in real classroom settings.
- 31. Introduction 5 Addressing the above problem is essentially the purpose of this book. In other words, this book is intended to contribute to bridging the gap or dis- connection between what educational researchers are finding in their studies and the guidance/materials being provided to teachers about the cultivation of crucial student capabilities. Although, as Schleicher (2018) pointed out, there are many hurdles that need to be overcome in order to achieve all the educa- tional reforms necessary, one aspect that educational researchers can directly address is making research-based strategies for promoting 21st-century skills and capabilities available to teachers. If research reveals that a particular form of instruction or intervention is effective, then teachers should know about it. Information needs to be shared with teachers in such a way that they would be able to understand the applicability (or otherwise) of the strategy to classrooms such as their own, and how they might be able to find out more should they wish to try using that strategy. Another important objective of this book is to convey the value of sharing strategies – so that we are learning from each other for the purposes of developing and enhancing classroom practices (i.e., educational researchers learning from each other, teachers learning from researchers, and researchers learning from teachers). We need to acknowledge that many researchers are working on devel- oping effective learning and instructional strategies, and that there is not going to be one “right” approach that would suit all teachers and students in all situa- tions: there are far too many factors that would influence what could be deemed suitable. Hence, instead of promoting only the strategies we favor, we should be alerting teachers to the range of potentially useful strategies that are available and educating them about how they can appropriately decide which strategy to use (e.g., based on the learning objectives and requirements of their classroom, avail- ability of resources, evidence for effectiveness, etc.). Furthermore, as education increasingly becomes global, it would likely be beneficial to consider not only strategies originating from places near us, but also from further afield, so that we are sharing with and learning from international – rather than just local – experts and practitioners in education. Deeper learning, dialogic learning, and critical thinking Deeper learning, dialogic learning, and critical thinking are by no means the only capabilities that are important in 21st-century environments, but they are being focused on here because they also play crucial roles in facilitating or ena- bling the acquisition of various other important capabilities (e.g., problem solving, collaborative learning, information and media literacy). Hence, they are not only important in themselves, but are also important for the sake of other processes and outcomes – as will be explained. The 19 chapters in this book describe research- based strategies that can be used to promote one or more of deeper learning, dialogic learning, and critical thinking, along with the other capabilities that are consequently also facilitated.
- 32. 6 Manalo Deeper learning Deeper learning, as noted earlier, refers to profound understanding of knowledge (including knowledge in particular domains) so that the person who is learning is able to grasp not only what that knowledge is (including its meanings and significance), but also how, why, and when that knowledge can be used. It incor- porates what Marton and Säljö (1976, p. 9) referred to as “deep-level processing,” during which the person manages to apprehend “what is signified (i.e., what the discourse is about).” It can be considered as the opposite of superficial learning, where the person can only recite, recall, or reproduce knowledge, but is not able to understand much more about it or how it can be used. Take the arithmetic operation of multiplication, for example. A person could memorize and recite multiplication tables without understanding much more about the process of multiplication itself: that would be learning about multipli- cation superficially. To more deeply learn about multiplication, the person needs to understand how multiplication is similar to addition, and how it is the inverse of division. He or she would be able to use the knowledge about multiplication not only to answer test questions in arithmetic at school, but also to solve prob- lems in other knowledge domains (e.g., statistics, science, geography) and in his or her everyday life – such as at home (e.g., when cooking) and at work (e.g., when planning and budgeting). Another example would be learning vocabulary in a foreign language. A person could just superficially learn by memorizing definitions and model sentences to pass school exams. But deeper learning would entail greater understanding about the words being learned, including how those words can be used to access knowledge and to communicate, with materials and in contexts that have never been encountered before. Important features of deeper learning include not only the abstraction of general principles, patterns, and rules, but also the apprehension of intercon- nections or relationships between various strands of knowledge, ideas, and infor- mation. Hence, the US National Research Council defined deeper learning as “the process through which an individual becomes capable of taking what has been learned in one situation and applying it to new situations (i.e., transfer)” (National Research Council, 2012, p. 5). This is an important definition as it provides us with one means for determining when deeper learning has occurred. Transfer is of course essential for most if not all of the skills and competencies that are generally deemed important in 21st-century education, including prob- lem solving, creativity and innovation, and all the intrapersonal (e.g., decision making, initiative and self-direction) and interpersonal (e.g., communication, collaboration) competencies (see, e.g., Ananiadou Claro, 2009). In fact, the National Research Council (2012, p. 8) concluded that “the process of deeper learning is essential for the development of transferable 21st Century competen- cies … and the application of 21st Century competencies in turn supports the process of deeper learning, in a recursive, mutually reinforcing cycle.” What this suggests is that to develop competencies like effective collaboration, deeper
- 33. Another Random Document on Scribd Without Any Related Topics
- 34. I An Frau Gertrud. m einsamsten Gemach meines Schlosses, unter der Wölbung des schmalen Fensters, sitzest du oft, Freundlichste unter meinen Toten. Über alles Zusammensein und Händehalten hinaus dauert noch deine unbegreifliche, gütige Gegenwart, wie eines Sternes, der verschollen ist und dessen Strahlen doch lange Zeiten noch zu uns reichen. Ich kann nicht mehr zählen, wie oft ich unter dem Himmel der Vita Nuova gewandelt bin. Ich kann nicht zählen, wie oft ich verzweifelte, ein anderes Bild deiner Erscheinung zu finden. Keine Schönheit, wenn nicht die jenes süssesten Gedichtes, ist dir zu vergleichen. Mir ist oft, als wärest du die gewesen, die einst an dem entrückten Dante vorüber ging, und wärest nur einmal noch über die Erde gewandelt, im Schatten meiner sehnsüchtigen Jugend. Dass ich dich mit leiblichen Augen gesehen habe, dass deine Hand in der meinen lag, dass dein leichter Schritt neben dem meinen über den Boden ging, ist das nicht eine Gnade der Überirdischen, ist das nicht eine segnende Hand auf meiner Stirn, ein Blick aus verklärten Augen, eine Pforte, die mir in das Reich der ewigen Schönheit geöffnet ward? In Schlafträumen sehe ich oft deine leibliche Gestalt und sehe die feingliedrigen, weissen Finger deiner adligen Hände auf die Tasten des Flügels gelegt. Oder ich sehe dich gegen Abend stehen, die Farbenwende des erblassenden Himmels betrachtend, mit den Augen, welche von der wunderbaren Kenntnis des Schönen voll tiefen Glanzes waren. Diese Augen haben mir unzählige Künstlerträume geweckt und gerichtet. Sie sind vielleicht das Unschätzbarste, was meinem Leben gegeben wurde, denn sie sind
- 35. Sterne der Schönheit und Wahrhaftigkeit, voll Güte und Strenge, unbetrüglich, richtend, bessernd und belohnend, Feinde und Rächer alles Unwerten, Unwesenhaften und Zufälligen. Sie geben Gesetze, sie prüfen, sie verurteilen, sie beglücken mit überschwenglichem Glück. Was ist Vorteil, was ist Gunst, was ist Ruhm und menschliches Lob ohne die Gewährung und das gnädige Leuchten dieser unbestechlichen Lichter! Der Tag ist laut und grausam, für Kinder und Krieger gerecht, und alles Tagleben ist vom Ungenügen durchtränkt. Ist nicht jeder eindämmernde Abend eine Heimkehr, eine geöffnete Thür, ein Hörbarwerden alles Ewigen? Du Wunderbare hast mich gelehrt, heimzukehren und mein Ohr den Stimmen der Ewigkeit zu öffnen. Du sagtest, als schon das letzte Thor bereit war vor dir die Flügel aufzuthun, zu mir die Worte: „Lass dir die Abende heilig sein und dränge ihr Schweigen nicht aus deiner Wohnung. Auch vergiss der Sterne nicht, denn sie sind die obersten Sinnbilder der Ewigkeit.“ Und ein andermal hast du gesagt: „Denke daran, auch wenn ich dir genommen bin, Frieden mit den Frauen zu halten, denn alle Geheimnisse stehen ihnen am nächsten.“ Seither habe ich mit niemandem solche Gespräche ohne Worte gehabt, wie mit Sternen und Frauen. In der Stunde, da wir unsre Freundschaft beschlossen, trat noch Einer zu uns, unsichtbar und unbegreiflich, ein Geist und Schutzgott. Mir ist, er habe unsichtbare Geberden eines Segnenden über mir gemacht, und jene Worte geredet; apparuit jam beatitudo vestra. Dieser ist seitdem bei mir geblieben und hat sich vielfältig oft an mir erwiesen, als ein Arm des Trostes, als ein Rätseldeuter, als Dritter eines Glückes. Oft war meine Hand zu Übereilungen hingeboten und er drängte sie zurück; oft war ich einer Schönheit vorübergegangen und er nötigte mich still zu stehen und zurückzublicken; oft wollte ich ein grünes Glück vom Ast brechen, und er riet mir: „Warte noch!“ Was versöhnlich und liebenswürdig ist, was holde Stimmen hat und tröstliche Bedeutungen, was selten, edel und von abgesonderter Schönheit ist, hat seitdem eine sichtbare Seite für mich und irgend
- 36. einen Weg zu meinen Sinnen. Die Ströme in der Nacht reden mir deutlicher, die Sterne können nicht mehr ohne mein Mitwissen auf- und niedersteigen. Dieser mein Tröster und unsichtbarer Dritter kam auch an einem Tage zu mir, da mein Herz den Takt verloren hatte und mein Auge zu erblinden schien. Er glättete meine Stirn, er lehnte zuweilen an mich und sagte mir etwas ins Ohr, er ging vorüber und drückte mir die Hand. Du aber lagest in lauter Theerosen gebettet, voller Friede, voller Verklärung, freundlich, aber ohne Lächeln. Du lagst und rührtest keine Hand, lagst und warst kalt und weiss. Diese Stunde erschien mir als eine unergründlich schwarze Nacht. Ich stand in dichter Finsternis und wusste nicht wo ich war, ohne Nähe und Ferne, wie von erloschenen Lichtern umgeben. Ich stand unbewegt und fühlte auf allen Seiten Abgründe neben mir offen, spürte nur meine ineinander gelegten Hände hart und kalt, und glaubte an kein Morgen mehr. Da stand der Tröster neben mir, umschlang mich mit festen Armen und bog mein Haupt zurück. Da sah ich im Zenith eines unsichtbaren Himmels inmitten der vollkommenen Finsternis einzig einen hellen, milden, strahlenlosen Stern von seliger Schönheit stehen. Als ich diesen sah, musste ich eines Abendes gedenken, an dem ich mit dir im Walde ging. Ich hatte meinen Arm um dich gelegt und plötzlich zog ich dich ganz an mich her und bedeckte dein ganzes Gesicht mit schnellen, durstigen Küssen. Da erschrakest du, drängtest mich ab und sahest wie verwandelt aus. Und sagtest: „Lass, Lieber! Ich bin dir nicht zu Umarmungen gegeben. Der Tag ist nicht fern, an dem du mich mit Händen und Lippen nicht mehr erreichen wirst. Aber dann kommt die Zeit, dass ich dir näher sein werde als heute und jemals.“ Diese Nähe überfiel mich plötzlich mit unendlicher Süssigkeit, wie ein völliges Aug in Auge, wie ein Kuss ohne Ende. Was ist alle Liebkosung gegen dieses namenlose Vereinigtsein! Auf Wanderungen durch die Orte, an denen wir beisammen waren, kam diese Wonne später noch manchmal über mich, schon lange Zeit nach deinem Tode. Einmal, als ich im Schwarzwalde
- 37. bergan durch einen dunklen Forst wanderte, sah ich deine helle Gestalt von der Höhe her mir entgegen gehen. Du kamst mit deinem alten Händewinken den Berg herab, begegnetest mir und warst verschwunden, während zugleich deine Gegenwart mein Inneres süss und tief erfüllte. Am häufigsten aber trittst du an den Himmel meiner Träume wie damals am Tag meiner grössten Finsternis, als der milde Stern der Gnade, voll seliger Schönheit. Am einen Abende, als Musik und lautes Gespräch dich bis in die letzten Gartenwege verfolgte, fand ich dich dort auf und nieder gehend, gab dir meinen Arm und begleitete dich. Da sagtest Du: „Wenn ich nicht mehr hier sein werde und wenn du selber einmal leiser geworden bist, wird vielleicht dieser vergehende Abend und mancher, der schon vergangen ist, dir gegenwärtiger und wirklicher sein als deine eigene Hand. Dann wirst du Mitternachts irgendwo in deinem Zimmer wach sein, vielleicht weit von hier. Vor deinen Fenstern aber wird die nahe Welt zurückweichen und du wirst glauben, diesen Weg und uns beide darauf wandeln zu sehen.“ Heute nun liegt dieser Abend vor mir, in die entfernte Musik mischen sich wieder unsere leisen Stimmen, dass ich nicht weiss, ob jener Abend oder der heutige wirklich und vom irdischen Monde erleuchtet ist.
- 38. M Notturno. ein Ross hält an, reckt den schönen Hals und wiehert in den Abend. Ich grüsse dich! Ich grüsse dich, meine Cederndunkle Zuflucht! Du Friedebringende, du Weltferne, Unberührte, mit dem schwarzen, kostbaren Gürtel! In einem tiefen, tagebreiten Cederwald liegt ein See und eine granitene Burg verschlossen. Ein Schloss für die Ewigkeit gebaut, kolossal und quaderfest, mit ungeheuren normännischen Ecktürmen, und mit einer einzigen Thüre. Diese öffnet sich auf eine Treppe aus breiten Quaderstufen, und die Treppe führt in den schwarzen, bodenlosen See. Der eisgraue Wächter hört und erkennt mein Ross. Er tritt bedächtig durch die eherne Thüre und über die grünlichen Stufen. Er löst das Königsboot von der schweren Kette und rudert lautlos mit einem Ruder über das spiegelschwarze Wasser. Er nimmt mich auf und steuert zurück. Wir legen das Boot wieder an die Kette mit den eisernen Viereckgliedern. Wir setzen uns auf die Schwelle der ehernen Thür. Das Wipfelflüstern wächst im Abendwind, die Dämmerung schleicht zwischen den Stämmen am Ufer hin. Der Wächter hat das Greisenhaupt auf beide harte Hände gestützt und dringt mit langen, ruhigen Blicken in den Abend. Vor uns liegen die vermoosenden Stufen und der unbewegte See, auf beiden Seiten steht die tausendjährige, hohe Wand des heiligen Waldes und schliesst gegenüber am fernen Seerande den dunklen Ring. Stunden fliegen auf unhörbaren Fittigen über uns hinweg. Jenseits des Wassers zittert über den Wipfeln ein kleines Licht herauf, hebt sich und wächst und beginnt hell zu leuchten, und löst sich schwebend als voller Mond vom Walde los. Von unserem Sitze
- 39. anhebend verbreitet sein Licht sich langsam über den See, bis die runde Wasserfläche ohne Schatten in reinem, tiefem Lichte schwimmt, unbewegt, wie ein unendlicher Spiegel. Mit unvermindertem Glanze blickt der silberne Mond aus der unergründlichen Tiefe. Der Wächter ruht mit unverwandtem Blick auf dem langsamen Wandel des Spiegelmonds. Sein Gesicht ist traurig, und ich fühle wohl, dass er mit mir reden möchte. Ich frage ihn, und ich dämpfe schnell meine Stimme zum Flüsterton, erschrocken über ihr Hallen in dem einsamen Waldrunde. Ich frage ihn: „Du bist traurig. Woran denkst du?“ Er wendet nicht den Blick, aber er senkt ein wenig das weisse Haupt und seufzt. Und sagt: „Vor tausend Jahren sass ich hier auf dieser Thürschwelle, und blickte über den nächtigen See. Dort aber, in der Mitte des Wassers, wo jetzt der Mond sich abmalt, schwamm ein Totenkahn und brannte steilauf in lohroten Flammen. Der ganze See war rot vom Widerschein des brennenden Nachens. Und der darin lag, war mein letzter König.“ Der Greis bedeckt sein Haupt mit dem Gewand. Nach einer Weile enthüllt er sich und hat noch Tropfen im Bart. Er erzählt: „Wenige Zeit danach stiess ich den letzten Leichenkahn von dieser Treppe brennend hinaus. Lag eine übermenschlich schöne, schneeblasse Dame in purpurnen Prachtkleidern darin. Meine letzte Königin.“ Der Cederwald rauscht tieftönig auf. Aus dem bodenlosen Wasser blickt traurig der runde Mond. „Diese hab’ ich geliebt“. — — „Seit allen vielen Jahren bewahrte ich das Schloss, und sass stille Abende lang auf meiner Treppe. Aber du weisst dies ja wohl, denn du hast mich ja mit Namen gerufen und bist der Einzige, der diese Zuflucht seit tausend Jahren betreten hat. Du hast ja auch die Schlüssel Ihrer Gemächer! Willst du eintreten?“ Wir schliessen hinter uns das Thor. Der Wächter nimmt die Fackel vom Ring und leuchtet mir die Treppen hinan. Ihr heimatliche, tausendjährige Treppen! Ihr bronzene Zierleuchter! Ihr Fliesengänge, in denen das Echo königlicher Schritte erwacht, wenn ich darüber trete! An der letzten Thüre bleibt der Wächter stehen, und bückt sich tief, und lässt mich allein. Ich trete in das alte
- 40. Zimmer, ich spüre den Gruss der vergangenen Zeiten, denselben, den ich schon als ein scheuer Knabe vor vielen Jahren hier verspürte. Gemach unserer letzten Königin! Scharlachene Teppiche, löwenköpfige hohe Sessel, goldnes und edelsteinenes Frauenspielwerk. Ein heidnischer Gott, eine Kriegsbeute, steht mitten im Gemach, hat ein goldenes Stirnband umgelegt und die kleine Harfe der Königin im Arme hängen. Das ist die Harfe, welche Nächte lang mit langen Klagtönen den See und die stillen Schwäne bezauberte! Das ist die Harfe, die den Gesang des blonden Mitternachtsbuhlen begleitete! Der rauschte in verwölkten Sturmnächten nass und blank aus dem zitternden See und trat durch die schlafenden Knechte, und kosete im dunklen scharlachenen Zimmer mit der Liebeskönigin. Der stiess das lange Schlangenschwert durch die fröhliche Brust des letzten Königs. Der küsste in einer brausenden Gewitternacht den Tod auf den roten, liebekundigen Mund der Königin. Die ebenholzene Harfe hängt im Arm des stillen Gottes. Ich betrachte lang ihre schlanke, fremde Form mit dem perlgezähnten, smaragdäugigen Drachenkopf, und die feinen Saiten, und atme die unermesslichen Schicksale und Leidenschaften einer vergangen unvergänglichen, übermächtigen Zeit. Das Fenster ist unverhängt; ich lege mich in das Gesimse. Treppe und See liegt unter mir. Der Wächter sitzt traurig auf seiner Stufe und sättigt sein Auge an der Seetiefe und bewahrt in seiner Eisenbrust das brandende Meer seiner unsterblichen Liebe. Wächter, See und Wald seit tausend Jahren ohne Tod und Zeit, zauberversunken, im Ring wachhaltender Jahrhunderte und darüber, ohne Tod und Zeit, der volle ruhige Mond. Jeder Atemzug ein Trunk aus dem unerschöpflichen Becher der Ewigkeit, jeder Herzschlag eine stille ungezählte Welle im Meer des Schweigens! Nahe erscheint auf dem Wasser, wie ein leuchtender Streif, eine weisse Helle. Bleibt stehen, schlägt mit Flügeln und ist ein grosser Schwan. Der Schwan rudert langsam fort. Fort und weit in den See hinein. Dort hält er an, ist kaum noch sichtbar, hebt sich wund und stolz, und sinkt in Grund. Ein süsser, wunder Ton kreist über Schloss und See, und ich weiss nicht, ist es ein Schwanenlied oder ein
- 41. erwachter Ton der schwarzen Liebesharfe. Der Wächter aber ist aufgestanden und blickt mit erhobenem Haupt entrückt und selig dem weissen Wunder nach, breitet beide Arme aus und steht noch lang, den süssen Ton im Ohr. Auch ich; und mich kühlt eine selig wohllaute Stille bis ins Herz. Der Wächter fragt mit einem Blick herauf. Ich nicke zu, verschliesse das Gemach der Königin und steige die breite Treppe nieder. Das Boot ist schon gelöst. Ich steige ein, und der Greis taucht das lautlose Ruder tief in die schwarze Flut.
- 42. E Der Traum vom Ährenfeld. inmal hab’ ich Dich schon geträumt, mein Traum vom Ährenfeld! Überflute mich wieder mit deinem rot und goldenen Leuchten! Tritt wieder über die Schwelle meiner Nacht und sei wieder der Vorbote eines neuen Glückes! Siehe, er tritt hervor, aus dem verschlossenen Garten meiner Frühe, dessen Luft voll Silbers und dessen Schatten voll Zukunft ist. Ich meine das Rauschen seiner Bäume zu vernehmen und den Geruch seiner Wiesen zu spüren; mein Heimweh sättigt sich an seiner Fülle, mein Auge verwandelt sich und ruht ungebrochenen Blicks auf den Frühlingen meiner frühesten Jugend. Der Traum wird mächtig und breitet ein gelbes Ährenfeld vor mir in sonnenheller Weite aus. Ein Ährenfeld in heller Sonne! Eine Flut gelbroter Farben, eine Fülle stetigen Lichtes, in der Tiefe rötlich verklärt, an den Rändern von Glanzwellen und rastlosen Wechselfarben lebendig! Ein endloser Anblick voll Ruhe und Genügen, ein Born des Glückes und der Schönheit, ein angehäufter Schatz alles Dessen, was urprächtig, unberührt, in sich beschlossen, und unwiederbringlich ist. Dieses alles senkt sich in mein Herz, findet alle leeren Kammern, füllt und füllt und fliesst über wie ein Strom aus einem tiefen See. Wie vermöchte ich zu sagen, was mein kindgewordenes Herz nun erfüllt, was mein Blut so milde erwärmt und mein Auge so offen, still und glänzend macht! Erfüllt und eins mit dem Licht der Sonne und des stillen Feldes kehrt mir Auge und Herz unter die Brüder meiner Kindheit zurück, zu dem wogenden Feld, zu dem reinen Himmel, zu den geschwisterlichen Bäumen, Bächen und Winden.
- 43. Ich grüsse euch, Brüder und Schwestern! Verzeihet, was in der Fremde geschehen ist! Ich war lange Zeit krank, mein Ohr und Auge reichte nimmer zu euch, mein innerster Grund war mir fremd geworden. Das in mir, was von Ewigkeit und Muttergeschenk ist, war in Ketten gelegt, sein schweres Atmen reichte nur in den stillsten Mitternächten noch zu mir herauf. Nun atmet es befreit, und atmet mit meiner Brust, und erschliesst alles in mir der entschleierten Gegenwart. Du leuchtendes Ährenfeld! Tränkst du mein Auge mit deiner ruhigen Klarheit, oder ist es das Licht meines Glückes, das aus meinem Auge überquellend dich glänzen macht und die Sonne entzündet? Reich und nehmend, bedürftig und austeilend, zweieins, süsser Kern eines ewigen Rätsels, so ist meine Liebe und deine. Wie bin ich befreit von allen Massen und Mittelpunkten! Wo ist noch Anfang oder Ende, wo ist noch Wille und Ziel, oder Ursprung und Brücke? Du leuchtendes Ährenfeld, bist du nicht ein Bild meiner befreiten Seele? Du und ich, beide in flutender Helle, beide reich an Unaussprechlichem, beide einander beschenkend, und beide sich neigend unter einer süssen Last? Hergestellt von W. Drugulin in Leipzig im Juni des Jahres 1899.
- 44. Anmerkungen zur Transkription Offensichtliche Fehler wurden unter Verwendung späterer Ausgaben korrigiert wie hier aufgeführt (vorher/nachher): ... Meine Arme nnd mein Hals waren von Rudern ... ... Meine Arme und mein Hals waren von Rudern ... ... „Ich weiss, sagte die Schönste, das war deine ... ... „Ich weiss,“ sagte die Schönste, „das war deine ... ... Nein. Aber die Leier ist Ariosts. Sie lächelte. ... ... „Nein. Aber die Leier ist Ariosts.“ Sie lächelte. ... ... In den gewundenen Spazierwagen des äusseren ... ... In den gewundenen Spazierwegen des äusseren ... ... sagtest Du: Wenn ich nicht mehr hier sein werde ... ... sagtest Du: „Wenn ich nicht mehr hier sein werde ...
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