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- 4. Human-Computer Interaction Series Designing for the User Experience in Learning Systems Evangelos Kapros Maria Koutsombogera Editors
- 5. Human–Computer Interaction Series Editors-in-chief Desney Tan Microsoft Research, Redmond, WA, USA Jean Vanderdonckt Louvain School of Management, Université catholique de Louvain, Louvain-la-Neuve, Belgium
- 6. The Human-Computer Interaction Series, launched in 2004, publishes books that advance the science and technology of developing systems which are effective and satisfying for people in a wide variety of contexts. Titles focus on theoretical perspectives (such as formal approaches drawn from a variety of behavioural sciences), practical approaches (such as techniques for effectively integrating user needs in system development), and social issues (such as the determinants of utility, usability and acceptability). HCI is a multidisciplinary field and focuses on the human aspects in the development of computer technology. As technology becomes increasingly more pervasive the need to take a human-centred approach in the design and development of computer-based systems becomes ever more important. Titles published within the Human–Computer Interaction Series are included in Thomson Reuters’ Book Citation Index, The DBLP Computer Science Bibliography and The HCI Bibliography. More information about this series at http://www.springer.com/series/6033
- 7. Evangelos Kapros • Maria Koutsombogera Editors Designing for the User Experience in Learning Systems 123
- 8. Editors Evangelos Kapros Science Gallery Dublin, Trinity College The University of Dublin Dublin, Ireland Maria Koutsombogera School of Computer Science and Statistics, Trinity College The University of Dublin Dublin, Ireland ISSN 1571-5035 ISSN 2524-4477 (electronic) Human–Computer Interaction Series ISBN 978-3-319-94793-8 ISBN 978-3-319-94794-5 (eBook) https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-94794-5 Library of Congress Control Number: 2018951211 © Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2018 Chapter 6 is licensed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). For further details see license information in the chapter. This work is subject to copyright. All rights are reserved by the Publisher, whether the whole or part of the material is concerned, specifically the rights of translation, reprinting, reuse of illustrations, recitation, broadcasting, reproduction on microfilms or in any other physical way, and transmission or information storage and retrieval, electronic adaptation, computer software, or by similar or dissimilar methodology now known or hereafter developed. The use of general descriptive names, registered names, trademarks, service marks, etc. in this publication does not imply, even in the absence of a specific statement, that such names are exempt from the relevant protective laws and regulations and therefore free for general use. The publisher, the authors and the editors are safe to assume that the advice and information in this book are believed to be true and accurate at the date of publication. Neither the publisher nor the authors or the editors give a warranty, express or implied, with respect to the material contained herein or for any errors or omissions that may have been made. The publisher remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations. This Springer imprint is published by the registered company Springer Nature Switzerland AG The registered company address is: Gewerbestrasse 11, 6330 Cham, Switzerland
- 9. It is in the very nature of the human condition that each new generation grows into an old world, so that to prepare a new generation for a new world can only mean that one wishes to strike from the newcomers’ hands their own chance at the new. Hannah Arendt, The Crisis in Education, 1954
- 10. Preface Technology-enhanced learning has been a subject of discussion since the very early days of computer science and human–computer interaction. However, many of these early promises, such as intelligent tutors or personalised learning, were never realised. Several of these ideas were technology oriented, and the populari- sation of user-centred information systems made apparent that user-centred design techniques were appropriate for technology-enhanced learning too. In this spirit, we co-chaired a conference session with Aimilia Tzanavari of the University of Nicosia, Cyprus, initially titled ‘Dissecting the User Experience when the User’s Objective is to Learn’, and then ‘User Experience in and for Learning Technology’. The session found a good home at the International Conference on Learning and Collaboration Technologies (LCT) as part of the Human-Computer International conference (HCII) for several years. The idea for the book was born as a result of these sessions. Over the years, a community of tens of experts in these sessions has contributed their ideas to the body of knowledge; however, we did not select the material for this book to be exclusively by these authors, and instead issued an open call so as to include more contributions. We believe we managed to give the opportunity for fresh ideas in designing learner experiences to come forward. We would like to thank Aimilia Tzanavari, now at Proto.io, for the years we co-organised the session; Panayiotis Zaphiris and Andri Ioannou, of the Cyprus University of Technology, Cyprus, for organising LCT as part of HCII; Gavriel Salvendy, of Purdue University, USA, and Tsinghua University, Beijing, P.R. of China, and Constantine Stephanidis, of University of Crete/Foundation for Research and Technology—Hellas (FORTH), Greece, for organising HCII. In addition, we would like to acknowledge Trinity College Dublin, the University of Dublin, for their flexibility which allowed us to prepare this book. Evangelos would like to thank his colleagues at the Science Gallery Dublin and Maria at the School of Computer Science and Statistics. The research of Evangelos Kapros has received funding from (a) the Learnovate Centre at Trinity College, the University of Dublin, under the Technology Centre Programme through the Government of Ireland’s state agencies Enterprise Ireland vii
- 11. and IDA Ireland and (b) SySTEM 2020, from the European Union’s Horizon 2020 Research and Innovation Programme under Grant Agreement No. 788317. The research of Maria Koutsombogera has received funding from the European Union’s Horizon 2020 research and innovation programme under the Marie Skłodowska-Curie Grant Agreement No. 701621 (MULTISIMO). This book could not have been completed without the help of many people. We sincerely thank all the authors for warmly supporting this endeavour through contributing to this book with their chapters and for engaging in peer-reviewing. We would also like to thank Beverley Ford and Nancy Wade-Jones at Springer (London, UK) for their invaluable support and assistance in publishing this book in a timely fashion. Barcelona, Spain Evangelos Kapros Dublin, Ireland Maria Koutsombogera June 2018 viii Preface
- 12. Contents 1 Introduction: User Experience in and for Learning . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 Evangelos Kapros and Maria Koutsombogera Part I Foundations, Frameworks, Principles 2 Education, Technology and Design: A Much Needed Interdisciplinary Collaboration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17 Muriel Garreta-Domingo, Davinia Hernández-Leo and Peter B. Sloep 3 A Universally Accessible Self-assessment Gamified Framework and Software Application to Capture 21st Century Skills . . . . . . . . 41 Kathy Kipp, Evangelos Kapros and Ian O’Keeffe 4 Designing Pedagogy for Virtual Worlds in Multicultural Environments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65 Elaine Hoter and Manal Yazbak Abu Ahmad 5 The CHI of Teaching Online: Blurring the Lines Between User Interfaces and Learner Interfaces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81 David Joyner Part II Applications and Case Studies 6 User Requirements When Designing Learning e-Content: Interaction for All . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105 Pilar Orero and Irene Tor-Carroggio 7 iMuSciCA: Interactive Music Science Collaborative Activities for STEAM Learning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123 Vassilis Katsouros, Evita Fotinea, Renaat Frans, Erica Andreotti, Petros Stergiopoulos, Manolis Chaniotakis, Thomas Fischer, Robert Piechaud, Zoltan Karpati, Pierre Laborde, Daniel Martín-Albo, Fotini Simistira and Marcus Liwicki ix
- 13. 8 A Case Study of Peer Feedback as a Continuous Assessment Tool for Transversal Competencies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 155 Mirjam Neelen, Evangelos Kapros and Eddie Walsh 9 Constructive Learning by Teaching: Flip-Flop, Peer Evaluation, and Agile Tooltip: Making and Taking Peer Quizzes Synchronized with Lecture Screencasts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 177 Jan Stelovsky, Michael-Brian Ogawa, Branden Ogata and Umida Stelovska 10 Using Animation to Enrich Learning Experience in Sketch-Based Physics Tutoring Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 201 Salman Cheema and Joseph J. LaViola Jr. Appendix A: SkillTrack! Trial Details and Evaluation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 229 x Contents
- 14. Contributors Erica Andreotti University College Leuven-Limburg, Limburg, Belgium Manolis Chaniotakis Ellinogermaniki Agogi, Pallini, Greece Salman Cheema Arizona State University, Tempe, AZ, USA Thomas Fischer Ellinogermaniki Agogi, Pallini, Greece Evita Fotinea Athena Research and Innovation Center, Athens, Greece Renaat Frans University College Leuven-Limburg, Limburg, Belgium Muriel Garreta-Domingo ICT Department, Universitat Pompeu Fabra, Barcelona, Spain Davinia Hernández-Leo ICT Department, Universitat Pompeu Fabra, Barcelona, Spain Elaine Hoter Talpiot College of Education, Holon, Israel David Joyner College of Computing, Georgia Institute of Technology, Atlanta, GA, Georgia Evangelos Kapros Science Gallery Dublin, Trinity College, The University of Dublin, Dublin, Ireland Zoltan Karpati Leopoly, Budapest, Hungary Vassilis Katsouros Athena Research and Innovation Center, Athens, Greece Kathy Kipp Endurae, Aurora, IL, USA Maria Koutsombogera School of Computer Science and Statistics, Trinity College, The University of Dublin, Dublin, Ireland Pierre Laborde Cabrilog, Grenoble, France Joseph J. LaViola Jr. University of Central Florida, Orlando, FL, USA xi
- 15. Marcus Liwicki University of Fribourg, Fribourg, Switzerland Daniel Martín-Albo Wiris, Barcelona, Spain Mirjam Neelen Accenture, Dublin, Ireland Ian O’Keeffe Learnovate, Trinity College Dublin, Dublin, Ireland Branden Ogata Department of Information and Computer Sciences, University of Hawaii at Manoa, Honolulu, HI, USA Michael-Brian Ogawa Department of Information and Computer Sciences, University of Hawaii at Manoa, Honolulu, HI, USA Pilar Orero Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona, Barcelona, Spain Robert Piechaud Institut de Recherche et de Coordination Acoustique Musique-IRCAM, Paris, France Fotini Simistira University of Fribourg, Fribourg, Switzerland Peter B. Sloep Open University of the Netherlands, Heerlen, The Netherlands Umida Stelovska parWinr Inc., Sunnyvale, CA, USA Jan Stelovsky Department of Information and Computer Sciences, University of Hawaii at Manoa, Honolulu, HI, USA Petros Stergiopoulos Ellinogermaniki Agogi, Pallini, Greece Irene Tor-Carroggio Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona, Barcelona, Spain Eddie Walsh Learnovate, Trinity Technology & Enterprise Campus, Dublin, Ireland Manal Yazbak Abu Ahmad Sakhnin College for Teacher Education, Sakhnin, Israel xii Contributors
- 16. Chapter 1 Introduction: User Experience in and for Learning Evangelos Kapros and Maria Koutsombogera Abstract This chapter serves as the introduction to the edited volume ‘Designing for the User Experience in Learning Systems’. It sets out to frame design for learning, including the description of some design principles for learning systems, and then proceeds to set the goals of the volume, indicate some prior work in this area, and summarise the contributions of the chapters in terms of addressing the goals. 1.1 Introduction Learning technology has been widely used to support the learning and teaching pro- cesses, but has also served as a mechanism for knowledge creation and acquisition. The field of learning technology faces some specific challenges. Two of these chal- lenges, described in more detail below, are the diversity of learning experiences, and the multiple stakeholders that are central in learning. Research in designing learning systems that seeks to address challenges in these aspects in a combined way is scarce; this volume attempts to fill this gap. Learning experiences can be different from other ones, but also between them. The experience of an assessment can be very different to the experience of con- suming educational content; however, contemporary user-centred (UCD) and user experience (UX) design methods treat them identically. It is possible to perform tasks that evaluate the functional usability of a piece of technology without investigating its educational usefulness; similarly, it is possible to investigate if a certain learning strategy, including a specific technology, produces learning benefits without investi- gating the usability of the experience. While the recent introduction of user-centred E. Kapros Science Gallery Dublin, Trinity College, The University of Dublin, Dublin 2, Ireland e-mail: ekapros@tcd.ie M. Koutsombogera (B) School of Computer Science and Statistics, Trinity College, The University of Dublin, Dublin 2, Ireland e-mail: koutsomm@tcd.ie © Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2018 E. Kapros and M. Koutsombogera (eds.), Designing for the User Experience in Learning Systems, Human–Computer Interaction Series, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-94794-5_1 1
- 17. 2 E. Kapros and M. Koutsombogera methods in learning technology is more than welcome, it has not always been clear in how the fruits of these methods have led to better learning outcomes. In addition, learning technology has the attribute that the end users, the learn- ers, are often not in control of which learning technology they will use or why, something for which the role of the instructor is often responsible—neither are the learners in control of what content, activity, or assessment they will consume or per- form. Moreover, the purchaser or approver of a learning technology is more often than not someone other than the learner, and often other than the instructor. These attributes persist throughout the learning landscape, where the learner, instructor, and purchaser can be either a student, teacher, and parent, or an employee, trainer, and human resources/talent management department, respectively for K-12 and corpo- rate learning. This role distinction is non-existent in consumer software applications, in which e.g. a music player software application is typically used by the purchasers, who also directly select the content of the musical content they will consume. Therefore, the principles that govern the design of user experiences for learning need to satisfy the challenges that are unique to learning systems. The following section frames the context and introduces such high-level principles. 1.2 Framing Design for Learning 1.2.1 Design Principles 1.2.1.1 Design for the Educative Relationships Triangle The Educative Relationships Triangle, often called “The Iron Triangle” of education (cf. Fig.1.1), informs us that the Learner-Instructor-Knowledge relationships are of paramount importance in their entirety for learning to flourish. Learner-centric design should facilitate all three points of the triangle, rather than be learner-only design; as the latter would be to the expense of the Learner-Instructor, Learner-Knowledge, and Instructor-Knowledge1 relationships. Specifically, a design that would focus on the Learner-Teacher relationship but would neglect Content/Knowledge, would potentially create a pleasant social inter- action at school or at corporate training. However, it would not necessarily be educa- tional, if the content is not present strongly enough or is not appropriate. Similarly, a design that would focus on the Learner-Content relationship but would neglect the Teacher could result in the Learner engaging with potentially fun content, but without the mediation of the teacher this fun content might not be useful for learning. Finally, a design that would focus on the Teacher-Content relationship may end up 1Knowledge and Content are used interchangeably in most depictions of the Triangle, and also here. The aim is to point that, in this context, Content should not be understood as a static piece of text in a book as in previous times, but could be an interactive activity on a tablet, a project in a laboratory, or an assessment. It is in this way that the more generic term Knowledge can be used instead.
- 18. 1 Introduction: User Experience in and for Learning 3 Fig. 1.1 The “Iron Triangle” of educative relationships triangle with teachers teaching all the content they prefer, but with the learners not necessarily learning something from it. Thus, a learner-centric design should have a scope that includes the teacher and content, so as to facilitate meaningful teaching and assessment (cf. Fig.1.2). In this case the user would know that the teaching and assessment are done for content that is appropriate, by teachers who have organised the delivery of it, and by students that are prepared for it. 1.2.1.2 Focus on Learning Education is, ultimately, a human enterprise: technology should facilitate it, but it should not be an end in itself. Thus, our focus must always be on education. We must design services to help people facilitate and enable learning. While technolog- ical advancements in the field are laudable, they will not lead to improved learning outcomes on their own.
- 19. Another random document with no related content on Scribd:
- 20. The Salween is navigable for only thirty miles by ocean steamers, and the Sitiang not at all at present, though formerly sailing vessels made ports about its mouth. Steam launches still ply on both these streams and their tributaries. On all these inland waters there are multitudes of native boats, of curious but most serviceable pattern. They never modify these Eastern crafts after any Western design. It is doubtful if modern ships have made much improvement in their water-lines over many Eastern boats, which can be seen in different styles everywhere, from the Red Sea all around the coasts of Southern Asia. They vary greatly in different countries, and have become fixed along certain accepted lines from which they do not depart, but they all seem to be good. Of all Oriental crafts I have seen, none are more picturesque than the Burma river boats. Paddy-Boat The mountain areas of Burma affect the country in many ways. They greatly affect the rainfall. Lower Burma receives the full force of the monsoon current as it comes in off the Indian Ocean. The consequence is a heavy rainfall each year, and a regular and
- 21. bountiful harvest. Lower Burma has never had a famine. The amount of rainfall varies from one hundred to three hundred inches during the rainy season of six months. The western side of the outer range of the hills, exposed to the same current, has even a heavier fall of rain than the low lands bordering on the sea. The coast range of hills rises to a considerable altitude, and as they extend north and south, the southwest rain currents pour out their water in crossing this range, and so have little moisture left to furnish rain in the upper valleys of Burma. While the sea coast round about Rangoon, and the Sitiang and Irrawaddy Valleys, have abundant rains in the lower portions, as you go northward in each valley the rainfall steadily decreases until in portions of Upper Burma there are great areas of land that will seldom give a crop for lack of moisture. The soil in this arid region is as fertile as anywhere, and where the great and enlarging canal system of the Government is effective, they can produce enormous harvests. But left to the uncertain rainfall, there would be only failure of crops and famine. Happily this condition does not extend over the most thickly-populated portion of Burma. In another respect the hill portion of Burma is important. Compared with the plains or plateaus of the country, there is a relatively smaller portion of the province of low elevations than that of India proper. The greatest level area is bordering on the sea, and is in consequence much modified by the sea breezes, and the heat is never very intense for a tropical country. But a large portion of the province, which is not cooled by the breeze from the sea, has also a moderate heat for the tropics. I attribute this condition of modified temperature to the fact that we have no large plains or plateaus. Unlike India, where the area that becomes superheated is immense, in Burma the area of low land is small, and therefore is continually modified by the cooler air from the large adjacent mountain tracts. This, it seems to me, accounts for the fact that all the seacoast of Burma is so much cooler than the same kind of elevation of Bengal. They both alike share the sea breeze for a certain distance; but Bengal has hundreds of miles of low plain unbroken by high hills, while Burma’s hills approach near the sea. This gives Burma a
- 22. relatively moderate temperature, though so far down in the tropics. All the valleys of the tropical world are fertile. But a word should be said about the fertility of the mountain tracts of Burma. Nearly all of these hills and mountains that I have seen are covered with a dense growth of forest. The Indian hills are not so. Many of the latter are entirely barren of trees, and where there is any chance at all they are cultivated in terraces. But the virgin forests of Burma stretch hundreds of miles over hills and mountains. Here and there are villagers, it is true, mostly Karens, in Lower Burma, who cultivate only small areas; but only one year in a place, making a new clearing each year to avoid the work of digging or plowing, and then they let the last year’s clearing grow up to forest again, which it quickly does. There is room for a vast population to make an easy living in the hills of Burma alone. If those fertile hills were in America, they would be all occupied as cattle and horse ranches, if not cultivated. Wherever the forest is thinned or cut away, a great luxuriant growth of grass and bamboos springs up, on which cattle feed and flourish. They can get plenty of grazing the year round in these hills, and there would always be a ready market for beef and for bullocks for plowing. Among the many natural resources of Burma, there are two that require careful attention. Here we find one of the greatest rice- growing countries of the world. Here also are vast forests of the famous teak wood, that is used so extensively for ship-building and other structures. Rice-growing is the one line of cultivation that characterizes the land of Burma. In India there are greater rice fields, because the rice lands are more extensive. But in India they cultivate other crops, and this even on the rice land. In India they frequently, if not generally, grow two or more crops on the same land in one year, or different crops on adjacent land at the same season. But the Burman grows one crop only, and that is uniformly rice. He is a rice-grower and a rice-eater. In the plains there is no other grain grown that is
- 23. generally used for human food. There is a little Indian corn cultivated, but not in sufficient amount to break the force of this general statement. The rice fields of Burma amount to over six million acres. There are often as many as one hundred bushels of unhusked rice grown on an acre. Of course, the average yield is far below this amount. Yet the aggregate rice crop is enormous. It feeds all Burma, and there are vast quantities shipped to India, China, Europe, and South America. No year since I have been in Burma has there been insufficient rice for her people. If rice of a different variety comes to Burma for the immigrants that are used to the Indian article, there is also much Burma rice shipped annually to various ports in India. A word should be added as to rice cultivation. Perhaps all readers are aware that rice is grown usually in water, though there is some dry cultivation. The land is inclosed in very small fields, averaging less than one acre, but often not more than one-tenth of that area. There are embankments round all these fields, and several inches of water are kept always on the ground. Sometimes the water is a foot deep. So long as the rice can have a very little of the upper blade out of the water it will flourish. The ground is stirred with a wooden rake like a plow when it is covered with water. The mud is made very fine, and as deep as this mode of cultivation, will stir it. The rice has been sown in nurseries, and when from a foot to fifteen inches high it is pulled up, bound into bundles of approximately one hundred plants each, and taken, usually in boats, to the prepared field, where it is all transplanted by hand. Often the root is divided, so that from one grain there come to be grown several bunches of rice. In appearance a rice field looks very much like a field of oats. The reader will hardly be prepared to believe that it takes nearly twice as long to mature a rice crop under a tropical sun, as it does to grow a field of oats in the northern latitudes, especially in America. The rice is sown in the nursery in May or June, and the ripened grain is not harvested before the last of December or in January. It is all cut with a sickle. I have never seen any one harvesting with any other instrument in Southern Asia. The grain is
- 24. always threshed under the feet of cattle, and winnowed by hand. An American sees hundreds of ways wherein this crop could be grown more economically, and some missionary will yet introduce modern methods successfully. The missionary is the only man likely to succeed in such a task. When speaking of the great food-producing industries of Burma, that of fishing should have special prominence. Burma has a vast area of swamps submerged every rainy season, and these are classed as “fisheries,” and a very large revenue is secured from the sale of the fish. The fisherman makes an excellent living, and the people almost universally are able to eat fish with their rice. So long has this been the case that no Burman considers that he has been well fed unless he has fish of some sort with rice every day. Then he shares the characteristic of all Asiatics in desiring much condiment with his rice. He therefore takes the fish, which is of fine flavor and excellent quality when fresh, and rots it, and mixes with it peppers and other spices until it suits his taste and smell, and then feasts! Other less Burmanized people declare that his “gnape,” as he calls this preparation, is simply very rotten fish. The teak-wood forests, before mentioned, are among the most valuable in the world. This famous wood will not shrink under the most intense sun’s rays, nor will it expand when wet with the rain. It does not warp, and has a smooth grain and works easily. In the tropics, when used for building purposes, it is not eaten by white ants, which destroy almost all other building material in hot countries. The Government has taken hold of this industry, and protects the trees from fires, regulates the cutting, and does all it can to maintain and extend these exceedingly valuable forests. The cutting of the trees, their transport to the sea, and conversion into lumber is one of the greatest organized industries in the country. The amount of money required to carry on this business in the process of cutting the timber from the stump, hundreds of miles inland, gathering it out of the forests, carrying it in rafts to the seaports, and putting it through the great sawmills, to the final disposal to the European and other purchasers, is enormous. The
- 25. time element is a large one. It takes years to get these logs through the process. I have often desired to know just how long this timber has been waiting or is in transit from the time it was felled. This at least must be several years, for the logs often show signs of hard usage through a long period. They are sometimes cracked and worn as if decades old. The Elephant at Work It is in this timber industry that the elephants of Burma are very useful. All travelers visiting Burma have at least seen the elephant at work in the mills of Rangoon. They drag the great logs from the river, place them in position to be guided to the saws, drag away the slabs and squared lumber, pile all these in orderly heaps ready for further handling, and manipulate the logs and ropes and their own chains in a marvelous way. They go in and out of the mills with every part of the great machinery running, and never make a false motion to tramp on a carriage, become entangled in the belting, or allow a whirling saw to touch their precious skins. Why a great beast with such strength, joined to such intelligence and self-possession,
- 26. will submit to the feeble and often stupid man who sits on his neck, and work for man at all, is a marvel. But the transient visitor only sees the elephant working in the mills. This is only a small part of his task. He does all the heavy dragging of the logs to get them to the river from the forest where they are grown. This is often over the most difficult ground. He will go into a thicket where no other beast can go, where a horse or an ox could not climb at all, or if he did, would be perfectly useless for work. But the elephant goes into these worst places and drags the logs over fallen trees, bowlders, and through mud, not being dismayed by muddy ditches or rocky steeps. It is no wonder that the Government protects the herds of wild elephants. But sometimes they invade the rice fields in great numbers. When they do, the destruction is so great that the officials give license to go and shoot them. Sometimes the hunters succeed in killing a few. If they are males, the tusks are very valuable. The feet are also skinned, including the leg, sole of the feet, and the nails, and when so prepared are often used as waste-paper baskets, and are regarded as great curiosities. Burma has great ruby mines; but as these stones are not of so much value as formerly, the mining is not to be considered as constituting a great industry. But the oil fields of Burma are very valuable, and it is supposed that the industry is as yet only in its early beginning. It is said that the company that owns the chief refinery, and many of the oil fields, will not sell any part of the stock they hold, and that they are getting rich rapidly. It will be seen from the foregoing facts that Burma is a great land in itself. It belongs to the Indian Empire, and it is the richest province in the whole country. It pays all its own expenses, which are heavy, and gives largely to the deficit of other provinces. As a field for mission work, there is none more promising so far as natural conditions are concerned.
- 27. R CHAPTER V The City of Rangoon ANGOON may not perhaps be rated as a great, but it is an important, city. The population of Rangoon numbers above two hundred thousand, without the usual thickly-inhabited suburbs. It is a seaport third in importance in Southern Asia. Calcutta and Bombay are the only cities that surpass it. The capital of the province of Burma, it is the center of official life. Being situated so near the sea, only twenty miles inland, and having the best of harbors and every connection with the interior, both by rail and river, its importance as a trading center is very great. Compared to other Indian cities, it is more important than many with a greater population, while it is doubtful if any city in all the seacoasts of Southern Asia is of equal importance in proportion to its population. Then, it has the advantage of being a newly-planned city. As such it has straight streets, crossing at right angles for the most part, like Western cities of the modern plan. However, this admirable arrangement has been of far less advantage than it would have been, because the blocks are too narrow to be utilized to the best advantage. This blunder has, unhappily, been perpetuated in the great new addition that has been made on the eastward of the city. It would seem that experience in this matter would have taught the municipality better things; but like other things Oriental, I suppose, they found it very difficult to get adapted to anything new. As the beginning was made that way, the end must be the same. But in the one fact that the streets are straight and at right angles, there is an advantage that is not found in any other Oriental city. The streets are kept well paved, and the general improvements are progressive, except in two very important particulars. They still use poor kerosene in inferior lamps
- 28. for street lighting. Ten years ago I went to the municipal engineer, and asked him if it was not feasible to light the city with electricity, instead of the obsolete methods then, as now, in vogue. He said: “Yes, it might be; but we are not so enterprising as you in America. We will wait ten years, and see if a new thing works well before we adopt it.” The ten years are passed, and still the smoky old lamps send out their indifferent light and obnoxious odors—too many of which befoul any Oriental city—because the municipal authorities have not yet found out that electric lighting is a success. This is being written in America, where most little towns of one or two thousand population are being well lighted with electricity, while over the sea the great city of Rangoon, with two hundred thousand inhabitants and large revenues, can not yet venture on this modern system of lighting its streets. There is, also, a lamentable backwardness in the matter of street railways. There is a poorly-built and poorly-kept street railway run by steam. But there is little comfort in the car service, and the motive power is antiquated steam engines. The street railway, such as it is, is not extended to such limits as it should be. Were the streets lighted with electric-lights and a system of electric cars adequate to the city and suburbs running, these public improvements would be in keeping with what Rangoon is in the matter of trade. There is only one other city in Burma of nearly the same number of inhabitants as Rangoon, and that is Mandalay, the capital of Upper Burma. This city was the capital of independent Burma in modern times. When the British annexed Upper Burma in 1886, they projected the railway to the city of Mandalay, and as it already had steamer connection with Lower Burma, its many advantages as a distributing center maintained its continued growth. While it has a population nearly equal to Rangoon, it has nothing else to be compared with the latter city. There is a very great contrast between the two cities in the matter of racial population. While Mandalay has some immigrants from other lands, like other cities and towns of Burma, the city as a
- 29. whole is distinctly Burman. Rangoon, on the other hand, is so foreign in its makeup that it can not be called a Burmese city. Relatively, very few Burmans live in the main part of the city. Here you find many peoples of India. There are wide areas of the city given over to the Tamils, Telegus, Bengalis, Gujaratties, and Chinese; while yet other Indian people are found in this Indian community to the exclusion of the Burmese. The Burmese live chiefly at both ends of the city of Rangoon, where there is much trading in rice and other dealings of a Burmese character. The Burmese have given way before the immigrants of India, largely because they are an independent and proud race, and will not do the work commonly done by the coolies and servants about the city. They look upon the immigrant from India as an inferior, and they will not allow themselves to be his competitor for the more menial services and work of the city. The Burmese, therefore, collect chiefly where they have occupation congenial to their tastes. It is significant that the Burman will work at almost anything, where the Madrassis and other Indian people are not working alongside of him. But where there may be constant contrasts or comparisons in inferior positions, he will not condescend to go. So he gives way to the native as indicated, not from necessity, but from choice. Rangoon is a great trade center. The two greatest industries are that of the lumber trade and the traffic in rice. The lumber manufacture and sale has had previous mention. I will only add that immense sawmills line the river front at frequent intervals, and the logs lie in the river in great rafts, or in heaps on land. There are perhaps scores of elephants at work in connection with these mills. The rice mills are conducted on a very large scale. The plan is common to make advances to brokers, who go out and loan money on the growing crop and agree to take the rice, which in the husk is called “paddy,” at harvest time, at a given rate per hundred baskets. The basket holds about a bushel. Usually the price ranges about one hundred rupees for a hundred baskets, though often the rice is a fourth above or a fourth below this amount. The rupee is equal to thirty cents. As the price of rice is impossible of calculation so many
- 30. months in advance of harvest, the millers who advance the money to the brokers, who are usually Burmans, and the brokers who advance the money to the cultivators agreeing to take “paddy” at a given rate at harvest, and the cultivators, all base their calculations upon guesses usually wrong, the whole system has much of the elements of gambling, like the dealing in futures on an American Board of Trade. The rice is husked and cleaned in these great mills, and sold to buyers from abroad, or in the local markets for food. Often the cleaned rice is sent to Europe, and converted into some kind of intoxicants, and comes back to curse the land out of which it grew. It is noteworthy that most of these greater business enterprises that call for great organization are managed by Europeans. But there are many merchants in wholesale or retail business that are of all races. The Chinamen are busy traders, and will doubtless have a more controlling voice in the affairs of business as time goes forward. Of all the trade in the country, there are two features that are a source of unmixed evil—the trade in opium, and the trade in liquor. It is true that the Government tries to keep the opium trade under very severe regulations; but it is always a failure to try to regulate that which itself feeds upon vice. The amount of liquor brought into Burma is something enormous. It is true that there are more people that do not drink than formerly, and those that still drink are less given to excessive drunkenness than in earlier years; yet there are more people in the land, and there are more of the natives, particularly Burmese, that are using intoxicants, in imitation of Europeans, and therefore the quantity of liquor brought to the country to supply this demand is greater than ever before. The ship that our party went on to Rangoon carried three missionaries and three hundred tons of liquor. I have no doubt this would not be above the average cargo for steamers plying between European ports and Burma. It is astonishing how this liquor has entered into ordinary trade. Most of the great importing houses deal in liquors. Most of the retail houses likewise. So it becomes difficult for a young man who is hostile to the whole liquor business to get work in any of
- 31. the retail “shops,” as they are called, without staining his hands in this unholy traffic. One of the great reforms on the temperance questions in the East will be to develop a sentiment antagonistic to the traffic, until liquor-selling can not be countenanced as a respectable business. The New Public Offices, Rangoon Rangoon has several good public buildings, the greatest of these being the Government House, the residence of his honor the lieutenant-governor, and the great secretariat building, which is situated on grounds reserved for its use, in the center of the city. The latter building has been completed only about five years, and when newly occupied was considerably shaken by the heavy earthquake, which shook Rangoon and vicinity. But the damage done has been repaired, and the great building adorns the city and serves the purpose for which it was erected. There is also the elegant Jubilee Hall erected in honor of Queen Victoria’s illustrious reign.
- 32. Rangoon is divided into two distinct parts. The one is on the flat land adjoining the river, and extending a third of a mile back, and some four miles in length. This includes most of the business portion and all the crowded districts of the city. Here many thousands of people literally swarm by day, and sleep twenty in a single room at night. This portion of the city is called “The Town.” It is almost always very dirty, except when washed by heavy rains. Here are still seen old buildings of every sort. However, these are disappearing more rapidly than one would anticipate, from the fact that they were originally all constructed of wood, and during the dry weather there have been frequent friendly fires of late years, and the town is by this means relieved of a good many unsightly structures. Henceforth there are to be no wooden buildings erected in the center of the city. During the rains we are treated to a curious effect of the excessive moisture of the climate. Many of the old houses have been roofed by clay tiling. When this tiling is not frequently turned, the spores of certain weeds, which have gathered on the tiles as the rains increase and the clouds settle down in unbroken shadows over the land, spring up and grow to the height of two feet or more, growing as thick as grass in a meadow. This makes a house a very curious-looking object. A human habitation or church grown all over with weeds! When the clouds break away and the sun comes out, these weeds dry to a crisp. Any student of a people, and most of all a missionary, is early attracted by the religious life of men. Of the many races that mix, but do not blend, in the population of Rangoon, each brings his own religion from the land of his birth. Each holds to his own faith with the greatest persistency, as a rule. Men will have dealings together on all subjects, except in religion. Here they differ widely, and they generally do not compromise their religious convictions or observance. Sometimes their dispositions to each other are that of covert hostility. But generally they get on in outward peace, but do not think of becoming proselytes to any other religion. The religious rites at the shrines are kept up faithfully. The great religious feasts are observed with much pomp. The social customs that are
- 33. connected with each religion are seldom broken. So living side by side are adherents of every religion under the sun. In the center of Dalhousie Street in Rangoon is a large pagoda, a shrine of the Buddhists, with its gilded conical shape rising far above all other buildings in the vicinity, while from its umbrella-like top there goes out on the tropical air the sweet sound of bells that hang on the rim of the umbrella. Just across the street from this pagoda is a mosque where the Mohammedan business men and passers-by go five times a day to pray. Two blocks east from these is a Hindu temple, and three or four blocks west is a Chinese temple, where their religious rites are observed, consisting mostly of offerings to devils. These temples are only samples. I understand there are a score of mosques in Rangoon. The number of Hindu temples I do not know, while there are pagodas in every quarter. There are various Chinese temples also. Throughout the city are now found several Christian Churches. Here the gospel light is held up to dispel the soul-darkening counsels of the Christless faiths. At a glance at these sacred places and religious rites it will be seen that the conflict between religious ideas and practices is general, and probably will become world-wide. The Europeans that go to that country must represent the Christian religion, or deteriorate religiously. The non-Christians must stand by their own, or in time they too will become modified. This is wholly independent of the aggressive battle that the missionary would wage against all these non-Christian religious systems. It is a significant fact that the missionaries who are in the midst of the religious life, so opposed to all they hold dear in faith and practice, have unbounded confidence in the final triumph of the gospel in leavening the present-day pagan faiths, as it did those of the New Testament times. I have yet to meet a hopeless missionary. This note of the hopeful conquering missionary force is an inbreathing of the Spirit of our Lord, who from his throne sends forth his heralds. One fact will show how intense is the religious faith among some of the Asiatics. The Mohammedans and the Hindus are often very hostile to each other. If it were not for the hand of the English
- 34. Government in India, this hostility would be almost continually breaking out into open violence in some parts of the country. As it is, it is not seldom that religious riots occur. In 1894, during a Mohammedan feast, in which they are accustomed to sacrifice a cow, the Mohammedans were determined to slaughter the animal not far from a business house of a rich Hindu, on whose premises there was also a private temple. As the Hindus worship the cow, and as the killing of such an animal, especially in religious services, is an abomination to them, they were naturally much incensed, and the Mohammedans probably meant that they should be. In this case the Mohammedans seemed to be the aggressors throughout. The fanatical antagonism was growing dangerous. The authorities were watching the movements of these two parties, the Mohammedans giving most concern. Several days went by, and the feeling was at fever heat. Sunday came, and as I rode to church with my family in the early morning, I saw on every street companies of Mohammedans carrying clubs faced with irons, hurrying toward the center of the town where their greatest mosque is, and near which they meant to sacrifice the cow. Just as I concluded the morning service, I heard the sound of distant firing. In a few moments a Mohammedan ran by the church, with his face partly shot away. The excitement in the city grew as the facts became known.
- 35. The Mosque, Rangoon The deputy commissioner and other officers were present at the center of the disturbance with a small company of Seik soldiers. The mob grew to many thousands, and the officers commanded them to disperse. This order they refused in derisive language. Then blank cartridges were fired to frighten the multitude, and still they refused to disperse. As there was nothing left to do, the troops were ordered to fire into the crowd that thronged about the mosque. Some thirty or more were shot, several being killed outright. This dispersed the crowds, but there was rioting for days whenever Mohammedans would find a Hindu away from his associates, or in unfrequented or unprotected localities. Had it not been for these rigorous measures of the authorities, the whole community would have been given over to violence. As it was, the whole Mohammedan community was doubly policed for six months, and the extra expense was put on to the tax of that particular community. This was effective in keeping order, and when the time had run its course, the Mohammedans petitioned the local Government that if these extra police were taken
- 36. away, they would behave themselves, which they have done ever since. While “the Town” is such a center of life and strife, the suburbs are a place of quiet, rest, cleanliness, and beauty unsurpassed. The military cantonment is here, with perhaps nearly a mile square, laid out in large blocks and roomy compounds, or yards. A rule has long been in force in the cantonment, that there could only be one house erected on a lot. Most of these lots contain from one to four acres. This gives the room necessary to beautify the grounds, and to secure pure air. The cantonment is now being curtailed, and doubtless this admirable regulation may be modified. But as this land rises a little higher than the town, and, being a little apart from it, it will continue to be of great value for homes. The entire suburbs have a fine growth of trees, many of them natural forest trees and others ornamental, and planted for shade. Entrance of Sway Dagon Pagoda
- 37. The chief object of all the region, the great Pagoda, is situated about the middle of this cantonment portion of the suburbs. But the suburbs run far beyond the cantonment. It reaches on three sides of this reserve, while the whole region to the northward is being occupied and built upon. There is a fine grove of forest and fruit trees extending most of the way to Insein, nine miles from Rangoon, and nearly all the intermediate area is built up with fine residences of Europeans, or rich natives. The homes out in the groves, and with large fruit gardens, furnish the ideal place for rest and refreshment after the work of the hot day in “the Town.” It is a fact that Europeans who have lived for a while in this portion of the city of Rangoon seem loath to leave it for any place. If they go back to Europe, they mostly return again to Rangoon. Government House, a large palatial building, the residence of the lieutenant-governor, is the central attraction of all the fine residences of this region. There are three areas of great beauty reserved by the authorities—the Zoological Gardens, the Cantonment Gardens, and the Royal Lakes. All these reserves are beautiful with every variety of tree, bush, and flower that grows in the tropics, and the grounds are laid out with artistic care, and lakelets beautify the whole. But the “Royal Lakes” are a series of natural and artificial water basins, all connected and adorned with beautiful little islands and curved shore lines. A portion of the inclosure is kept as a public park, and a winding drive is maintained along the water’s edge, which gives an ever-changing picture of tropical beauty. The effect of the palms, the mangoes, and other shade and ornamental trees, toning down the fierce glare of the sun, and these shades reflected from the clear water on a tropical evening, is a blending of color that I have never seen anywhere equaled. The world has many places of beauty, but of those views I have seen nothing equals the “Royal Lakes” of Rangoon for combinations of charming scenery in a limited area. Evening and morning this drive is crowded with vehicles of every type. Rangoonites of every race are out taking in the air and scenery. Here in the evening may be seen hundreds of people dressed in the coolest apparel, visiting and resting, while two or
- 38. three evenings a week the band entertains with music. It is no wonder that Rangoon makes an attractive city for business and pleasure for any whose lot is cast in this tropical land. The heat is never as intense as in Indian cities, and always in the hottest weather it is modified with a sea-breeze. In the long and heavy rains also the people seem to get no harm from a frequent exposure. Royal Lakes at Eventide, Rangoon
- 39. A CHAPTER VI Europeans, Anglo-Indians, Eurasians LL people of foreign blood from western lands, and the descendants of these, however remote or however little the trace of Western blood they have, are in India technically called “Europeans.” Before the law they have the rights of a trial by jury, and in the school laws they are classed as “Europeans.” But it is far more accurate to divide this class into three divisions—the pure “Europeans,” the “Anglo-Indians,” and the “Eurasians.” By this division the Europeans are people born and reared in Europe, or America, who are now found in Southern Asia. The Anglo-Indians are those people of mixed European blood who have been born and reared in India. The Eurasian, as the name implies, is a man who has both European and Asiatic blood. For the purposes of comparison these may be named in two classes, the Western born and bred man, the European, as distinguished from Eastern born relatives, Anglo-Indians and Eurasians. I want it made very clear that in discussing the characteristics and relations of these several peoples, that I am not drawing invidious comparisons. I have no sympathy whatever with asperities heaped upon men because of their race; neither do I patronize any man because of his race. I long ago concluded that character is not a matter of race; that lovable or royal manhood is not a question of ancestry or position, but that nearly all essential differences in men are due to environment and to personal conduct, for which each man is responsible. But comparisons not invidious must be made to bring out the various features of social and business life that enter into the complex racial intermingling of Southern Asia. At best this complexity of life can be
- 40. but partially understood by readers in America, who have never seen anything quite like it. The characteristics of Europeans and Americans are well known in the Western world. My subject calls for only those characteristics which they hold in common, and these features of character as modified by residence in the tropics and under the social conditions of Asia. These characteristics are contrasted in a decided way, as compared with any and all Asiatic trained men of any race or racial mixture. These elements of character are most noticeable in the energy that takes them to the tropics, their capacity to organize business or government, and maintain a modern and systematic organization of the highest efficiency, and that peculiar capacity for just and progressive governmental domination. This energy and this capacity for organization, which of course involves the power to work out painstaking details, are characteristic of the Northern civilization, and never found in the same degree, as far as I know, among any peoples that have been bred in the tropics. It is a matter of great importance in working out the simplest framework of a theory of racial influence in the world to recognize the fact that all real pioneering, all colossal accomplishments in all lands in modern times, have been made by men bred in the colder countries of the temperate zone. These are the men who forge the world forward in their own native climes, and in the frigid zone, and also in the scorching tropics. The tropical world presents no people who hold their own with these exotics, even under their native skies. It is this quality of the European that makes him the dominating man in India. He creates and fosters government and business enterprises on a large scale. As a man, the European is a mightier personal force than Asia can produce. That this energy is largely a result of climate and social environment is very plain when we compare the Western man with the characteristics of the descendants of Europeans who have had only an Indian upbringing. And in all comparisons I will class the Anglo-Indian and the Eurasian together, for so they belong. They both follow the same habits of life, so far as style of living is
- 41. concerned, similar to that of the European resident in India. In these respects they have much in common with all Europeans. They are all classed together as compared with the native. But here the similarity between the imported man and his Indian-bred relative comes to an abrupt end. The driving and conquering energy of the Western man is wanting in his relative of even one generation of Asiatic breeding. It is clear that this difference, which all observing men recognize, is purely due to environment of climate and social customs. They are as bright in mind as the Western men. They are excellent students to a certain point. They are specially facile letter-writers. But the line of occupations which their Asiatic life and conditions fit them for, is very limited indeed. The limitations of their lives are many. The most depressing of all their conditions grows out of the fact that they from infancy are dependent for the greater part of all life’s duties on the native servant. The baby is nursed by a native ayah; his clothes are kept in order for him by a servant. He is fed, clothed, and cared for by half a dozen menials. His boots are blacked for him; his books carried to school; his umbrella held over his head; his pony is groomed, saddled, and led while he rides, by a servant whom he is accustomed to command in everything. He is helped and coddled out of all independence and self-helpfulness. In all this he is not to be blamed, but pitied. In this he does as all his relatives and neighbors do. His household and business methods, all that he sees, is being done this way. Not one man of European descent in India lives entirely by his own efforts, as is common in Western countries. His dependence on menials is therefore a necessity of respectable life, as he sees it. He is not to be blamed, for he sees nothing better around him. But this admission does not require that we approve the social conditions that unman him and rob him of much energy and resourcefulness in the matter of self-help. It is a fact that he develops a softness of character in matters of personal habit, and lacks in the energy which is required only by long and sustained self- dependent work. For this reason all the hardier traits of manhood are feebly developed, or lacking. You do not find these men entering callings where hard service is required. They do not make either soldiers or sailors. Some of them become engineers, but they are
- 42. only found in places where the work is largely done by native helpers, and even here few of them compete with the Scotch or German engineer. But the difference wrought by social conditions is seen more in matters of disposition than elsewhere. No race of the human family can boast of good dispositions. However, we do find that Indian-born men are unduly sensitive. They are usually easily “offended,” even to pouting. They are sensitive of their “status,” whatever their positions may be. A multiplied illustration of this supersensitiveness is found in the recklessness with which men will resign from any and every post when, for some reason or without reason, their feelings are hurt. They will often go from comfort to beggary just because they may be displeased with their treatment. And that which seems almost a paradox, compared with the preceding fact, is that they will stand almost any amount of outright snubbing from people whom they respect for some pretentious assumption of superiority. I have been puzzled many times to understand how it was when I went to a disgruntled man with soft speech to pacify him, if for reason or without it he was disaffected, to find that he would take my approach to him as a sign of weakness, and be confirmed in his unlovely manners. But I have seen the same man benefited by the sharpest rebuke which gave him no quarter at all. But while the Anglo-Indians have all the disposition in common with the Eurasian, they are distinguished in common speech in a way that often causes much pain to high-minded Eurasians. They are called “Half-castes” and “Niggers.” They are scorned for being born of questionable parentage. This is by no means true of the most of these unfortunate people, as an increasing proportion of them are born in wedlock, and often are the children of cultured and orderly homes, the equal of any on earth. But when true as a fact, it does not affect their character or real moral worth. But there is a sting, the more painful for its injustice, on the innocent child born of mixed parentage, when born out of wedlock, which in the cruelty of social speech attaches more shame to the innocent child than guilt to the heartless father. I have been led to believe that this injustice
- 43. accounts for much of the supersensitiveness in the whole Eurasian community. Then they labor under the disadvantage often of having a very dark skin. It is a curious law of nature that the Eurasian child often has a darker skin than even his Asiatic parent. In a country where shades of color, light or dark, are measured by a supersensitive scale, and social recognition is to some extent based upon this absurd measurement, it will be seen that the Eurasian, especially if very dark, is overmuch pained that he has not a white skin, and he feels the fling of the term “Nigger,” often on the lips of those whose only whiteness is in their skins. One more characteristic of the Asiatic-bred men of European descent may be given. They do not take kindly to burdensome responsibilities, even after Indian pattern, especially for their own kindred and race. In a country where there are more charitable institutions in proportion to the population than in any other in the world, and perhaps greater need of such institutions, yet it remains a painful fact that, with a few exceptions—so exceptional as to make the real nobility of the mind of the few more striking—there is a very small part of the money necessary for their support given by the Anglo-Indians, or Eurasians. The greatest amount of money to keep these institutions going is given by men foreign to the country. But another like fact of note is this, that there is not one such institution, so far as I can learn, the burdensome responsibility of which is actually carried by an Indian-bred man, or company of men. There are many working faithfully in subordinate capacities. But when it comes to organizing and maintaining such an institution, and bearing its burdens through crises, the Indian-bred men have not been found under the load. The suggestiveness of these facts is a commentary on either the lack of real charity, or lack of energy to bear responsible burdens. Having been in this sort of work in various capacities for all the time I have been in the mission field, I feel it is due to the institutions of this kind, and the workers who bear the burdens of the same, to point out this failure of this branch of the Indian peoples to measure up to a manifest duty, and to say further, that I believe this shrinking from personal responsibility to be a
- 44. direct result of training from childhood, which teaches them to avoid unpleasant tasks and drop them upon others. They would order a servant to do the work if it could be done that way; but if not, then the Western man or woman must do it, or it goes undone. One more characteristic must be mentioned. It can not be denied that the lack of manly independence in a majority of Indian- bred men leads them to be forever asking somebody to do something for them. Many of them will appeal to ministers especially, and all charitably-disposed people, to get them into positions for which they are often wholly unqualified. They will ask you to aid them with money; borrow or beg without any sensibility of its unmanliness whatever. It takes a very large part of every minister’s time to respond to these incessant calls for “help.” It would take reams of paper to write all the supplications, petitions, and applications for positions, when the applicants for aid should present themselves in person and ask for posts, conscious of their own ability to sustain themselves. A Scotchman in Rangoon, whom I knew, and a man with most kindly heart, in a position where he was often besieged for employment, grew so tired of this unmanly method of applying for employment, that he became annoyed every time he saw a man with one of those letters of recommendation coming to him. He warned me repeatedly that, as a minister, I ought not to write these letters of recommendation to business men, and in later years I ceased to do so. One constant form of this appeal for some special favor has been repeatedly to approach the Indian Government to retain certain positions for the special benefit of this community. The Anglo-Indian and Eurasian associations have repeatedly memorialized the viceroy to order these favors. Lord Curzon, the present viceroy, gave their memorials special attention, and as a result he delivered a reply of the most searching kind, and urged the people of this community to carve out something worthy themselves, instead of being continually memorializing for special favors, and refused to aid in the special class regulations. The delegation retired, “thanking his excellency for
- 45. his sarcastic remarks.” Yet I fear it will take more sarcasm before the right mettle is put into this people, as a class. Now while I have written these facts as I see them, I wish to avoid absolutely a mistake commonly made. While we point out these weaknesses in a community, we must not stop there, as the manner of some is. There are those who would not allow themselves to speak of the real worthy ones among these peoples as heartily as they would of the deficiencies of others. I want to be fair and to lean in statement where my sympathies have always been, with the better and noble characteristics of these unfortunate people, as I have known and valued them, and recognize the possibility of toning up the moral fiber, if they are taken in hand as boys and girls before being confirmed in the weakening customs of the country. The youth, both boys and girls, of these families have many among them who will take a fine education. They do excellent work in school. Some take a university course. A greater number ought to do so. They make very good clerks where nothing but writing is to be done. This has been the chief employment of the men hitherto. They are very fair teachers. A few have been employed in our mission, who for painstaking care and faithfulness can not be excelled. Some of them have been inspired to be and do all that is worthy and noble. There are missionaries from among these peoples whose ministry has been blessed of God, and greatly edified the Church. It is a fact, however, that for the last dozen years there has been almost a dearth of such applicants for admission to our ranks. It is also true that the falling off in these applications corresponds nearly with the time that those who were in our Indian Conferences were advanced to the full status of American-trained missionaries. Let this be pondered and remedied. Some of the young people have done nobly. A few have honored themselves and the Church by an education in America, and returned to devoted service for their own people. But happily we have an illustrious soul of this community, recently translated, whose going has made earth poorer, except in hallowed memories of her sainted life, and heaven richer. When we meet one such soul as the sainted Phœbe Rowe, we lift up our
- 46. hearts with thanks to Him who has made the Christ-life so real in flesh that we could look upon. Phœbe Rowe was a Eurasian. She had all the Indian conditions, but from very early life she was a devoted Christian. In riper years she developed Christian graces to the highest possibility. After a notable service in many capacities, she closed her career by a long term of service as an evangelist to the poor native Church of India. Her life and labors have been recorded, and are the property of the Church. I only write to say of her that she was the most perfect fruit of our Indian Mission. Bishop Thoburn, in his address before the Central Conference in 1900, spoke of her departure, and said, “Phœbe Rowe, the most peerless saint I have ever known.” One such saint is a prophecy of all possible good among these people. The climate and social conditions do affect Europeans also. This is manifest in very many ways. From having servants to do the necessary work for them, they easily drift into the habit of leaning back in an easy-chair, and calling “boy” for everything they want, from a drink of water to a toothpick. I saw an extreme case. A young Scotchman, just out of the office in the evening, went to the Royal Lakes and called for his boat. His servant dutifully brought it to the low platform; waiting the pleasure of his master. The young man turned him slowly round and sat down in the boat, but left his legs stretched on the platform. The servant went out and lifted one leg in, and the other leg likewise. When the whole man was in he pushed the boat off the shore, and the master took lazily to the oars! The habit of being waited upon in everything tends to develop the domineering habit among almost all people. Little children often fairly drive the servants about as they assert their pettishness. Grown-up people often act as spoiled children in the same way. A young man who comes from Europe from conditions where he had to do every kind of work himself, soon learns to order his servants around with more pomp than any born lord. The tendency of this kind trends also to extravagance in living. It is so common for men getting a good salary to live beyond their means. It is a common
- 47. thing when an officer on good salary dies, for his friends to take up a public subscription for his widow, who will often be found to be without support of any kind. In these respects, the climate and the environment are seductive. The sterling simplicity that makes Westerners great is easily frittered away in the East. Men go in for display. They keep what they call “establishments.” They are much given to drink. Too often they debauch. It is certain that a young man runs far more risk in this tropical climate of making moral shipwreck than in Europe or America. Take away his moral props with which he is surrounded at home, and he quickly forms alliances to his own heart. Concubinage is very common. At first the youth is ashamed of this relation, but later he is likely to flaunt this sin in the face of all men. He sometimes acts as if he were perfectly reckless of moral consequences. The good name he brought to the country and his own loved ones at home are forgotten. It is a common saying, “He left his morals at the Suez Canal.” But while this is true as a tendency, it is the joy of the writer to emphasize the fact that not a few men, young men, come from Europe to the tropics and keep themselves pure and noble in the midst of all that is seductive in climate or society. I have known a goodly number of such, and count them among the most genuinely noble men that I have met. There are men of many years in the country whose moral worth has grown with a steady growth as the years have gone forward, and have made themselves a name that is a rebuke to every dishonorable or unclean life, and a tower of strength for themselves, and a mighty bulwark against popular evils that degrade their fellow-countrymen. These men, with their time, business sense, and their money, are always actively on the side of right and righteousness. No people have had more such friendships in India than the Methodist missionaries. I have been specially honored with a wide acquaintance with such noble men.
- 48. T CHAPTER VII Characteristics of the Races of Burma HE cosmopolitan character of the population of Rangoon has been given, and it is only necessary to add that all towns near the sea and on the railways have the same intermingling of foreign and native peoples. But there is a much greater preponderance of those races which are at home in Burma. As you go inland, of all the immigrants the most ubiquitous is the Chinese. The Burmese are easily the chief people of Burma over any other race, native or immigrant, in any part of Burma. Indeed, they rank high among all peoples of Asia. I am aware that when I exalt the Burman, I invite the criticism of the champion of other races. It is a common observation that missionaries especially come to champion the worth and virtues of the peoples among whom they labor, and perhaps estimate them above their value, as compared with other races. This trait is worth something to the world in that it brings to the front one class of optimists of the value of men as they are, or of what they shall be. When any man loses faith in any race, he can no longer be of signal service to that race. In rating the Burmese people highly, I am not aware of being prejudiced in their favor by reason of exclusive association. Our mission work has brought us into contact with nearly all the races in Burma. As a result of our experience, the Burman must be given a place second to none. Personally, I believe he has more to be said in his favor than any other Asiatic race of which I have any knowledge. I know it will be said that he is lazy and unreliable. The former accusation is well-nigh universal. To undertake even to qualify this
- 49. charge of indolence is a large task; but still I am ready to say something for the Burman’s industry. It is admitted that several of the races of India are ploddingly industrious. The Burman’s industry is less continuous, but I think not less genuine. He has more festivals and idle days, but he certainly works rapidly, and for long hours, when he works. This is especially true of the cultivator. He is in the field a little after daylight, and with only a short time of rest at midday he works on till dark. In harvesting time he does the same. One evening when darkness had fallen I was going up a tidal creek in a boat making my way to the village of Naunguyi, when my attention was attracted by sounds on the bank, and looking up I could see outlined against the sky two Burmans loading a cart with rice sheaves. It would have been too dark to see them if we had all been on a level. These men had been working since daylight. During the threshing time the work is often kept going on the threshing floors till midnight. Now I am persuaded that men naturally indolent do not work in this way. In clerkships, and as subordinate officials, they do not compare unfavorably with other Asiatic races; while the Burmese women are notably industrious, whether in the village, or in the bazar in the cities. Eight or ten years ago we heard much of the hard-working, money-loving Madrassi supplanting the Burmese land-owner and cultivator of Lower Burma. But with a somewhat close observation I am convinced he is not succeeding in this much faster than the Burman finds it to his own advantage to allow the black man from across the Bay of Bengal to succeed him. The same thing is true if it comes to larger trading. In such lines as the Burman cares to enter, he gives a good account of himself. If there is one man who will beat him in trade, that man is the Chinaman. There are certain kinds of employment the Burman dislikes, and he avoids them; but in his chosen lines he is not discounted by comparison. The Burmese are racially very proud. There is a good deal of dignity in this pride, as well as of less worthy elements. Among