Design, Implement and Analyse a Star-Based Mesh Network.

DESIGN, IMPLEMENT AND
ANALYSE A STAR – BASED MESH NETWORK
STEPHEN UDOCHUKWU CHUKWUEMEKA
A project report submitted in partial
fulfillment of the requirements for the awards
of degree the of Bachelors of Engineering (Hons) in
Electrical & Electronic Engineering (Communications)
UNIVERSITY OF EAST LONDON
APRIL 2013

Declaration
I hereby declare that this project entitle “Design, implement and analyse a Star-Based Mesh
Network” has been done by myself and no portion of the work contained in this report has
been submitted in support of any application for any other degree or qualification of this or
any other university or institute of higher learning.
I also declare that pursuant to the provisions of the Copyright Act 1987, I have not engaged in
any unauthorised act of copying or reproducing or attempt to copy / reproduce or cause to
copy / reproduce or permit the copying / reproducing or the sharing and / or downloading of
any copyrighted material or an attempt to do so whether by use of the University’s facilities
or outside networks / facilities whether in hard copy or soft copy format, of any material
protected under the provisions of sections 3 and 7 of the Act whether for payment or
otherwise save as specifically provided for therein. This shall include but not be limited to
any lecture notes, course packs, thesis, text books, exam questions, any works of authorship
fixed in any tangible medium of expression whether provided by the University or otherwise.
I hereby further declare that in the event of any infringement of the provisions of the Act
whether knowingly or unknowingly the University shall not be liable for the same in any
manner whatsoever and undertake to indemnify and keep indemnified the University against
all such claims and actions.
Signature: ________________________
Name: Stephen Udochukwu Chukwuemeka
Student ID: U1150228
Date: April 29, 2013.
Supervisor’s Signature: ________________________
Supervisor’s Name: Madam Chennaboina Kranthi Rekha
Date:
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Dedication
This thesis is dedicated to almighty God, in whom I live, move and have my being. I dedicate
this thesis to my beloved Father and hero; Ezinna. Sir, Engr. Stephen Chukwuemeka
Anyanwu (K.S.J), who is the first Engineer that I have ever known in life and for being my
constant source of inspiration. He always laid emphasis on the practical knowledge of
Engineering and he taught me that the best kind of knowledge to have is that which is learned
for its own sake. I dedicate this thesis to my beloved and ever caring Mother, and heroine;
Ezinne. Lady Monica Chinenye Anyanwu (Laux), who taught me that even the largest task,
can be accomplished if it is done - one step at a time, and for given me the drive and
discipline to tackle any task with enthusiasm and determination.
I also dedicate this thesis to my siblings; Daa Chinweuche, Daa Chinyeaka, Dee Chizitere,
Daa Chinagorom, Daa Nkechi, Daa Chioma and Dede Emma – my inlaws: Mr. Kelechi Jude
Nwachukwu, Mr. Faustinus Okezuonu Isiguzoro , Mr. Obioma and Mrs. Peggy Ijeoma
Chukwuemeka for their prayers, love and support. My gratitude goes to my uncle; Mr.
Nathaniel Ihekoromadu, who once told me that “humility is the root of all virtues” and was
always in touch with me during my studies.
My appreciation goes my relatives, aunties, cousins, nephews and my niece for their love and
prayers throughout the years of my Bachelor’s degree pursuit. My recognition also goes to all
my friends and well-wishers both those whom I know and those that are yet unknown.
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Acknowledgements
Special thanks to my supervisor Madam Chennaboina Kranthi Rekha who guided me during
this project - her motherly concern towards the success of this project was immense. Her
encouragements and advices gave me more confidence and revived me during the difficult
experiences of this project. I would also like to extend my candid gratitude to my assessor
Dr M. Kannan for his support and guidance.
I wouldn’t forget to extend my heartily appreciation to the Dean of the School of Electrical &
Electronic Engineering; Mr Arul for his suggestions, supports and advices during my studies.
I am indeed grateful.
I owe my deepest gratitude to the entire lecturers of the School of Electrical and Electronic
Engineering, who in one way or the other have impacted the practical and theoretical
knowledge of Engineering in me.
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Abstract
The target of my thesis is to design a Wireless Local Area Network (WLAN) by introducing
Personal Area Network “PAN-coordinator” (Router) whereby the synchronized gadgets are
wirelessly connected to the router in physical and logical network topology; additionally
sharing of information among the gadgets.
The router which is a mini-Wi-Fi source (steveshur19) allows gadgets to connect to it, after
its configuration under the “Legenda Education Group Wi-Fi” in as much as they possess its
access code (password). As regards this, the gadgets can have a sufficient network/internet
service from “steveshur19” Wi-Fi connection which possesses an efficiency of 2.4GHz
frequency band and transmits at a wireless speeds of up to 300Mbps (for wireless routing)
and supports 20kbps and 40kbps for 1 and 10 channels data transmission in star-based mesh
network.
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Table of Contents
CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION………………………………...........................................1
1.1 Background……………………………………………………………………………….2
1.2 List of Problem Statements……………………………………………………………….4
1.3 Aim………………………………………………………………………………………..5
1.4 Objectives…………………………………………………………………………………5
1.5 Scope of study.....................................................................................................................5
1.6 Reason for design……………………………………………………………………........7
1.7 Goal…………………………………………………………………………………….....8
1.8 Structure of Thesis…………………………………………………………………...........8
CHAPTER 2: LITERATURE REVIEW………………………………………………….10
2.1 Wireless Technology…………………………………………………………………...10
2.2 Networking……………...………………………………………………………...........15
2.3 Radio Propagation Model in NS-2 (Network Simulator-2)…………………….……...17
2.4 Application of IEEE 802.15.4 ……………………….…………………………….......27
2.4.1 Zigbee……………………………………………………………………….................27
2.5 Research methodology…………………………………………………….……...........29
CHAPTER 3: PROJECT DESCRIPTION ……………………………………………...30
3.1 General block diagram……………………………………………………………….....30
3.2 Hardware Diagram of star - based mesh network………………………………………31
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3.2.1 Multiple star network topology………………………………………………….........32
3.3 Flow Chart Diagram ……………………………………………………………………33
3.4 Conclusion………………………………………………………………………………33
CHAPTER 4: DESIGN IMPLEMENTATION…………………………..........................35
4.1 Router…………………………………………………………………………………..35
4.2 Functions of Router…………………………………………………………………….36
4.3 Types of Router ………………………………………………………………………..38
4.4 Routing Protocol
……………………………………………………………………....39
4.4.1 Various Types of Network Routing Protocols……………………………....………..39
4.5 Internet Protocol (IP)………………………………………………………………......42
4.6 IP Address and Subnet (Sub network)……………………………………………........43
4.7 Classes of Networks and their Addresses……………………………………………...45
4.8 Wireless LAN components and terminology………………………………………….46
4.8.1 Components of WLAN System.…………………………………………………........46
4.9 Network Connection of Computers Using Crossover Cable……………………….....49
4.10 Difference between Crossover and Straight through Cable Connection……………..52
4.10.1 Communication between Switches and Workstations………………………….........58
4.11 Internal Cable Structure and Colour Coding………………………………………....59
4.11a How to Wire Ethernet Patch Cables…………………………………………….........60
4.11b How to Wire Fixed Ethernet Cables………………………………………….…..…...61
4.12 Steps to Create a Wireless Local Area Network Topology………………………..….61
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4.12.1 The Interconnection of the Devices to the Router…………………...........................65
4.13 Bandwidth of the Proposed Network………………………………………………...70
4.13.1 The interconnection of the devices to the router on real term……………………….71
CHAPTER 5: SIMULATION RESULTS AND DISCUSSION………………………..72
5.1 Configuration of Router (Public)……………………………………………………...73
5.2.1 Step 1 (Turn-on Network Discovery/File Sharing)…………………............................74
5.2.2 Step 2 (Share the desired ‘folder’)……………………………………………….........77
5.2.3 Step 3 (View the shared folders in the connected computers within the network)........85
5.3 Analysis...
5.4 Network Organization Structure
5.4.1 Potential Network Users
5.4.2 Asses Impact of User Network Access
5.5 Prioritizing Needs And Goals
5.5.1 Business Goals
5.5.2 Technical Goals
5.6 Technical Requirements
5.6.1 List of Technical Requirements
5.6.2 Network Services, Applications and Estimated Traffic
5.6.3 Licensing
5.6.4 Internet Service Provider
5.7 Budgeting
5.8 Network Management
5.8.1 Benefits of Network Monitoring Tools
5.8.2 Simple Network Monitoring Protocol (SNMP)
5.8.3 Network Security Measures
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5.8.4 Physical Measures
5.9 Logical Network Design Diagram of a Corporation (Macs Electronics)
5.10 Physical Network Diagram of the Departments in Macs Electronics Corporation
5.11 Conclusion………………………………………………………………………….. 106
CHAPTER 6: CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS.....................................107
6.1 Conclusion…………………………………………………………………………........107
6.2 Recommendation ........................................................................................................... 107
REFERENCES
APPENDIX I
APPENDIX II
APPENDIX III
APPENDIX IV
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List of Figures
Figure 2.1: Protocol Stack
Figure 2.2: Super- frame Structure
Figure 2.3a: Two Ray ground model
Figure 2.3b: Two Ray ground model
Figure 2.5: Signals get diffracted and are attenuated due to obstacles
Figure 3.1: Block diagram
Figure 3.2: A typical diagram of star - based mesh network
Figure 3.3: Flow Chart
Figure 4.1: Typical picture of a router
Figure 4.2: T-568A Straight- Through Ethernet Cable 1
Figure 4.3: RJ-45 Crossover Ethernet Cable 1
Figure 4.4: Specimen of the internal look of an Ethernet cable
Figure 4.5: Showing a Star WLAN Topology
Figure 4.6a: IP Addresses and Subnet Masks configuration
Figure 4.6b: IP Addresses and Subnet Masks configuration
Figure 4.8: Interconnection of the PC's to the router
Figure 4.9: IP address configuration of PC's and interconnection on Cisco Packet Tracer.
Figure 4.10: File sharing between ten PC's on Cisco Packet Tracer
Figure 4.11: Multiple Transmission of messages from the router to the PC's
Figure 4.12: Single transmission of message from PC7 to PC9
Figure 4.13: Feedback signal/acknowledgement message on PC7
Figure 4.14: Real-time display of Star-based network and data sharing
Figure 5.1: Network transmission from router to PC’s
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Figure 5.2: No network transmission from router to PC’s
Figure 5.3: Network and Internet
Figure 5.4: Network and Sharing Centre
Figure 5.5: Change advanced sharing
Figure 5.6: Turn ON network discovery/file and printer sharing
Figure 5.7: Properties of file sharing
Figure 5.8: Pair sharing of folders
Figure 5.9: Allow folder to be shared to everyone
Figure 5.10: Grant permission to add everyone
Figure 5.11: Allow folder to be read and edited by everyone
Figure 5.12: Share folder to everyone
Figure 5.13: Folder has been shared
Figure 5.14: Advanced sharing of folder
Figure 5.15: Grant permission for folder to be shared in advanced way
Figure 5.16: Grant full control of the advanced folder sharing
Figure 5.17: Choose full control to advanced folder sharing
Figure 5.18: 'OK' to full control advanced folder sharing
Figure 5.19: Apply full control to advanced folder sharing
Figure 5.20: Complete full control advanced folder sharing and continuously share
Figure 5.21: Close all sharing
Figure 5.23: Delete browsing history and cookies
Figure 5.24: Organizational Structure Chart
Figure 5.25: Logical Network Diagrams of Macs Electronics
Figure 5.26: Physical diagram of the Engineering Department Sub-LAN
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Figure 5.27: Physical Diagram of the Business Department Sub-LAN
Figure 5.28: Physical Diagram of the Productions/Manufacturing Department Sub-LAN
Figure 5.29: Physical Diagram of the Quality & Control Department Sub-LAN
Figure 5.30: Physical Diagram of the Administrative Department Sub-LAN
Figure 5.31: UML Use Case Diagram of interaction in the network
Figure 5.32: A hierarchy of network users.
Figure 5.33: Interconnected relationship in Macs Electronics computer network
Figure 5.34: Functional Diagram of Macs Electronics communication network.
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List of Table
2.1 – Summary of the physical parameters
2.2 – Typical values of Path loss beta (β)
2.3 – Typical value of shadowing deviation in dB
2.4 – Subgroups of IEEE 802.11
4.1 – Showing the actual connection of hubs, switches, routers and PC’s on real-time.
4.2 – showing the IP addresses of the devices
5.1 – Applications and Bandwidth requirements
5.2 – Cost Analysis
5.3 – Benefit Analysis
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CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION
Smart environments represent the subsequently evolutionary advancement steps in
building utilities for industrial usage, home, shipboard, and transportation systems
automation. Like any sentient organism the smart environment relies first and
foremost on sensory data from the real world. Sensory data comes from multiple
sensors of diverse modalities in distributed locations.
The smart environment requires informative contents about its surroundings as well
as about its internal workings; this is captured in biological systems by the distinction
between exteroceptors and proprioceptors, (F.L. Lewis. 13, Oct, 2012).
The informative content required by smart environment is given by wireless sensor
networks, a sensor network is defined as a group of distributed sensors on any large
or a small scale to monitor physical or environmental conditions, such as
temperature, sound, vibration, force, movement or pollutants.
The development of wireless sensor network was moved by military applications for
example battle field surveillance. They are now utilized within many industrial and
civilian application areas, including industrial process monitoring and control,
machine health monitoring, environment and habitat monitoring, health care
applications, home automation, and traffic control, (Chris Townsend, 13, Oct, 2012).
Different wireless protocols were also considered. Applications such as
802.11Wireless Local Area Network (WLAN) are inappropriate with a redundant
data rate and high power consumption. Bluetooth protocol was introduced in 1994
for a low data rate to reduce cables for computers and mobile devices.
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The disadvantage of Bluetooth protocol is the limitation of number of nodes that can
be connected simultaneously (1 master & 7 slaves) and the high level of power
consumption.
A new implementation of wireless sensor network IEEE 802.15.4 and Zigbee
introduced in a year 2000 with a main concern of low-data rate control and sensor
applications in wireless networks.
Zigbee is predicated on IEEE 802.15.4 technological standard for low data rate in the
Industrial, Scientific and Medical (ISM) frequency band. Low data rate provided by
IEEE 802.15.4, allow communication among devices with consideration to very low
power consumption in use of battery supply. IEEE802.15.4 devices are appropriate
for home environment with a main topic of a low cost and low data rate, (Tobias, et
al. 12, Oct, 2012).
1.1 Background
The idea of this project is to analyze a multiple star-based mesh topology which
gives the concept of multiple PANs on different locations in a network and enable
data routing with less number of hops, each PAN has its own respective nodes and
every node is responsible to collect the data from the environment and send it to its
respective PAN coordinator and switch to other when required due to congestion, In-
order to make the design more real, an obstacle based environment is considered,
example – in a corporation like Macs Electronics.
Since, we have to be very much careful in case of result and have to work on
currently available resources; therefore we prefer to grind on a prominent network
simulator named Cisco Packet Tracer, Cisco Packet Tracer is an object oriented
discrete event simulator targeted at networking research and available as public
domain.
2

There are several reasons to work on a simulator instead of working with real nodes,
since it gives inexpensive, flexible and reconfigurable environment network
phenomena, opportunity to study a large scale network and an easier comparison of
result across research effort.
The main reason of selecting Cisco Packet Tracer is that it is a commonly used
network simulator in implementing most of the network protocols, and one can do
new protocols implementation very easily by using Cisco Packet Tracer. Research of
different protocols within WSN is compulsory to fulfill the demands, since a lot of
wireless protocol exists in the market.
To avoid an expansion of the thesis work with unessential information, a decision
was taken at an early stage to focus on a particular wireless protocol, relevant for
development of the system. The protocol which has been decided to work on is IEEE
802.15.4/Zigbee.
An itemized research endeavour is further displayed here for Macs Electronics, a
corporation specializing in the manufacturing and marketing of electronic products
such as: Power Transformers, AC/AC, AC/DC Adapters, Switching Power Supplies,
Battery Chargers (for Lead-acid batteries) among others and additionally sets out on
electrical equipment installations and training programs.
Established in 2012 and located in Kuala Lumpur Malaysia with staff strength of
over 24 and still expanding. This corporation aims at customer's satisfaction and is
working in association with numerous local and foreign corporations
A computer network infrastructure would benefit Macs Electronics hugely as
exceptional communication between employees can enhance proficiency emerging
from the simplicity in sharing information such as; common files, databases, business
and manufacturing application software over the computer network. Saves or even
eliminates the time to travel that may be needed between staff, suppliers and
customers to keep in touch.
3

A common access to a database avoids the same information being keyed multiple
times, which might squander time and could bring about blunders making staff better
equipped to manage inquiries and convey an improved standard of administration as
a result of sharing customer data.
All of which decreases expenses of running the corporation, with shared peripherals
such as; printers, scanners, external discs, tape drives and internet access with a
centralized network administration which would need less I.T support, (Business
Link, 2012).
The necessity for a feasible network cannot be over emphasized specifically in the
operation of an electronic corporation, with the perpetually expanding interest for e-
commerce. The network would achieve an increase in revenue and a decrease in the
expense of working together, (Jensen, 2007).
This is the primary destination of this design proposal, giving Macs Electronics a
network that runs fast and brings new innovative thoughts and studying apparatuses
to staff and increase the corporation's development in the process.
1.2 List of Problem Statements:
 Harsh weather conditions could obstruct the transmission of data and
thereby slow the entire performance of the star-based mesh network.
For instance; thunderstorm, rainy and lightning.
 Short timing schedule to implement this project in a broader and
supposed range.
4

1.3 Aim
 To design, implement and analyse a star-based mesh network for efficient
data transmission.
1.4 Objectives:
 To design a star-based mesh network for efficient data transmission using
Cisco Packet Tracer software and also to show it on real-time.
 To implement the data transmission by selecting a proper wireless router for
the electronic devices (gadgets).
 To test the efficiency of the 2.4GHz frequency band and wireless speeds of
up to 300Mbps (for wireless router) which supports 20kbps and 40kbps for 1
and 10 channels data transmission in star-based mesh network using
“Legenda Education Group” Wi-Fi or WLAN (Wireless Local Area
Network).
1.5 Scope of study
This is a new network design proposed to serve the industrial complex of Macs
Electronics comprising the manufacturing building, offices of the departmental
managers and staff. There are basically three buildings the Engineering building
where manufacturing is done as well as where the research and development labs are
located, the warehouse where finished products are kept before shipment, it has a
show room and sales centre and the last block has most of the offices in the company
for the various departments.
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Electronics digital communication with data, audio and video call is critical to
performing the day-to-day business functions of the company necessitating a well-
designed LAN/WAN, which involves the selection of appropriate devices to support
the network requirements to service the needs of the company in terms of computer
networking such as; LAN and WAN.
In Macs Electronics, computer networks like; LAN and WAN connectivity
infrastructure were taken into cognisance because they provide a secured wired and
wireless connectivity for an increasing number of IP devices like computers,
telephones, printers, PDAs, cash registers, inventory scanners and surveillance
cameras as well as a provision for a data center to enable file services, data
replication and collaboration.
Internet connection is highly required for web services for the staff and customers to
communicate with the company as well as guest internet access for partners or
customers at designated places. The provision of these connections leads to a set of
security, high performance, connectivity, reliability and availability challenges to
maintain an optimized, always on performance.
A hierarchical network design is considered which involves dividing the network
into discrete layers of core, distribution and access. Each layer provides specific
functions that define its role within the network. By separating various functions that
exist on a network, the network design becomes modular, facilitating scalability,
performance and compared to other network designs is easier to manage, expand and
solve problems for a company the size of Macs electronics.
These would be discussed in detail at the appropriate sections including the designed
Local Physical Network Diagrams, network management and monitoring
systems/software which relates to eminent security treats and issues and a well
detailed budget for the design.
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1.6 Reason for design
As there is no any specific topology made which can set out up on blockage,
accordingly in this project every bit of the work has been finished from the scratch
by acknowledging clogging in the system which make refractions and constriction in
indicators.
In an obstruction based earth, a mesh topology with a single pan-coordinator is not
an exceptional decision, on the grounds that the number of hops will get increment,
and a large portion of the nodes never work toward getting synchronized with a pan-
coordinator as a result of the transmission postponement or impediment amidst, thus
it has been gathered if different pan-coordinators are presented in the network, then
the nodes synchronization and expand in hop counts can be taken care of more
productively, (Radio propagation model in NS-2. 15, Oct, 2012)
In genuine, the gained power at certain separation is an irregular variable because of
multi-way spread impacts, which is otherwise called multi-path fading effect, the two
models in network simulator, two-ray ground reflection and free space expect the
mean gained power at a certain separation which is reputed to be a circle of
communication between source and target nodes, (Radio propagation model in NS-2.
15, Oct, 2012).
Basically it is difficult to mastermind numerous sensor nodes, for the reason that in
industry there are mostly a great deal of sensor nodes sent on numerous diverse
territories, consequently Cisco Packet Tracer network simulator has been chosen for
a simplicity of execution of star-based mesh network and to make impediments
based situation.
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1.7 Goal
The main goal is to implement a wireless multiple star-based mesh topology with an
uncomplicated maintenance. Avoidance of interference and possibilities for
reconfiguration of the system are to be concerned, also to obtain best possible
transmission rate with least number of hops in an industrial obstacle based
environment.
1.8 Structure of Thesis
Chapter 1 which starts from the introduction and the background is all about how
wireless network came about and how it has remained a very imperative means for
our day-to-day activity; which is communication. However, in this chapter, we are
meant to know that there are some problems which are faced in making sure that this
technology stays and remain strong.
In chapter 2, we are informed on a wider range of this technology, thereby giving us
a clearer view and broad thought of this technology. Furthermore, it has made us
notice that there are many aspects of this technology and that we must take
cognizance of them, in order to attain a maximum result of this project.
Chapter 3 explains the system description. It shows the systematic approach of
implementing this project. A flow chart is used to summarize the entire work of the
data/information flow of a star based mesh network.
In Chapter 4, there is a coherent performance analysis on the implementation of the
project design. In this chapter, we are exposed to the Cisco Packet Tracer software
simulation as well as its analysis – thereby bringing to our notice the movement of
network signals, together with information or data transmission from one node to the
other. Here, we could observe the movement of the packets, and the
acknowledgement which they send back to their source.
8

In this Cisco packet tracer software, there are ten computers which were connected to
one hub (router), thereby making them independent, and as such they can receive
network signals directly from the router; in this case we could justify this topology to
be a Star-based. The implementation of this project on Cisco Packet Tracer software
is indeed an educative platform and a stepping stone to its implementation and
performance in real-time.
Chapter 5 notifies us on the results that were gotten from the project simulation on
Cisco Packet Tracer software. In this chapter, we are able to observe the free flow of
data from one node to the other, as well as its feedback signal/acknowledgement
message returning to its source after transmitting to the destination. Here, we could
further express this in real-time by creating a folder and sharing it – thus, there will
be a recognition of computer “usernames” which will appear on each of the computer
screen, and that will give rise to a smooth data sharing, and doing so, all
acknowledgements will be seen on the screen of the computers that took part in the
data/folder sharing.
However, in real term there is network transmission from the wireless router to the
computers, which rise to internet connection and browsing.
Chapter 6 emphatically informs us on its ability to complete the given project based
on the aim and objectives outlined before – thus designing, implementing and
analyzing the performance of a star-based mesh network for efficient data
transmission using Cisco Packet Tracer software and showing it on real term.
9

CHAPTER 2
LITERATURE REVIEW
2.1 Wireless Technology
Wireless technology has some focal point over the wired technology on the premise
of expense viability, it urges client to set-up the system quickly; and prepare them to
assemble the qualified information where its hard or unfeasible for wired technology
or human to arrive at.
Expectedly, wireless networks are indigent upon a star topology in which all
junctions correspond straightforwardly with the network expert and in this way ought
to be inside immediate correspondence extent of the expert. Hinging on if end-to-end
transmission times are basic, this may be preference thinking about that with each
bounce a pocket navigates, some idleness is incorporated.
In any case, star topologies need both the issue-tolerance required for merciless or
snag mechanical based nature, and the ability to amplify the division of the
framework in enormous buildings or outside zone, (Wireless Sensors. 31, Oct, 2012).
For all yet the most inactivity-delicate requisitions, network topologies are broadly
viewed as prevalent. In a cross section topology, qualified information might be sent
from junction to junction until the recommended unalterable destination is gotten to.
Gave that specific transmission segments are for a short time out of reach,
informative data may be re-steered to a substitute way. This permits the formation of
excess wireless device network with the capability to self-recoup from single
purposes of disillusionment, which fundamentally extends on the whole
dependability, (Wireless Sensors. 31, Oct, 2012).
10

Using assumed crossover topologies -the mixture of star and network – clients can
pick up by the straightforwardness of the star topology while keeping up the
adaptability and flexibility of the cross section approach. Sensi-Net utilizes
controlled foundation units (Mesh Routers) which are dependably equipped to handle
network development.
This network building design furnishes the preference of interfere with based
informing, indicating that the system can immediately pass on memo since tracking
parts are enduringly equipped, unlike "full network" skeletons which are simply
primed for note taking care of when the system is "doled out" to wake up, (Wireless
Sensors. 31, Oct, 2012).
This structural engineering likewise forgoes the tendency of full mesh networks to
breakdown if a basic junction loses electric storage device control because of
considerable development and hence electric storage device channel.
Sensi-Net's controlled steering framework is additionally ensured from transitory
control interference by a ready electric storage device go down, evaluated to move
the gadget for some days, (Wireless Sensors. 31, Oct, 2012).
An IEEE 802.15.4, is a recently improved correspondence network configured for
low-rate wireless personal area network, it prepares low information rate, low-power
utilization, minimal effort remote organizing and offers a gadget-level connectivity.
IEEE 802.15.4 has been outlined as an adaptable network and is configurable to meet
additionally challenging pre-requisites it manages on a recurrence groups of 868
MHz for Europe, 915 MHz for USA and ISM (Industrial Scientific and Medical) 2.4
GHz, which is an unlicensed recurrence band utilized worldwide having an
information rate of 20 Kbps, 40 Kbps and 250 Kbps, supporting 1, 10 and 16
channels individually.
Some of the IEEE 802.15.4 significant qualities are clear channel appraisal (CCA),
transporter sense different access and crash evasion (CSMA/CA), held guaranteed
time space (GTS), it additionally incorporate link quality indicator (LQI) and energy
detection (ED).
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Two distinctive mechanism sorts can take part in IEEE 802.15.4 system; a full-
function device (FFD) and a reduced-function device (RFD). An FFD can work in
three modes as a Personal Access Network (PAN) organizer or a unit. An FFD can
chat with RFD’s or different FFD’s, while an RFD can converse with an FFD.
An RFD is planned for requisitions that are greatly straightforward, for example, a
light switch or a latent infrared sensor do not need to send substantial sums of
information because it could just take up lonely FFD around then.
Subsequently RFD could be accomplished by utilizing negligible assets and memory
limit. The easier layers of OSI are characterized in the standard; and the
collaboration with the upper layers are composed, conceivably utilizing an IEEE
802.2 consistent connection control sub layer entering the MAC by way of an union
sub layer (SSCS), the order stack of IEEE 802.15.4 is indicated in the figure 2.1
Figure 2.1: Protocol Stack, (IEEE802.15. 4, Feb, 2010).
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IEEE 802.15.4 gives an option for super-frame in the beacon enabled mode, it has an
active portion and an inactive portion and the whole super frame is bounded by
beacons, total there are 16 slots, divided into contention access period and contention
free period all the slots in super-frame are configurable, the length of super-frame
can be analyzed by Beacon interval (BI) and by super frame duration (SD)
BI = a Base super frame duration x 2 BO
SD = a Base super frame duration x 2 SO
Here,
a Base super frame duration = 960 symbols
BO = Beacon Order
SO = Super frame Order
Figure 2.2: Super- frame Structure, (Tobias, et al. 12, Oct, 2012).
The values of BO (Beacon Order) and SO (Super-frame Order) are define in the
coordinator, a slotted CSMA/CA mechanism is used for the channel access in the
13

beacon enabled mode and all the CAP transmission should be finished before the
starting of CFP. Data transfer can be classified into 3 different modes:
 Direct data transmission
- This data transfer mode has an association with all information exchanges,
either from a gadget to a coordinator, from a coordinator to a gadget, or
between two associates. Un-slotted CSMA-CA or slotted CSMA-CA is
utilized for information transmission, depending if non-signal empowered
mode or signal empowered mode is utilized, (Jian, et al. 28 Oct, 2012).
 Indirect data transmission
- This data transfer mode just has an association with information exchange
from a coordinator to its gadgets. In this mode, an information frame is kept
in a transaction record by the organizer, sitting tight for extraction by the
relating unit. A gadget can discover in the event that it has a parcel pending in
the transaction record by checking the signal edges appropriated from its
coordinator.
- Once in a while, roundabout information transmission can moreover happen
in non-reference point empowered mode. Case in point, throughout an
affiliation strategy, the coordinator keeps the acquaintanceship reaction
outline in its transaction record and the apparatus surveys and extricates the
companionship reaction outline. Un-slotted CSMA-CA or slotted CSMA-CA
is utilized within the information extraction technique, (Jian, et al. 28 Oct,
2012).
14

 GTS data transmission
- This data transfer mode only applies to data transfer between a device and its
coordinator, either from device to the coordinator or from coordinator to the
device. No CSMA-CA is needed in GTS data transmission, (Jian, et al. 28
Oct, 2012).
2.2 Networking
Network topology is the arrangement of the various elements (links, nodes, et
cetera.) of a computer or biological network. Basically, it is the topological structure
of a network, and may be portrayed physically or logically. Physical topology refers
to the placement of the network's various elements, including device location and
cable installation, while logical topology shows how data flows within a network,
despite its physical design.
Distances between nodes, physical interconnections, transmission rates, and or signal
types may differ between two networks, yet their topologies may be similar,
(Network topology. 28 Oct, 2012).
A good example is a local area network (LAN): Any given node in the LAN has one
or more physical links to other devices in the network; graphically mapping these
links results in a geometric shape that can be used to describe the physical topology
of the network. Conversely, mapping the information flow between the elements
determines the logical topology of the network.
There are two basic categories of network topologies:
15

1. Physical topologies
2. Logical topologies
The shape of the cabling layout used to link devices is called the physical topology of
the network. This refers to the layout of cabling, the locations of nodes, and the
interconnections between the nodes and the cabling. The physical topology of a
network is determined by the capabilities of the network access devices and media,
the level of control or fault tolerance desired, and the cost associated with cabling or
telecommunications circuits, (Network topology. 28 Oct, 2012).
The logical topology, in contrast, is the way that the signals act on the network
media, or the way that the data passes through the network from one device to the
next without regard to the physical interconnection of the devices.
A network's logical topology is not necessarily the same as its physical topology. For
example, the original twisted pair Ethernet using repeater hubs was a logical bus
topology with a physical star topology layout. Token Ring is a logical ring topology,
but is wired a physical star from the Media Access Unit, (Network topology. 28 Oct,
2012).
The logical classification of network topologies generally follows the same
classifications as those in the physical classifications of network topologies but
describes the path that the data takes between nodes being used as opposed to the
actual physical connections between nodes.
The logical topologies are generally determined by network protocols as opposed to
being determined by the physical layout of cables, wires, and network devices or by
the flow of the electrical signals, although in many cases the paths that the electrical
signals take between nodes may closely match the logical flow of data, hence the
convention of using the terms logical topology and signal topology interchangeably,
(Network topology. 28 Oct, 2012)
16

Logical topologies are often closely associated with Media Access Control methods
and protocols. Logical topologies are able to be dynamically reconfigured by special
types of equipment such as routers and switches.
The study of network topology recognizes eight basic topologies:
 Point-to-point
 Bus
 Star
 Ring or circular
 Mesh
 Tree
 Hybrid
 Daisy chain, (Network topology. 28 Oct, 2012).
2.3 Radio Propagation Model in NS-2 (Network Simulator-2)
In order to make the scenarios near to practical implementation; there are three
models for the radio propagations that would be introduced, each of them has its own
significance they are used to analyze the condition of network data transmission and
reception of data packets , the types of radio propagation models are defined below.
i) Free Space model
ii) Two ray ground reflection
iii) Shadowing model
17

Normally the above stated propagation model are used to predict the signal power in
NS-2 (network simulator 2); in every node at a physical layer there is a threshold
level defined for every node; if the receiving packet is greater than the threshold
level then it is accepted, otherwise it will be dropped with a particular reason defined
on it at a flag field, which can be easily seen in the trace-file, drop analysis will be
done in later sections.
Free Space Model
It is a basic model which provide line of sight (LOS) based communication
between transmitter and receiver and draws an imaginary circle of range, and
device which goes out of that particular circle lost its communication and
starts losing the packets,
Two-ray ground reflection model
A single line-of-sight path between two mobile nodes is seldom the only
means of propagation. The two-ray ground reflection model considers both
the direct path and a ground reflection path.
Pr (d) = Pt*Gt*Gr*ht2*
hr2
/ d4*
L ----------------> (2.1)
18

Figure 2.3a - Two Ray ground model
Here;
Pr: Power receives at distance “d”.
Pt.: Transmitted signal power.
Gt: Transmitter Gain.
Ht: Transmitter Antenna Height.
Hr: Receiver Antenna Height.
L: Path-Loss
The above equation (2.1) shows a faster power loss than equation (2.2) as
distance “d” increases. However, the two-ray model does not give a good
result for a short distance due to the oscillation caused by the constructive and
destructive combination of the two rays. Instead, the free space model is still
used when‘d’ is small. Therefore, a cross-over distance dc is calculated in this
model. When d < dc, equation (2.2) is used. When d > dc, equation (2.1) is
used. At the cross-over distance, equation (2.2) and (2.1) give the same result.
So dc is;
dc = (4*pi*ht*hr)/ --------------------------------> (2.2)
19

Figure 2.3b-Two Ray ground model
A simulation is carried out with this scenario where the nodes are placed at an
equidistant position from the coordinator. It is assumed to be 10m (this value
is already set as a default in NS-2).
The physical parameters are summarized in the following table.
Table 2.1 – Summary of the physical parameters
PARAMETER VALUE
Radio Propagation model Two- Ray Ground
Antenna Type Omni-Antenna
Transmitter gain in dB (Gt_) 1.0
Receiver in dB(Gr_) 1.0
Path Loss 2.030x10-6
Distance between nodes 10m
Height of the transmitter (ht) 0.03125m
Height of the receiver (hr) 0.03125m
20

Distance from transmitter 25m
The receive power can be calculated by using equation 2, as shown below
Pr (d) = Pt*Gt*Gr*ht2*
hr2
/ d4*
L
Pr (25m) = 3.07645 x 10-7
The test being conducted use ( /4) antenna for a 2.4 GHz, and the height of the
antenna can be calculated as follows;
Speed of light = Frequency (f) x Wavelength ( )
= 3x108
/2.4x109
=0.125m
Antenna Height= /4
=0.125/4
=0.03125m
But, in NS simulation the antenna height is produced as a set of coordinates,
projecting it in a three dimensional space. The Z coordinate would give the antenna
height over the ground. Hence for the NS simulations the coordinates of the antenna
are assumed as follows.
X_ = 0
Y_ = 0
Z_ = 0.03125 m
The above defined propagation model is implemented in ns-2, along with its
respective parameters and calculations and can be found in ~ns/ two ray ground.
21

Shadowing Model
The free space model and the two-ray model predict the received power as a
deterministic function of distance “d”. They both represent the
communication range as an ideal circle. In reality, the received power at
certain distance is a random variable due to multipath propagation effects,
which is also known as fading effects. In fact, the above two models predicts
the mean received power at distance “d”. A more general and widely-used
model is called the shadowing model.
A shadowing model consists of two different parts; the first part defines a
path loss model; this analyzes a mean received power at distance “d” defined
in equation (2.5) by Pr(d) it uses an initial distance (do) as a reference. Pr(d) is
calculated with reference to Pr(do) as follows in equation, (2.5).
Pr(dc) / Pr(d) = (d/do)β
------------------------> (2.5)
Here, β is the path loss exponent and usually empirically determine by field
measurement, β is usually derive by using equation (2.5) the larger the values
of β the more will be the obstacle in path and more faster will be decrease in
signal power at a larger distance , Pr(do) can also be computed from equation,
(2.1).
Table 2.2 - Typical values of Path loss beta (β)
Environment β (beta)
Outdoor Free Space 2
Shadowing Urban Area 2.7 to 5
In Building Line of sight 1.6 to 1.8
22

Obstructed 4 to 6
Table 2.3 - Typical value of shadowing deviation in dB
Environment Deviation in dB
Outdoor 4 to 12
Office, Hard partition 7
Office, Soft partition 9.6
Factory, line of sight 3 to 6
Factory, obstructed 6.8
The path-loss is measured in dB so the equation (2.6) becomes;
[Pr(d)/ Pr(do)]dB = - 10β log (d/do) -------------> (2.6)
The Second part of shadowing model defines the variation of the received
power at some distance, which is a random variable, and a Gaussian
distributed in dB. The shadowing model is represented by equation (2.7)
[Pr(d)/ Pr(do)]dB = - 10β log (d/do) + XdB------>(2.7)
In an above comparison X-dB is a Gaussian erratic variable with zero mean and
standard deviation 0dB (sigma). 0dB (sigma) is called the shadowing deviation, and
is likewise gotten by estimation. The table above demonstrates to some normal
qualities of (sigma).
It is to be noted that shadowing model acknowledge the way that the transmission
range of a transmitter may be different at two different areas relying on the deviation
qualities taken from the table above, which accelerates measure indicates that are
different than the normal worth computed by comparison (a) since it’s a static
23

shadowing model subsequently the indicator deviation is usually settled regarding
the table above.
Underneath is the chart which gives a thought of shadowing model, since it manages
the deterrent based situation in this way indicator constriction primarily happen and
moreover indicators moves toward getting diffracted.
Figure 2.5- Signals get diffracted and are attenuated due to obstacles
Shadowing propagation model is implemented in an ns-2 and can be found in
~ns/ shadowing.
Here a static shadowing model is being implemented which means that the
random attenuation factor will be relaxed for the random process which
includes anonymous motion of nodes (transmitter and receiver). In the next
section an implementation of shadowing will be defined in an OTcl script.
2.3 Wireless Network
A network is a series of point or nodes interconnected by communication paths for
the sole purpose of exchanging information. In networking cables, hubs, bridges,
switches, routers, et cetera are used. In wireless networking a wide range of devices
24

are used to access data from almost anywhere in the world. Data can be transferred
between computers, printers, cameras and other peripherals, (Behrouz, 2007).
Wireless networks have been classified into different types based on the range of
distances over which data can be transmitted. They are:
 WWANs (Wireless Wide Area Networks): Provides data transmission over
large geographical areas such as cities and countries. Its connections are
provided by public wireless service providers or through the use of private
networks.
 WMANs (Wireless Metropolitan Area Networks): It provides wireless
connectivity between multiple locations spread across a metropolitan area
ranging over several kilometers. For example; different branch offices of an
organization in a city.
 WPANs (Wireless Personal Area Networks): It enables network formation
within a personal operating space (POS) which ranges out more than 10
meters in distance, (Behrouz, 2007).
 WLANs (Wireless Local Area Networks): It provides users with wireless
connectivity with a local area ranging a few meters in distance. WLANs
reduce the amount of money spent and the stress of cable laying.
If devices like note pads and laptops are WLAN enabled, there is a possibility
of access to data while on the move. WLAN is configured to operate in two
different ways: Infrastructure WLAN and Ad hoc/ peer-to-peer (P2P)
network.
In an infrastructure WLAN a wireless enables computer can act as a bridge
providing a Network Access Point (NAP) between devices of two separate
LAN or WLAN. While an Ad hoc WLAN is a wireless network providing
25

connectivity to several users within a limited area, without the requirement of
any additional infrastructure such as NAP, (Behrouz, 2007).
 LAN (Local Area Network): It is a computer network that is designed for a
limited geographical area such as a building or a campus. The computing
market today is moving from Wired Local Area Network to Wireless Local
Area Network. Wireless communication is one of the fastest-growing
technologies.
Wireless LANs can be found in college campuses, in office buildings and in
many public areas. WLANs are data communication systems that can be used
for applications in which mobility is required.
They are designed to suit industrial, scientific, and medical radio bands.
WLAN has been developed by manufacturers to provide data rates of up to
54Mbps, (Behrouz, 2007).
For WLAN to be effective a committee was setup to take responsibility for WLAN
standards. This committee is known as IEEE 802.11 committee. As IEEE 802.11
committee is responsible for WLAN so also IEEE 802.16 is responsible for Wireless
Metropolitan Area Network (WMAN) standards.
The IEEE 802.11 standard for Wireless LANs defines two services: Basic Service
Set (BSS) and Extended Service Set (ESS), (Behrouz, 2007).
BSS is made up of stationary or mobile wireless stations and a central base station
known as the access point (AP) which is optional. The BSS with an AP is a stagnant
network, so it does not sent data over to other BSS’. The is called an Ad hoc
architecture, (Behrouz, 2007).
ESS is made up of two or more BSS’ with access points. The BSS’ are connected
through a distribution system which is normally a wired LAN. The distribution
system connects the access points in the BSS’, (Behrouz, 2007).
26

IEEE 802.11 has subgroups like; 802.11a, 802.11b, 802.11d, 802.11g, 802.11i,
802.11n.
Table 2.4 – Subgroups of IEEE 802.11
Subgroup Description
802.11a Has high speed physical layer in 5GHz band.
802.11b Physical layer extension speed of wireless in 2.4GHz band is
higher.
802.11d Used in local and metropolitan area.
802.11g Broadband wireless.
802.11i Has strong security feature.
802.11n Used in wideband service.
2.4 Application of IEEE 802.15.4
IEEE 802.15.4 provides the basis for Zigbee, each of them complete the networking
solution by developing upper layers, which are not covered by this standard.
2.4.1 Zigbee
Zigbee is a recently advanced remote methodology which constructs the higher
layers of correspondence stack regarded as OSI (Open Systems Interconnection),
utilizing the more level layers of IEEE 802.15.4 as a foundation which are planned
thinking about the components minimal effort and flat-power.
The aforementioned more level layers are termed as MAC and a PHY layer. It
manage on three working groups regarded as 868 MHz , 915 MHz and 2.4 GHz
having an information rate of 20 Kbps , 40 Kbps and 250 Kbps separately, a
27

percentage of the paramount quality of this order are, dependability , less-vigor
utilization because of flat information rate.
Zigbee innovation could be utilized within the sending of remote control and
screening provision on an expansive scale, its level-power quality permits the
utilization of electric cells to be utilized for longer essence.
This remote engineering is proposed to be less costly for W-PAN (Wireless Personal
Area Network) for example Bluetooth and Wi-Fi, Since Zigbee can actuate (from
doze to enact) in 15m/sec, and consequently the reaction time of Zigbee is
significantly more than the Bluetooth which is around 2 to 3 seconds, Zigbee can
doze the vast majority of the time, hence there is a less force utilization; which brings
about long electric storage device essence.
Zigbee has an AoDV (Ad-hoc on interest far off vector) tracking standard, which is
profoundly stable for cross section topology. Zigbee could be utilized within
different zones, including:
• Home awareness: Water sensors, power sensors, energy monitoring, smoke and
fire detectors, smart appliances and access sensors
• Home entertainment and control: Smart lighting, advanced temperature control,
safety and security, movies and music
• Mobile services: M-payment, m-monitoring and control, m-security and access
control, m-healthcare and tele-assist.
• Commercial buildings: Energy monitoring, HVAC, lighting, access control
• Industrial plants: Process control, asset management, environmental management,
energy management, industrial device control, machine-to-machine (M2M)
communication. It has two transmission modes; Beacon enabled mode and non-
beacon enabled mode.
In beacon enable transmission slotted CSMA/CA is used, nodes get sleep in the
beacon intervals by lowering their duty-cycle and extending the battery life.
28

In the non-beacon enable mode an un-slotted CSMA/CA is used in this mode the
sensor node continuously turned-on its receiver, this requires a robust power supply
indeed, in this kind of mode heterogeneous nodes are presented, some of them
continuously in a receive state and some of them waiting for an interrupt to be turned
on.
In general Zigbee protocol minimize the on time for radio such as turn on the
receiver of nodes only when there is a beacon generated by the node known as pan-
coordinator, and during the interval of next beacon generation the transceiver of the
node is turned-off and a lot of energy of a node can be saved; this makes it highly
energy efficient protocol.
2.5 Research methodology
A star based mesh network is arranged in a central structure with branches radiating
from it. These branches are the gadgets or electronic devices which are wirelessly
connected to the wireless router. In this project, we will find out that these gadgets
identify the wireless router through their access point.
The central point of the star-structure is called a concentrator (wireless router), in
which the plugs of all the cables from individual gadgets are connected either
wireless or wired. The wireless router usually acts as the central controller or
network server.
A star based mesh network has one major advantage over the peer-to-peer; when a
gadget is disconnected from the concentrator, the rest of the network continues
functioning unaffected – in other words, all gadgets connected in star based mesh
network operate independently so long as the central point or the concentrator
(wireless router) is working well.
The wireless router in this project will be configured to convert the signals coming in
to a wireless broadcast, to serve the gadgets that will be connected to it wirelessly.
29

CHAPTER 3
PROJECT DESCRIPTION
3.1 General block diagram
30

Figure 3.1- Block diagram
A Star Network Topology has been defined as the standard for horizontal cabling in
accordance with TIA/EIA-568-A. Star Network Topology calls for workstations to
be wired directly to a central equipment hub that establishes, maintains and breaks
connections between workstations. When a star network topology is used, it is much
easier to locate and isolate wiring problems.
3.2 Hardware Diagram of star - based mesh network
31

Figure 3.2- A typical diagram of star - based mesh network
3.2.1 Multiple star network topology
32

Wireless LAN technology in its current execution needs the nodes to be in the
vicinity of an access-point attached to the wired data network, the star topology is
vital join together with numerous access points spread across a building to ensure
wireless coverage; All the access points report back into the main star hub, where
server assets might dwell on the network as shown in the diagram above.
In this topology gadgets are connected to their own central device and form a star, if
any node get disconnected from its access point then it waits for the time to get
reconnected with the same hub or switch, this situation cause a lot of packet loss in
the network and isolate a particular disconnected gadget from the network for a very
long time; since there is no routing technique in this topology therefore the
disconnected gadget will never connect to other station (router).
3.3 Flow Chart Diagram
33

YES
YES
YES
NO
YES
NO
Figure 3.3: Flow Chart
3.4 Conclusion
34
START
Router Initialization (LAN)
Systems Initialization (A, B & C)
Package Data from router for
transmission to system A, B & C
Transmit Data
Collision detected in
system B? CSMA/CD
is introduced
Transmission complete
Wait
Failure to transmit data to
system A, B & C due to
harsh weather condition?
Transmission continues
Wait
End

The main topic of this thesis is to implement and perform analysis of a star based
mesh network, which can also work with the obstacle based harsh environment, and
the pan-coordinator should have to synchronize the devices even when the obstacle
can distract the transmission when nodes are oriented as a LOS (line of sight) or
NLOS (non-line of sight) with each other. With my research on this topic, the use of
a multiple based PAN coordinator is very important so as to withstand any obstacle
in signal transmission especially in an obstacle based environment.
CHAPTER 4
35

DESIGN IMPLEMENTATION
4.1 Router
A router is an electronic device that advances information parcels between computer
networks, making an overlay internet work. A router is joined with two or more
information lines from diverse destinations.
Any time an information packet goes in one of the lines, the router peruses the
location qualified data in the parcel to figure out its extreme objective. At that point,
it utilizes qualified information as a part of its routing table or routing policy, where
it controls the packets to the following system on its trip.
Routers perform the "traffic directing" roles on the Internet. An information parcel is
regularly sent from one router to a computer, through the network that constitutes the
internet work until it gets to its final destination.
The most commonplace sort of routers is home and modest office routers that
essentially pass information, for example pages, email, IM, and films between the
home computers and the Internet.
A case of a router might be the owner's cable or DSL modem, which joins with the
Internet through an ISP. More refined routers, for example undertaking routers,
interface huge business or ISP networks up to the effective center routers that send
information at rapid speed along the optical fiber lines of the Internet backbone.
Despite the fact that routers are regularly committed fittings mechanisms, utilization
of programming-based routers has developed in an every expanding degree normal,
(Router, 28 March 2013).
36

Figure 4.1- Typical picture of a router
4.2 Functions of router
Routers are complex devices that are used to connect two or more separate networks.
Typically they will have a number of physical interfaces to interconnect many
networks regardless of the technology or platform of the networks.
A router can work across different architectures, they work at the Network Layer and
use network addressing; IP (Internet Protocol) addresses are universal therefore a
Unix network can communicate with a Windows network.
A router will match packet headers to LAN segments and perform a best effort
delivery service. A router will work out the best way to send messages through other
routers.
37

WAN messages travel from point to point over long distances passing a number of
routing stations on the way. Each router will clean up the message and send it to the
next link; each of the links is known as a hop. The maximum life of a message is 255
hops; this may be less depending on the routing protocol. The buildup of routers on a
database of available routes and information about the routes is called a “routing
table”.
The routing table consists of at least three information fields:
i. The network ID: This is the destination subnet.
ii. Cost/ Metric: The cost or metric of the path through which the packet is to be
sent.
iii. Next Hop: The next hop or gateway is the address of the next station to which
the packet is to be sent on the way to its final destination.
Depending on the application and implementation, it can also contain additional
values that refine path selection:
iv. Quality of service associated with the route. For example, the U flag indicates
that an IP route is up.
v. Links to filtering criteria/access lists associated with the route.
vi. Interface: Such as eth0 for the first Ethernet card, eth1 for the second
Ethernet card, and et cetera.
Routing tables are also a key aspect of certain security operations, such as Unicast
Reverse Path Forwarding (URPF). In this technique, which has several variants, the
router also looks up in the routing table for the source address of the packet. If there
is no route back to the source address, the packet is assumed to be malformed or
involved in a network attack, and will be dropped, (F. Baker, et al. March, 2004).
38

4.3 Types of router
Static: Static routers need an administrator to manually set up and arrange the
routing table and to indicate every route.
Dynamic: Dynamic routers are designed to find routes programmed and hence need
a negligible product of setting up and configuration. More advanced than static
routers, they inspect informative content from different routers and make parcel-by-
parcel choices about how to send information over the system.
Routers correspond with one another to impart informative content about ready ways
and straightforwardly connected routes.
A Static route could be manually customized to make a routing table. This implies
that everything information will accompany the same route. This is otherwise called
non-adjustable routing. Every junction on the WAN has a fixed routing table. All
wires for a specific goal must take after a foreordained way this is handy for
confirming secure tracks.
In the event that a junction is broken, included or uprooted the tables will have to be
modified manually. This technique does not adapt well to unplanned occasions for
example breakdown or blockage in spite of the fact that it does use less router
processor overhead.
Most routers are dynamic with the ability of being statically designed.
Dynamic routers mechanically make alterable routing tables dependent upon the
information that is furnished from different routers. Dynamic routing is planned to
adapt to unplanned occasions. Routers react to updates in the network status via
mechanically redesigning the routing table, (Types of router, 16 May 2007).
39

4.4 ROUTING PROTOCOL
A routing protocol points out how routers speak with one another, spreading
qualified information that prepares them to select routes between any two junctions
on a machine system. Routing systems verify the particular decision of route.
Every router has a priori information just of systems connected to it
straightforwardly. A routing protocol imparts this informative data first near quick
neighbours, then afterward all through the system. Along these lines, routers expand
information of the topology of the system.
4.4.1 VARIOUS TYPES OF NETWORK ROUTING PROTOCOLS:
Routing information protocols (RIP)
RIP (Routing Information Protocol) is a mighty order sort utilized within local area
network and wide area network. RIP (Routing Information Protocol) sort is classified
inner part passage order inside the utilization of separation vector ordered system.
Routing information protocols characterized in 1988. It additionally has rendition 2
and these days both forms are in utilization. In fact it is out dated by progressively
refined methods for example (OSPF) and the OSI protocol IS-IS.
Interior gateway routing protocol (IGRP)
It is separation vector IGRP (Interior gateway routing Protocol) make-accept by
Cisco. Router utilized it to trade steering information inside an autonomous
40

framework. Interior gateway routing protocol made to some extent to thrashing the
restrictions RIP (Routing Information Protocol) in great arranges.
It administers different measurements for every track and in addition dependability,
MTU, delay load, and data transfer capacity. The greatest bounce of EIGRP is 255
and tracking redesigns are transmitting 90 seconds. It is measured in class steering
methodology, yet it is less prominent due to inefficient of IP address space.
Open shortest path first (OSPF)
Open Shortest Path First (OSPF) is an animated steering methodology utilized as a
part of web methodology. Absolutely it is a connection state steering methodology
and incorporates into the aggregation of interior gateway protocol. Open Shortest
Path First (OSPF) managing inside a unique self-governing framework. The
rendition 2 of Open Shortest Path First (OSPF) described in 1998 for IPv4 then the
OSPF form 3 in RFC 5340 in 2008. The Open Shortest Path First (OSPF) most
broadly utilized within the system of colossal business associations.
Exterior Gateway Protocol (EGP)
Indisputably the tracking methodology for web is exterior gateway protocol which is
specified in 1982 by Eric C. EGP (Exterior Gateway Protocol) at first communicated
in RFC827 and fittingly specified in RFC 904 in 1984.The Exterior Gateway
Protocol (EGP) is unlike separation vector and way vector methodology. It is a
topology much the same as tree.
41

Enhanced interior gateway routing protocol (EIGRP)
Enhanced Interior Gateway Routing Protocol (EIGRP) is dependent upon their new
IGRP while it is a Cisco exclusive tracking order. It is a separation-vector steering
methodology ahead of time inside the advancement to reduce both the steering
instability brought about after topology adjustment, in addition to the utilization of
data transmission and handling power in the router which underpin upgraded interior
gateway routing protocol will programmed re-allocate track informative data to
IGRP (Enhanced Interior Gateway Routing Protocol) neighbours by trading the 32
bit EIGRP (Enhanced Interior Gateway Routing Protocol) metric to the 24 digit
IGRP metric.
Ordinarily, improvement depends upon DUAL work from SRI which guarantees
circle liberates operation and offers a method for fast intersection.
Border Gateway Protocol (BGP)
Border Gateway Protocol (BGP) are the centre tracking order of the web and
dependable to look after a table of Internet order systems which sanction system
arriving at ability between AS. The Border Gateway Protocol (BGP) communicated
as way vector order. It doesn't utilize routine IGP measurements yet making tracking
judgment dependent upon way, arrange strategies.
It is made to trade the Exterior Gateway Protocol (EGP) steering methodology to
allow totally decentralized steering keeping in mind the end goal to allow the
evacuation of the NSF Net which agrees to web to transform into a verifiably
decentralized framework. The fourth form of Border Gateway Protocol (BGP) has
been in utilization since 1994 and 4th form from 2006. The 4 rendition RFC 4271
has numerous headlines for example it adjust a heaps of past mistakes, lighting up
shadowiness and carried the RFC much closer to industry rehearse.
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Intermediate System-to-Intermediate System (IS-IS)
Intermediate System-to-Intermediate System (IS-IS)is an incredible methodology
utilized by system apparatuses to verify the most ideal route to elevated datagram
from side to side a parcel switched system and this technique is called routing. It was
outlined in ISO/IEC 10589 2002 inside the OSI reference outline. Halfway
framework-to-transitional framework IS-IS) separate right around levels for example
level 1 and level 2. The tracking order might be updated without reaching the intra
zone tracking order.
4.5 INTERNET PROTOCOL (IP)
Internet Protocol (IP) indicates the configuration of parcels, likewise called
datagrams, and the tending to plan. Most networks consolidate IP with a more
elevated amount-protocol called Transmission Control Protocol (TCP), which builds
a virtual association between a destination and a source.
IP without anyone else present is something like the postal system. It permits you to
address a package and drop it in the system, however there's no straight connection
between you and the beneficiary. TCP/IP, moreover, secures an association between
two hosts for the purpose that they can send messages over and over again for a time
of time. The present form of IP is IPv4. Another adaptation, called IPv6 or IPng, is a
work in progress.
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4.6 IP ADDRESS ANDSUBNET (SUBNETWORK)
A subnet (another way to say "sub network") is an identifiably partitioned part of a
conglomeration's network. Ordinarily, a subnet may stand for every one of the
machines at one geographic area, in one assembling, or on the same Local Area
network (LAN). Having a conglomeration's network partitioned into subnets permits
it to be associated with the Internet with a single shared network address.
Without subnets, a conglomeration could get multiple connections with the Internet,
one for each of its physically discrete sub networks, yet this might need an
unnecessary utilization of the restrained number of network numbers the internet
needs to allot.
It might additionally need that Internet routing tables on gateways outside the
conglomeration might need to ponder and need to maintain routing that could and
ought to be taken care of inside a conglomeration.
The Internet is a gathering of networks whose clients speak with one another. Every
correspondence conveys the location of the source and end of the line systems and
the specific machine inside the network connected with the client or host computer at
every close. This location is called the IP location (Internet Protocol address).
This 32-bit IP address has two parts: one part recognizes the network (with the
network number) and the other part distinguishes the particular machine or host
inside the network (with the host number). A conglomeration can utilize a portion of
the bits as a part of the machine or host part of the location to recognize a particular
subnet. Viably, the IP location then holds three parts: the network number, the subnet
number, and the machine number.
The standard strategy for making and distinguishing subnets is furnished in Internet
Request for Comments 950.
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The 32-cycle IP location is regularly portrayed as a dot address (likewise called
dotted quad notation) -that is, four assemblies (or quads) of decimal numbers divided
by periods. Here's an illustration:
196.200.240.1
Each of the decimal numbers stands for a string of eight binary digits. Therefore, the
above IP address truly is this string of 0's and 1's:
10000010.00000101.00000101.00011001
As you can see, we embedded periods between every eight-digit arrangement about
as we did for the decimal form of the IP location. Clearly, the decimal form of the IP
location is simpler to peruse and that is the shape most normally utilized.
Some partition of the IP location acts for the network number or address and some
divide speaks for the local machine address (otherwise called the host number or
address). IP locations might be one of numerous classes, every figuring out what
number of bits stand for the network number and what number of stand for the host
number. The most regular class utilized by extensive conglomerations (Class C)
permits 24 bits for the system number and 24 for the host number. Utilizing the
above case, here's the means by which the IP location is partitioned:
<--Network address-->< --Host address--> 196.200.240.1
Depending on if you needed to add subnet to this location, then some parcel in this
illustrates eight bits of the host location could be utilized for a subnet address.
Consequently:
<--Network address-->< --Subnet address-->< --Host address--> 196.200.240.1
To re-order this demonstration, I have partitioned the subnet into a neat eight bits yet
a conglomeration could pick some other plan utilizing just part of the third quad or
even part of the fourth quad.
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Once a packet has landed at a conglomeration's gateway or connection point with its
interesting network number, it might be routed inside the conglomeration's inward
portals utilizing the subnet number. The router knows which bits to check out (and
which not to take a notice of) by taking a notice at a subnet mask, which is a screen
of numbers that lets you know which numbers to take a notice at underneath.
In a binary mask, a "1" over a number states "Look at the number underneath"; a "0"
states "Don't look." Using a mask recovers the router needing to handle the whole 32
digit address; it can essentially check out the bits chosen by the mask.
4.7 CLASSES OF NETWORKS AND THEIR ADDRESSES
Class A Network --binary address begin with 0, accordingly the decimal number
could be at whatever place from 1 to 126. The foremost 8 bits (the first octet) identify
the network and the remaining 24 bits show the host inside the network. An example
of a Class A, IP address is 102.168.212.226, where "102" identifies the network and
"168.212.226" identifies the host on that network.
Class B Network --binary addresses begin with 10, accordingly the decimal number
could be at whatever place from 128 to 191. (The number 127 is saved for loopback
and is utilized for inward testing on the local machine.) The first 16 bits (the first two
octets) recognize the network and the remaining 16 bits show the host inside the
network. An illustration of a Class B IP location is 168.212.226.204 where "168.212"
recognizes the network and "226.204" identifies the host on that network.
Class C Network --binary addresses begin with 110, accordingly the decimal
number could be at whatever place from 192 to 223, the foremost 24 bits (the first
three octets). A case of a Class C IP address is 200.168.212.226 where
"200.168.212" identifies the network and "226" identifies the host on that network.
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Class D Network --binary addresses begin with 1110, thus the decimal number
might be at whatever location from 224 to 239. Class D networks are utilized to
uphold multicasting.
Class E Network --binary addresses begin with 1111, thus the decimal number
might be at whatever location from 240 to 255. Class E systems are utilized for
experimentation. They have never been reported or used in a standard manner.
4.8 Wireless LAN Components and Terminology
Segments of a conventional WLAN network incorporate APs; network interface
cards (NICs) or client adapters, bridges, repeaters, and receiving wires. Additionally,
an authentication, authorization, and accounting (AAA) server (particularly a Remote
Address Dial-In User Service [RADIUS] server), network management system
(NMS), and "remote-mindful" switches and routers are thought about as a major
aspect of a venture WLAN system. Underneath represents WLAN segments in a
venture system structural planning. Note that just parts identified with constructing a
Cisco WLAN system are demarcated underneath.
4.8.1 Components of WLAN System
Access Point (AP): An AP manages inside a particular recurrence range and utilizes
an 802.11 standard tweak strategy. It moreover advises the remote customers of its
accessibility and verifies and partners remote customers to the remote system.
Moreover an AP directions the remote customers' utilization of wired assets. It ought
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to be noted that there are a few sorts of APs, incorporating single radio and numerous
radios, in view of diverse 802.11 advances.
NIC or Customer Connector: A computer or workstation utilizes a remote NIC or
customer connector to interface with the remote system. The NIC outputs the ready
recurrence range for connectivity and partners it to an AP or an additional remote
customer. The NIC is coupled to the computer or workstation operating system (OS)
utilizing a programming driver. Different customer connectors are ready from Cisco
and CCX outlets.
Span: Remote extensions are utilized to unite various LANs (both wired and
wireless) at the Media Access Control (MAC) layer level. Utilized as a part of
manufacturing-to-manufacturing wireless connections, wireless bridges can blanket
longer separations than APs. (The Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers
[IEEE] 802.11 standard defines one mile as the greatest scope run for an AP.)
Bridges are accessible for sending utilizing diverse 802.11 innovations.
Note
Presently, extensions are not demarcated in the 802.11 principles; henceforth, the
extensions don't manage on open norms. This means the bridges must be from the
same source as the WLAN framework.
Work Group Bridge (WGB): A workgroup bridge is a more diminutive-scale
connects that might be utilized to underpin a restricted number of wired customers.
Antenna: An antenna radiates the regulated sign through the air with the intention
that remote customers can gain it. Attributes of an antenna are demarcated by spread
design directional versus Omni-directional), expand, transmit control, et cetera.
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Antennas are wanted on the APs, bridges, and customers. The antenna requires not
be obvious whatsoever for instance, numerous PC producers construct the antenna
inside the LCD screen.
AAA Server: AAA aids are requested to secure a WLAN system. The AAA server
is utilized for both client and administrator confirmation in a WLAN system. It is
utilized for venture networks, not home WLANs. The AAA server might be utilized
to pass strategy for example virtual LAN (VLAN) and SSID for customers, to
concede distinctive levels of approval rights to authoritative clients, and to create
alert encryption keys for WLAN clients. Besides, bookkeeping headlines of an AAA
server could be utilized to track WLAN client actions.
Network Management System (NMS): The NMS is demanded to simplify the
unpredictability of organization and administration of expansive WLAN system. The
NMS might as well back firmware/software administration, setup administration,
exhibition inclining and reporting, and customer affiliation reporting proficiencies in
a WLAN system. Besides, extra abilities to operate the RF range and identify rebel
APs are wanted in an endeavour WLAN system. The NMS ought to be upheld by
other typical administration frameworks for syslog’s, traps, et cetera.
"Wireless-Aware" switches and routers: To scale and maintain WLAN networks,
mix between accepted WLAN components (for example APs, bridges, WGBs, and
WLAN customers) and wired system components (for example switches,
access/distribution switches, and routers) is furnished by Cisco. Roaming, system
administration, security, and extra utilities could be prepared on the wired base to
administer, scale, and furnish end-to-end security.
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Segments talked about in the previous record coordinate with one another to make a
finish-to-end system to prepare versatility in venture and vertical business sectors.
Note:
One source of perplexity in the WLAN world is that since the WLAN dominion
influences numerous diverse guidelines, the same substance is known by numerous
names in diverse gauges and determinations.
The customer connector is moreover called "STA" (station) or "supplicant" or "peer"
in a significant number of the measures. The right to gain entrance focus is otherwise
called a "network access server" or "system access server," on the grounds that it
gesture as the focus where the customer interfaces with the system. The AAA server
is otherwise called a "authentication server," "RADUIS server," or even "access
control server (ACS)."
4.9 Network Connection of Computers Using Crossover Cable
In the event that you need to interface two computers however you don't have access
to a network and can't set up an impromptu network, you can utilize an Ethernet
crossover to make an immediate cable connection.
Generally speaking, a crossover cable is developed by reversing ("crossover") the
request of the wires inside for the purpose that it can connect two computers directly.
A crossover cable looks practically precisely like a standard Ethernet cable (a
"straight-through" cable), so make sure you have a crossover cable before taking
after the aforementioned steps.
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When acquiring a crossover cable, check your network connector. Some latest
network connectors automatically "crossover" when they discover that they are
associated straight to an additional network connector utilizing a customary Ethernet
cable.
To connect two computers with a crossover cable:
 This works best if both computers are running this version of Windows.
 Plug every end of the crossover into a network port on the back of every
computer.
On one of the computers that is running this version of Windows, do this:
 Open Network and Sharing Centre by clicking the Start button, clicking
Control Panel, clicking Network and Internet, then afterward click Network
and Sharing Centre.
 In the network guide at the highest point of Network and Sharing Centre,
double-click the Un-identified network‍icon. (In the event that you have more
than one network, this icon will be named multiple networks.)
In the event that network discovery and file sharing are turned off in Network.
 Click the Information bar containing this note: "Network discovery and file
sharing are turned off. Network computers and devices are not noticeable.
 Click to change...," then afterward
 Click Turn on network discovery and file sharing.
 In the event that you are incited for an administrator password or affirmation,
type the password or provide affirmation.
In the Network discovery and file sharing dialog box, select one of this
alternatives:
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 No, make the network that I am connected to a private network.
 Yes, turn on network discovery and file sharing for all public networks.
The main alternative is for the most part the best decision in light of the fact that it
just influences the network that you are connected to.
Notes:
Networks made with crossover cables are automatically configured as "public place"
network, which implies that network discovery, file sharing, and printer sharing are
off by default.
For Gigabit Ethernet or token ring networks, you will require a slightly distinctive
sort of crossover cable. For additional qualified data, contact a cable manufacturer.
Icon for both computers may as well be noticeable now in the Network window.
Double-click every computer icon to share printers and other resources.
Note:
Provided that one of the computers is running Windows XP, it can move along at a
comfortable pace for that computer to show up in the Network window. You may
need to move both computers to the same workgroup. You can do that by changing
the workgroup on either computer. To change a workgroup, see Join or make a
workgroup. You may moreover need to turn on document and printer sharing on the
computer running Windows XP.
4.10 Difference between Crossover and Straight through Cable Connection
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They have a feature on lots of switches and hubs called "auto-mdix" or "auto
mdi/mdix", that is the new thing where it doesn’t matter what kind of cable you use,
it will just auto detect the proper connection type no matter which cable you use.
The cable can be categorized as Cat 5, Cat 5e, and Cat 6 UTP cable. Cat 5 UTP
(Unshielded Twisted Pair) cable can support 10/100 Mbps Ethernet network,
whereas Cat 5e and Cat 6 UTP cable can support Ethernet network running at
10/100/1000 Mbps. You might hear about Cat 3 UTP cable, it's not popular anymore
since it can only support 10 Mbps Ethernet network.
Straight and crossover cable can be Cat3, Cat 5, Cat 5e or Cat 6 UTP cable, the only
difference is each type will have different wire arrangement in the cable for serving
different purposes.
Ethernet network cables are straight and crossover cable. This Ethernet network
cable is made of 4 pair high performance cable that consists of twisted pair
conductors that used for data transmission. Both end of cable is called RJ45
(Registered Jack) connector.
There are two types of network cables commonly used in Computer networks -
Straight-through and Cross-over.
Straight-through Cable
Usually use straight-through cable to connect different type of devices. This type of
cable will be used most of the time and can be used to:
 Connect a computer to a switch/hub's normal port.
 Connect a computer to a cable/DSL modem's LAN port.
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 Connect a router's WAN port to a cable/DSL modem's LAN port.
 Connect a router's LAN port to a switch/hub's uplink port. (Normally used for
expanding network)
 Connect two switches/hubs with one of the switch/hub using an uplink port
and the other one using normal port.
If you need to check how straight cable looks like, it is easy. Both sides (side A and
side B) of cable have wire arrangement with the same colour.
Crossover Cable
Sometimes you will use crossover cable, it's usually used to connect same type of
devices. A crossover cable can be used to:
 Connect two computers directly.
 Connect a router's LAN port to a switch/hub's normal port. (Normally used
for expanding network)
 Connect two switches/hubs by using normal port in both switches/hubs.
If you need to check how crossover cable looks like, both sides (side A and side B)
of the cable have wire arrangement with following different colours.
This cable (either straight cable or cross cable) has total 8 wires (or we can say lines),
that is, four twisted pairs (4x2=8) with different colour codes. Right now just forget
about colour codes. It doesn’t matter what color is given to the cable (but there is a
standard).
Straight cable connectivity is as follows:
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RJ451 Connected to RJ452
Pin1<-----------------------------------------------> Pin1
Pin2<-----------------------------------------------> Pin2
Pin3<-----------------------------------------------> Pin3
Pin4<-----------------------------------------------> Pin4
Pin5<-----------------------------------------------> Pin5
Pin6<-----------------------------------------------> Pin6
Pin7<-----------------------------------------------> Pin7
Pin8<-----------------------------------------------> Pin8
Cross cable connectivity is as follows:
RJ451 Connected to RJ452
Pin1<-----------------------------------------------> Pin3
Pin2<-----------------------------------------------> Pin6
Pin3<-----------------------------------------------> Pin1
Pin4<-----------------------------------------------> Pin4
Pin5<-----------------------------------------------> Pin5
Pin6<-----------------------------------------------> Pin2
Pin7<-----------------------------------------------> Pin7
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Pin8<-----------------------------------------------> Pin8
Purpose of this cross cable is RX (receiving terminal) connects to TX (transmitting)
of one computer to another computer and vice versa.
As we use two computers (same devices), straight cable will connect TX to TX and
RX to RX of two computers, so cross cable is required. If you use HUB or switch,
then straight cable will work because it has internal arrangement like cross cable. So
note that use cross cable to connect two similar devices.
A straight-through cable will not work to connect two computers together.
Crossover used to connect to Computers directly together, also used for connecting
networking devices together like Switch to Switch etc.
Straight-through cables connect two different types of devices. Where-as crossover
cables connect two of the same type.
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Table 4.1 – Showing the actual connection of hubs, switches, routers and PC’s on
real-time.
COMPONENTS HUB SWITCH ROUTER WORKSTATION
HUB Crossover Crossover Straight Straight
SWITCH Crossover Crossover Straight Straight
ROUTER Straight Straight Crossover Crossover
WORKSTATION Straight Straight Crossover Crossover
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4.10.1 Communication between Switches and Workstations
When a workstation connects to a LAN, it transmits data independently of the other
devices connected to the LAN media. The workstation simply transmits data frames
from a NIC to the network medium.
If desired, the workstation can be attached directly to another workstation by using a
crossover cable. Crossover cables connect the following devices:
 Workstation to workstation
 Switch to switch
 Switch to hub
 Hub to hub
 Router to router
 Router to PC
Straight-through cables connect the following devices:
 Switch to router
 Switch to workstation or server
 Hub to workstation or server
Many modern switches now automatically adjust the port pin-out to support the
particular cable attached, whether it is a crossover or straight-through cable.
Switches, which are Layer 2 devices, use intelligence to learn the MAC addresses of
the devices that are attached to its ports. This data is entered into a switching table.
After the table is complete, the switch can read the destination MAC address of an
incoming data frame on a port and immediately forward it. Until a device transmits,
the switch does not know its MAC address.
Switches provide significant scalability on a network. Switches are normally
connected to each other by way of trunk links.
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4.11 Internal Cable Structure and Colour Coding
Inside the Ethernet cable, there are 8 color coded wires. These wires are twisted into
4 pairs of wires; each pair has a common color theme. One wire in the pair being a
solid or primarily solid colored wire and the other being a primarily white wire with
a colored stripe (Sometimes Ethernet cables won't have any color on the striped wire,
the only way to tell which is which is to check which wire it is twisted around).
Examples of the naming schemes used are: Orange (alternatively Orange/White) for
the solid coloured wire and White/Orange for the striped cable. The twists are
extremely important. They are there to counteract noise and interference. It is
important to wire according to a standard to get proper performance from the
Ethernet cable.
The TIA/EIA-568-A specifies two wiring standards for an 8-position modular
connector such as RJ45. The two wiring standards, T568A and T568B vary only in
the arrangement of the colored pairs. Tom writes to say "...sources suggest using
T568A cabling since T568B is the AT&T standard, but the US Government specifies
T568A since it matches USOC cabling for pairs 1 & 2, which allows it to work for
1/2 line phones...".
Your choice might be determined by the need to match existing wiring, jacks or
personal preference, but you should maintain consistency. I've shown both below for
straight through cabling and just T568B for crossover cabling.
Here is what the internals of the Ethernet cable look like:
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Figure 4.4: Specimen of the internal look of an Ethernet cable
4.11a How to wire Ethernet Patch Cables:
 Strip off about 2 inches of the Ethernet cable sheath.
 Untwist the pairs - don't untwist them beyond what you have exposed, the
more untwisted cable you have the worse the problems you can run into.
 Align the coloured wires according to the wiring diagrams above.
 Trim all the wires to the same length, about 1/2" to 3/4" left exposed from the
sheath.
 Insert the wires into the RJ45 plug - make sure each wire is fully inserted to
the front of the RJ45 plug and in the correct order. The sheath of the Ethernet
cable should extend into the plug by about 1/2" and will be held in place by
the crimp.
 Crimp the RJ45 plug with the crimper tool.
 Verify the wires ended up the right order and that the wires extend to the
front of the RJ45 plug and make good contact with the metal contacts in the
RJ45 plug
 Cut the Ethernet cable to length - make sure it is more than long enough for
your needs.
 Repeat the above steps for the second RJ45 plug.
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4.11b How to wire fixed Ethernet Cables:
 Run the full length of Ethernet cable in place, from endpoint to endpoint,
making sure to leave excess.
 At one end, cut the wire to length leaving enough length to work, but not too
much excess.
 Strip off about 2 inches of the Ethernet cable sheath.
 Align each of the colored wires according to the layout of the jack.
 Use the punch down tool to insert each wire into the jack.
 Repeat the above steps for the second RJ45 jack.
4.12 STEPS TO CREATE A WIRELESS LOCAL AREA NETWORK
TOPOLOGY
a) To select a network topology and design a WLAN using Cisco Packet Tracer.
To design a Wireless Local Area Network:
i. The cisco packet tracer software was installed in the laptop.
ii. The icon for the packet tracer was doubled clicked to open the cisco
tracer software.
iii. Components were selected, ten computers and a router.
iv. The network was interconnected with the router to form a WLAN
Star-based topology.
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Figure 4.5: Showing a Star WLAN Topology
b) Configuring IP Addresses and Subnet Masks on the Hosts
a. The software cisco packet tracer was opened; the components at
different nodes were selected.
b. Each of the device were clicked for a window menu as shown below
Figure 4.6a - IP Addresses and Subnet Masks configuration
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c. The menu configure was clicked to enable the window for the IP
configuration to appear
d. Click on the menu “fast Ethernet” was clicked to display the column for
the IP address and the subnet mask to display
e. The IP address menu was clicked and the IP address 196.200.240.1 was
assigned to the first computer.
f. Also, the subnet mask was assigned to the PC0, 255.255.255.0
Figure 4.6b - IP Addresses and Subnet Masks configuration
g. The same procedure was done for each of the component in the node as
shown in the table below:
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Table 4.2 - showing the IP addresses of the devices
Host IP Address Subnet Mask
PC0 196.200.240.1 255.255.255.0
PC1 196.200.240.2 255.255.255.0
PC2 196.200.240.3 255.255.255.0
PC3 196.200.240.4 255.255.255.0
PC4 196.200.240.5 255.255.255.0
PC5 196.200.240.6 255.255.255.0
PC6 196.200.240.7 255.255.255.0
PC7 196.200.240.8 255.255.255.0
PC8 196.200.240.9 255.255.255.0
PC9 196.200.240.10 255.255.255.0
ROUTER 196.200.240.11 255.255.255.0
c) Building the Topology – Connecting the Hosts to Wireless Router
a. The physical WLAN was set up as shown below
b. The set-up is based on star topology as the title of my thesis says, and it is
preferable when it comes to its cost efficiency and the management
capability.
c. The different devices were selected and placed in different nodes.
d. The connection diagram was made, to interconnect the devices and the
wireless router.
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4.12.1 The interconnection of the gadgets to the router is termed the Star
WLAN topology as shown below:
Figure 4.8- Interconnection of the PC’s to the router
a) Connection of multiple computers to a wireless router
Despite the title of my thesis, the computers with a server were
interconnected as shown below, using a star topology network because;
a. A star topology network is cheap
b. It is easy to maintain
c. It is simple
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Figure 4.9 – IP address configuration of PC’s and interconnection on Cisco Packet
Tracer.
The computer on each node was assigned an IP address and was interconnected as
shown in the figure above.
b) File sharing from PC0 to PC5, PC1 to PC2, PC4 to PC8, and PC7 to PC9
as shown below;
a) The messages from PC0 to PC5 and from PC5 to PC0 were transmitted
through the router at node 0 and node 5 respectively at different time
interval due to the protocol in the cisco packet tracer software.
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b) The first message has been transmitted to PC 5, the computers that do not
need the message will ignore the message due to wrong destination
address, only PC5 will accept the message while the second message will
pop out simultaneously likewise the other PC’s in the software, which
will follow accordingly.
c) The messages from PC1 to PC2 and from PC2 to PC1 were transmitted
d) The messages from PC4 to PC8 and from PC8 to PC4 were transmitted
Figure 4.10 – File sharing between ten PC’s on Cisco Packet Tracer
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Figure 4.11: Multiple Transmission of messages from the router to the PC’s
e) The messages from PC7 to PC9 and from PC9 to PC7 were transmitted
From my observation, since there were multiple data transmission and
they were transmitted simultaneously, after the end of the transmission in
the first PC – which gives way to the feedback message, the other PC’s
follow accordingly and at the end of the day, there will be a single
feedback or successful signal on the last PC.
Note:
The previous PC’s had a successful feedback signal (acknowledgement)
on the completion of their transmission.
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Figure 4.12: Single transmission of message from PC7 to PC9
Figure 4.13: Feedback signal/acknowledgement message on PC7
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f) The acknowledgement from PC9, PC8, PC2, and PC5 were sent at
different time interval to their various sources, which indicated that the
messages had been successfully delivered.
4.13 Bandwidth of the Proposed Network
In computer networks, bandwidth is often used as a synonym for data transfer rate -
the amount of data that can be carried from one point to another in a given time
period (usually a second). This kind of bandwidth is usually expressed in bits (of
data) per second (bps). Occasionally, it's expressed as bytes per second (Bps). The
wireless router in this project works for 300Mbps, which supports 20Kbps and
40Kbps for 1 and 10 channels data transmission.
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4.13.1 The interconnection of the devices to the router on real term/ data
sharing amongst the gadgets as shown below:
Figure 4.14: Real-time display of Star-based network and data sharing
As shown on the screen of the PC’s above, they are the usernames of each PC – as
such, data could be transferred or shared amongst the PC’s without stress due to the
ability of a PC to see another PC’s name on its wall (PC’s screen).
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CHAPTER 5
SIMULATION RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
a) Auto-capture/ Play of the Star WLAN topology. Below shows how the
network is been transmitted from the Router to the PC’s.
Figure 5.1: Network transmission from router to PC’s
Figure 5.2: No network transmission from router to PC’s
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b) A typical picture of the Star WLAN topology when it is at a static position (No
network is been transmitted).
5.1 CONFIGURATION OF ROUTER (Public)
Below are the steps to be considered in the configuration of a router:
a)
i. Go to the “Start” icon at the left bottom of your computer, click and
scroll up to “Control Panel”, click and move on to “Network and
Internet”.
ii. Go to “Network and Sharing Center”, click and move on to
iii. “Local Area Network”, there you will see
iv. The details of “IP = Default gateway settings”; set it to 192.168.1.1.
v. Go to Mozilla or Google Chrome. Name: admin. Password: admin.
vi. Go from “Wireless Connection” to “Manual Setup” to “Wireless
Basic”, set the SSID to “steveshur19”, click on “apply”.
b)
i. Go to “Wireless Connection”, click on
ii. “Setup Wizard”, SSID = steveshur19 will appear automatically,
iii. Then you click “Next”.
c)
Go to WPA-PSK TKIP
Security Setting
i. Enable WPS
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ii. WPS AP mode configured
iii. Security mode = WPA – Personal
iv. WPA mode = WPA 2 only
v. WPA passphrase
vi. (Password 8126shur9819)
For Legenda
vii. Go to LAN
viii. Disable DHCP
ix. Then “save”
d) To Disable
x. Local Network
xi. Disable DHCP server
xii. Click on “Apply”
xiii. Then “Logout”
xiv. Here, the router is configured.
5.2 HOW TO SHARE FOLDERS BETWEEN DIFFERENT COMPUTERS
5.2.1 Step 1 (Turn-on Network Discovery/File Sharing)
a. Go to “Control Panel”, click on “Network and Internet”
b. Go to “View Network Status and Tasks” on the left, click
c. “Change Advanced Sharing Settings” then select; “Time in network
discovery”,
d. Select “turn on file and printer sharing”.
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Figure 5.4: Network and Sharing Centre
76

Figure 5.5: Change advanced sharing
Figure 5.6 – Turn ON network discovery/file and printer sharing
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5.2.2 Step 2 (Share the desired ‘folder’)
iv. Right click on the desired folder or file to be shared, go to properties,
click on “pair sharing”
v. Click on “share”, select “Everyone”, which are the people you want
to share the folder with.
vi. Open the drop-box beside “Everyone” and select “read/write”, then
you click “share”.
vii. Click on “Advanced sharing”, tick “share this folder”, open
“permissions” tab, select “full control”.
Figure 5.7 - Properties of file sharing
78

Figure 5.8: Pair sharing of folders
Figure 5.9: Allow folder to be shared to everyone
79

Figure 5.10: Grant permission to add everyone
Figure 5.11: Allow folder to be read and edited by everyone
80

Figure 5.12: Share folder to everyone
Figure 5.13: Folder has been shared
81

Figure 5.14: Advance sharing of folder
Figure 5.15: Grant permission for folder to be shared in advanced way
82

Figure 5.16: Grant full control of the advanced folder sharing
Figure 5.17: Choose full control advanced folder sharing
83

Figure 5.18: ‘OK’ to full control advanced folder sharing
Figure 5.19: Apply full control advanced folder sharing
84

Figure 5.20: Complete full control advanced folder sharing and continuously share
Figure 5.21: Close all sharing
85

5.2.3 Step 3 (View the shared folders in the connected computers within the
Network)
i. Go to “Control Panel”, click on “Network and Internet”,
ii. Go to “view network computers and devices” and click there,
thereafter click on the desired computer.
iii. Key in the “computer name” (own computer), followed by IP
password,
iv. Then send files or folders to shared, at this juncture, the shared
folders will appear on the screen of your computer.
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Figure 5.23: Delete browsing history and cookies
5.3 Analysis
A study of the functional and technical requirements is made. Functional
requirements consider the number of network users, type of data (multimedia, text, et
cetera) and the organization structure of the company. While technical requirements
is about LAN/WAN deployment, type of topology (star, bus, ring, mesh), type of
transmission medium (twisted pair, coaxial, optical fiber) choice of data rate (fast
Ethernet, gigabit Ethernet) and security features for the network.
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5.4 Network Organization structure
Figure 5.24 - Organizational Structure Chart
5.4.1 Potential network users
The network would be used primarily by the staff of the company which consists
each of all the departments. Secondary users would benefit from the network but
would not be using the network directly, however free Wi-Fi provided at the
customer/visitor areas could be accessed by anyone in the designated area. The
network is designed for an estimated 300 people.
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It is necessary to identify and estimate the number of users mainly to aid decisions
about the type of network equipment to deploy, medium and network traffic load.
Also determine appropriate location of access points, router, and switches etc. A list
of potential users would include the following:
 President
 Vice President
 Engineering Department
 Research & Development Department
 Business Department
 Finance Department
 Documentation Management department
 Purchase and Procurement Department
 Productions Department
 Production Workshop
 Warehouse
 Quality& Control Department
 Administration Department
 Human Resource Department
 Logistics Department
 Public Relations Department
 Other Staff
 Customers and Visitors
5.4.2 Asses Impact of user Network Access
This is a new network, expected to initiate capabilities such as Unified
Communications, industrial Ethernet connectivity, and wireless mobility to easily
and securely connect staff, partners, and customers. The result would be better
control, reduction of excess inventory and logistics costs, increased responsiveness to
customer needs or sudden changes in demand, and better business decisions.
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 The type of access required
This network is designed to provide basically LAN and WLAN connections for
internet and intra-office connection services.
 Where access is allowed
The company’s network access would be according to the established hierarchy. The
president would be able to access the networks of all the other departments and
departmental managers having total access in their respective LANs, basically
following systematically from the top to bottom with the non-management staff
accessing only the works stations assigned. Wi-Fi access is however provided for
staff and visitors.
 Impact of New User groups
The addition of new user groups needs to be considered because the more the
number of user’s increases, the needed network bandwidth will increase as well.
Also, another major impact of this is that there will be an increase of the network
traffic, because more users will definitely result into more traffic. Therefore, a very
strong traffic management system will be provided to help in tackling some of these
problems identified. SNMP is a good choice.
 The overall impact on Security
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Providing access to information comes with possible treats and there has to be
methods and processes put in places to address the need to protect data, information
and information systems from unauthorized access. The need for network security is
very necessary because its impact is very high. So many of the organizations
infrastructures are subjected to being compromised, malicious attacks, cyber theft
and internal theft are possibilities that need preventive solutions.
The security measure recommended has been properly outlined in the network
management section. However, some security measures like data encryption,
firewall, the use of password and changing the SSID periodically will be considered.
5.5 Prioritizing Needs and Goals
5.5.1 Business goals
These are issues related to what necessitates a computer network and how
productions and management would be improved. Some of the benefits of the
network would include:
 To increase the company’s revenue and profit
 To improve corporate communication which would foster increased
employee productivity
 To reduce the telecommunication and network cost.
 To make for better customer support service
 To improve security of sensitive and proprietary corporate data
 To provide a readily available and secure access to data to all employees of
the company
 To enhance effective partnership with other companies
91

5.5.2 Technical Goals
These are technical benefits and requirements that would be implemented with the
proposed network, typical technical goals in an enterprise LAN/WAN design
include:
 Scalability: The network is designed to function optimally with changes in
size and volume to meet new enterprise traffic or application requirements.
This should allow for upgrades without a major reworking of the network
design. This is taken into considering for future additions to the staff strength
and advanced technological applications that maybe be employed some for
example requiring real term connectivity like video conferencing.
 Availability: This network is designed to be available round the clock
because company activities relies heavily on the network and effective
communications within the departments of the company and external
customers cannot be compromised, a disruption would mean a huge waste of
time and money. Hence the availability is 98.21 percent since network access
is provided 24-hour, seven-days-a-week, and up to 165 hours in the 168-hour
week.
 Performance: They are issues relating to how healthy the network is
considered as well. These include throughput, accuracy, efficiency, and delay
response time. The components and architecture of this network is selected
for optimal performance.
 Security: This could be considered the most import aspect of enterprise
network design. This network is design such that security threats would not
disrupt business activities. Adequate planning and tools is employed to
ensure the protection of the company’s trade secrets, business data and other
assets are not damaged or accessed inappropriately.
92

 Manageability: The network design is intended to have simple management
functions which would be easily understood and used by network managers.
 Usability: The ease with which network users can access network and
services, user friendly, host naming schemes and easy to use configuration
methods that make use of dynamic protocols like the Dynamic Host
Configuration Protocol (DHCP) would be deployed to maximize usability.
 Adaptability: The network is designed to adapt to changes in technologies,
protocols, legislation, practices and trends. Example; flexible enough to
accommodate more staff working from home. Whether it is changing traffic
patterns and quality of service (QoS) requirements, adaptability is seriously
considered in the planning and deployment of the network.
 Affordability: This network is designed cost effectiveness and meant to carry
maximum amount of traffic for the financial cost procuring the network.
Nonrecurring equipment cost and recurring network operation costs were
taking into consideration in the design and the solution provide is affordable
(CISCO, Packet Tracer).
5.6 Technical Requirements
This section aims at defining the services needed and what needs to be put in place to
make it available. A list of the required network equipment and components includes
the following:
93

5.6.1 List of Technical requirements
 Router
 Switches
 Computers (workstations)
 CAT 5 Cable (1,000 ft)
 Severs
 10/100 Mbps Ethernet Hub
 Firewall
 Multipurpose Machines
 CTR Projectors
 Land Line Telephones
 ISP Internet connection
 SNMP Monitoring Software
 Intellifax-4750 Commercial Laser Fax
5.6.2 Network Services, Applications and Estimated Traffic
Services provided by this computer network would include: LAN, WAN, video
streaming, email, web browsing, connection of printing and manufacturing
equipment and so on.
 Traffic and traffic load estimations
This is an estimate of how much network service would be demanded and provided
with the available network infrastructure.
 Estimated Traffic:
 43 thousand page views per day
 240 thousands hits per day
 500 users per day
 15000 users per month.
94

 More than 2.5 GB of successful downloads per day.
The network bandwidth is determined based on the estimated demand and would be
enough to carter for the required services. The table below gives a breakdown of
these services and estimated bandwidth.
Table 5.1 - Applications and Bandwidth requirements
Services / Applications Traffic load
Email (Data transfer) 56Kbps (30Kbps free space)
Video 450Kbps (100Kbps minimum)
Http 150Kbps
File Transfer 100Kbps
Printing 1 Mbps
Web browsing 500 Kbps
Distributed computing 0.5Mbps-3Mbps
5.6.3 Licensing
Enterprise licensing is about establishing a business relationship with a company that
holds the rights to products used by the company. These products could be software
or hardware equipment necessary for the operation of an electronics company like;
Macs Electronics.
This arrangement entitles staff members of Macs electronics access to such products
as long as the products are used in accordance with the agreement and such products
would not be distributed to anyone outside the company. Some of the companies
95

Macs have bought licenses from include Microsoft, Cisco, Intel, Microchip, TM and
Altera.
5.6.4 Internet Service Provider
Internet service provider (ISP) is the company contracted to provide internet access.
The ISP for this network is Telekom Malaysia Berhad (TM). A Malaysian broadband
and leading integrated information and communications group offering a
comprehensive range of communication services and solutions in broadband, data
and fixed-line, (TM, 2012)
5.7 Budgeting
Cost is a very important factor and the best solutions and decisions needs to be made
to deploy a cost effective network for the company. A table of cost for the technical
requirements listed above is presented.
Cut-Sheet of the Network: Cost Benefit Analysis
Table 5.2 - Cost Analysis
Product Unit Price (MYR) Quantity
Router 136.00 1
IP Address 150.00 1
Computer (workstation) 1080.00 1
Total 1366.00
Table 5.3 - Benefit Analysis
96

Estimated Benefit Analysis
Product Price (MYR)/annually
Increased productivity 1,320.00
Less Anxiety 400.00
Ease of information storage 700.00
Better Security 400.00
Increased staff moral 740.00
Better community support 600.00
Increased enlightenment 670.00
Total 4830.00
Total-Cost =1366.00/year; Estimated Total Benefit = 4830.00/year
 Annual benefit exceeds cost of network deployment
 The cost of project is compensated by benefits
 Project is therefore highly recommended.
5.8 Network Management
Network management is an important aspect of network design and needs adequate
attention. It is the tools which may be software or hardware products used by the
system administrators to ensure that the network is secured and unauthorized access
is prevented, monitor performance and reliability to eliminate bottlenecks in the
network, make sure the network is available to all users and respond to software and
hardware malfunctions that may occur.
5.8.1 Benefits of Network Monitoring Tools
97

Network monitoring is a system that continuously monitors and notifies network
administrators by a messaging system in case of malfunctioning devices or services
in the network.
Since providing fair network access to all users is important, providing open Internet
access is also important in ensuring fairness to all subscribers in fixed broadband
network, depending on the application usage profile. With the limited network
resources, it is essential to ensure that some users do not monopolize network
unduly.
Benefits of adequate network monitoring could be enormous, some include:
 To proactively give problem warnings
 To track network’s growth.
 To enable capacity planning
 To ensure that service level agreements are met.
5.8.2 Simple Network Monitoring Protocol (SNMP)
SNMP is a component of the internet suit, an internet standard protocol used to
manage devices on IP networks. It enables network administrators gather data about
network and corresponding devices. SNMP is typically supported by routers, servers,
switches, printers, workstations, modem racks etc. it is available in tools such as
Cisco Works.
SNMP functions by sending messages known as protocol data units (PDUs) to
different parts of a network. These messages are stored in SNMP compliant devices
in Management Information Bases (MIBs) and then returned to SNMP requesters to
determine the state of the network. SNMP tools would be utilized to adequately
monitor the network. Figure 5.12 in the appendix gives an illustration.
SNMP has four main components:
98

 Management station
 Management agents
 Management Information Base (MIB)
 Network management protocol
As part of a network management system, SNMP tools can respond to network errors
or failures in several ways. Generally, when a network fault occurs, or when
predefined thresholds are met; the SNMP tools can react by:
 Sending an alert on the network
 Sending a message to a pager
 Sending an email to an administrator
5.8.3 Network Security Measures
5.8.4 Physical Measures
Network security starts at the physical level since no matter how sophisticated the
kind of the software used it will not stop an intruder who is able to gain physical
access to the network and computer. Some of these precautions could be enforced:
 The server room should be lock up
 surveillance systems should be set up
 Workstations (computers) should not be left unattended
 Keep visitors and unauthorized persons from accessing sensitive areas
 Company’s portable devices should be kept secured
 Printers should be protected
99

5.9 Logical Network Design Diagram of a Corporation (Macs Electronics)
With a scalable, highly available, optimum performance and security in mind, a
hierarchical network topology would be used. It consists three layers; the core,
distribution and access layers. The advantage of choosing a hierarchical topology is
that more devices could be easily added at a reasonable cost to service expansions.
Core layer – considered as the backbone of the network contains high end routers to
feed the hubs/switches of the sub-LANs.
Distribution Layer – location for routers and switches used for distributing network
received from the core.
Access – connects clients/users via hubs, switches and wireless routers for Wi-Fi
access and a host of other office equipment and devices.
100

Figure 5.25 - Logical Network Diagrams of Macs Electronics
5.10 Physical Network Diagram of the Departments in Macs Electronics
Corporation
These are diagrams of each sub-LAN for the various departments showing the kind
of devices connected, topology and mediums used. The connections for the sub-
LANs are similar since similar devices and services are used throughout the network.
Star topology is mainly used, due its reliability, expandability and performance
advantages. Each station connects to a central node via a 100BaseT CAT5 cabling to
provide Ethernet connection. 100BaseT makes use of unshielded twisted pair and can
support devices up to 100m, utilized for the cost advantage and would be sufficient
for the network. The diagrams of the LANs are as shown below;
101

Figure 5.26: Physical diagram of the Engineering Department Sub-LAN
102

Figure 5.27: Physical Diagram of the Business Department Sub-LAN
Figure 5.28: Physical Diagram of the Productions/Manufacturing Department Sub-LAN
103

Figure 5.29: Physical Diagram of the Quality & Control Department Sub-LAN
Figure 5.30: Physical Diagram of the Administrative Department Sub-LAN
104

Figure 5.31: UML Use Case Diagram of interaction in the network
Figure 5.32: A hierarchy of network users.
105
Executiv
e
Manage
ment
Departmental Management
Other staff (Technical, Non-Technical and Administrative)

Figure 5.33: Interconnected relationship in Macs Electronics computer network
Figure 5.34: Functional Diagram of Macs Electronics communication network.
106
Data
People
Software
Hardware
President
Engineering
Department
Business
Department
Quality &
Control
Department
Administrative
Department
Productions
Department

5.11 Conclusion
The network design and arrangement is exceptionally advantageous to Macs
Electronics and is a significant resource for the association which requests that a
methodical approach was utilized as a part of planning the topologies and gadgets to
be conveyed in particular with the constantly expanding interest for streaming, fast
browsing and information transmission that a LAN needs.
A progressive model utilized empowers elevated accessibility, adaptability and
solidness as the purpose of every unit is streamlined for its position and part it plays
in the network. Developments can additionally be effectively actualized. This is vital
because if the establishment is not strong, network subordinate requisitions might
suffer as a result.
The framework proposed here is planned to be cost effective, secure, fast, and
considers adaptability to developing processing movements. Choices for topologies,
mechanisms and administrations needed have been made for a positively creative
operation in the contemporary focused environment to build benefit and boost the
most income today and sometime to come for the corporation.
107

CHAPTER 6
CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS
6.1 Conclusion
According to the modern trend in wireless networks there is a need for the design of
an efficient Wireless Local Area Network (WLAN) on a platform of a star-based
mesh topology. The design of this project has been done to meet the aim and
objectives of its proposal. The objectives were to design and implement a star-based
mesh network for efficient data transmission using Cisco Packet Tracer software and
also to show it on real-time.
Furthermore implementing the data transmission by selecting a proper wireless
router for the electronic devices (gadgets) as well as testing the efficiency of the
2.4GHz frequency band and wireless speeds of up to 300Mbps (for wireless router)
which supports 20kbps and 40kbps for 1 and 10 channels data transmission in star-
based mesh network using “Legenda Education Group” Wi-Fi or WLAN (Wireless
Local Area Network).
6.2 Recommendation
The explosive growth of the wireless network industry has led to an increase in the
demand for low cost, low profile wireless routers. This project is used as medium
range applications, such as; connecting two or more offices in an organization or a
corporation. It has an excellent range of connection of 2.4GHz as well its strength of
connectivity.
108

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itemId=1073791292&type=RESOURCES. March 28, 2012
 Chris Townsend, Steven Arms MicroStrain, Inc.Wireless Sensor Networks
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2012.
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IEEE 802.15.4 http://www-ee.ccny.cuny.edu/zheng/papers/paper1_wpan_
performance.pdf
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109

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110

APPENDIX I
ACRONYMS AND DEFINITIONS
 CSMA/CD - Carrier Signal Multiple Access/ Collision Detention.
 Bandwidth – Data transfer rate or bit rate measure in bits per second (bps)
 Broadband- Is a high-speed broadband Internet access service which
provides 'always on' connection to the Internet with speed/bandwidth from
bps to gbps. Supports applications such as, Web Hosting, video streaming, e-
commerce, distance learning and others.
 Ethernet - Used to connect computer systems to form a LAN.
 Hub - Is used for connecting multiple twisted pair or fiber optic Ethernet
devices together to form or make them act as a single network segment.
 Internet – Internationally interconnected computers providing information
exchange services.
 LAN – Local Area Network
 Modem – Shortened from modulator-demodulator. A device or programs
used to enable a computer transmit data over telephone or cable lines.
 Multifunctional device – A device that can do photocopying, printing,
scanning etc.
 Node – Any device connected to a computer network
 Organization Structure - Shows the hierarchy between managers and sub-
workers who make up an organization/company.
 Router – Forwards data packets to parts of a computer network.
 Server – A computer or device used to manage access to centralized network
resource.
 Star topology – An arrangement in which nodes are connected to a central
device through a hub
 Switch – Joins or connects two or more network segments
111

 Topology – They pattern in which nodes are physically connected to a
network
 UML – Unified Modeling Language: Used for specifying, visualizing and
illustrating complex software, especially large, object-oriented projects
designs and systems.
 UTP-Unshielded Twisted Pair: A 100 ohm copper cable consisting 2 to 1800
unshielded twisted pairs covered by an outer jacket but no metallic shield.
 URPF - Unicast Reverse Path Forwarding
 Use-case - Is a diagram that describes how users and components of a system
interact.
 WAN – Wide Area Network.
 Workstation – A general purpose computer intended for higher performance
if compared to personal computers
 WLAN – Wireless Local Area Network.
 GTS - Guaranteed Time Space
 LQI - Link Quality Indicator
 ED - Energy Detection
 ISM - Industrial Scientific and Medical
 CCA - Clear Channel Appraisal
 FFD – Full Function Device
 RFD – Reduced Function Device
 OSI - Open Systems Interconnection
 LLC - Logical Link Control
 MAC - Media Access Control
 BO - Beacon Order
 SO- Super-frame Order
 NS-2- Network Simulator- 2
 LOS - Line Of Sight
 WMAN - Wireless Metropolitan Area Network
 BSS - Basic Service Set
 ESS - Extended Service Set
112

 POS - Personal Operating Space
 NLOS- Non-Line Of Sight
 IP - Internet Protocol
 RIP- Routing Information Protocol
 IGRP - Interior gateway routing protocol
 OSPF - Open Shortest Path First
 EGP - Exterior Gateway Protocol
 EIGRP - Enhanced Interior Gateway Routing Protocol
 BGP - Border Gateway Protocol
 IS-IS - Intermediate System-to-Intermediate System
 TCP - Transmission Control Protocol
 RADIUS - Remote Address Dial-In User Service
 NIC - Network Interface Cards
 NMS - Network Management System
 AP - Access Point
 OS - Operating System
 IEEE- Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers
 WGB - Work Group Bridge
 TX - Transmitting
 RX- Receiving
 ACS - Access Control Server
 RJ- Registered Jack
 PC - Personal Computer
 QS - Quality Of Service
 SNMP - Simple Network Monitoring Protocol
 ISP - Internet Service Provider
 DHCP - Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol
 MIB - Management Information Bases
 PDU - Protocol Data Units
113

APPENDIX II
Diagram to illustrate how SNMP works, (Computer World, 2012).
114

APPENDIX III
Project Plan Diagram (Project Milestone)
115

APPENDIX IV
DATA SHEET OF D-LINK WIRELESS N ADSL2+ MODEM ROUTER DSL-
2750U
116

Design, Implement and Analyse a Star-Based Mesh Network.

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