![Computer Networks: Routing 16
Shortest Path Routing
1. Bellman-Ford Algorithm [Distance Vector]
2. Dijkstra’s Algorithm [Link State]
What does it mean to be the shortest (or optimal)
route?
Choices:
a. Minimize the number of hops along the path.
b. Minimize mean packet delay.
c. Maximize the network throughput.](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/networklayer-240220072811-f173904a/85/destination-The-network-layer-must-know-the-topology-of-the-subnet-and-choose-appropriate-paths-through-it-When-source-and-destination-are-in-different-networks-the-network-layer-IP-must-deal-with-these-differences-16-320.jpg)
![Computer Networks: Routing 21
Internetwork Routing [Halsall]
Adaptive Routing
Centralized Distributed
Intradomain routing Interdomain routing
Distance Vector routing Link State routing
[IGP] [EGP]
[BGP,IDRP]
[OSPF,IS-IS,PNNI]
[RIP]
[RCC]
Interior
Gateway Protocols
Exterior
Gateway Protocols
Isolated](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/networklayer-240220072811-f173904a/85/destination-The-network-layer-must-know-the-topology-of-the-subnet-and-choose-appropriate-paths-through-it-When-source-and-destination-are-in-different-networks-the-network-layer-IP-must-deal-with-these-differences-21-320.jpg)
![Computer Networks: Routing 27
Distance Vector Algorithm
[Perlman]
1. A router transmits its distance vector to each of its
neighbors in a routing packet.
2. Each router receives and saves the most recently
received distance vector from each of its
neighbors.
3. A router recalculates its distance vector when:
a. It receives a distance vector from a neighbor containing
different information than before.
b. It discovers that a link to a neighbor has gone down (i.e., a
topology change).
The DV calculation is based on minimizing the cost
to each destination.](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/networklayer-240220072811-f173904a/85/destination-The-network-layer-must-know-the-topology-of-the-subnet-and-choose-appropriate-paths-through-it-When-source-and-destination-are-in-different-networks-the-network-layer-IP-must-deal-with-these-differences-27-320.jpg)
![Computer Networks: Routing 39
OSPF LSA Types
1. Router link advertisement [Hello message]
2. Network link advertisement
3. Network summary link advertisement
4. AS border router’s summary link
advertisement
5. AS external link advertisement](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/networklayer-240220072811-f173904a/85/destination-The-network-layer-must-know-the-topology-of-the-subnet-and-choose-appropriate-paths-through-it-When-source-and-destination-are-in-different-networks-the-network-layer-IP-must-deal-with-these-differences-39-320.jpg)
![Computer Networks: Routing 41
Area 0.0.0.1
Area 0.0.0.2
Area 0.0.0.3
R1
R2
R3
R4
R5
R6 R7
R8
N1
N2
N3
N4
N5
N6
N7
To another AS
Area 0.0.0.0
R = router
N = network
Figure 8.33
Copyright ©2000 The McGraw Hill Companies Leon-Garcia & Widjaja: Communication Networks
OSPF Areas
[AS Border router]
ABR](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/networklayer-240220072811-f173904a/85/destination-The-network-layer-must-know-the-topology-of-the-subnet-and-choose-appropriate-paths-through-it-When-source-and-destination-are-in-different-networks-the-network-layer-IP-must-deal-with-these-differences-41-320.jpg)
destination. The network layer must know the topology of the subnet and choose appropriate paths through it. When source and destination are in different networks, the network layer (IP) must deal with these differences
- 1. Computer Networks: Routing 1 Network Layer Routing
- 2. Computer Networks: Routing 2 Network Layer • Concerned with getting packets from source to destination. • The network layer must know the topology of the subnet and choose appropriate paths through it. • When source and destination are in different networks, the network layer (IP) must deal with these differences. * Key issue: what service does the network layer provide to the transport layer (connection- oriented or connectionless).
- 3. Computer Networks: Routing 3 Network Layer Design Goals 1. The services provided by the network layer should be independent of the subnet topology. 2. The Transport Layer should be shielded from the number, type and topology of the subnets present. 3. The network addresses available to the Transport Layer should use a uniform numbering plan (even across LANs and WANs).
- 4. Computer Networks: Routing 4 Figure 7.2 Physical layer Data link layer Physical layer Data link layer End system a Network layer Physical layer Data link layer Physical layer Data link layer Transport layer Transport layer Messages Messages Segments End system b Network service Network service Copyright ©2000 The McGraw Hill Companies Leon-Garcia & Widjaja: Communication Networks Network layer Network layer Network layer
- 5. Computer Networks: Routing 5 Application Transport Internet Network Interface Application Transport Internet Internet Network 1 Network 2 Machine A Machine B Router/Gateway Network Interface Network Interface Figure 8.3
- 6. Computer Networks: Routing 6 R R R R S S S s s s s s s s s s s R s R Backbone To internet or wide area network Organization Servers Gateway Departmental Server Figure 7.6 Copyright ©2000 The McGraw Hill Companies Leon-Garcia & Widjaja: Communication Networks Metropolitan Area Network (MAN)
- 7. Computer Networks: Routing 7 Interdomain level Intradomain level LAN level Autonomous system or domain Border routers Border routers Figure 7.7 Internet service provider Copyright ©2000 The McGraw Hill Companies Leon-Garcia & Widjaja: Communication Networks Wide Area Network (WAN)
- 8. Computer Networks: Routing 8 RA RB RC Route server NAP National service provider A National service provider B National service provider C LAN NAP NAP (a) (b) Figure 7.8 Copyright ©2000 The McGraw Hill Companies Leon-Garcia & Widjaja: Communication Networks National ISPs Network Access Point
- 9. Computer Networks: Routing 9 Packet 2 Packet 1 Packet 1 Packet 2 Packet 2 Figure 7.15 Copyright ©2000 The McGraw Hill Companies Leon-Garcia & Widjaja: Communication Networks
- 10. Computer Networks: Routing 10 Destination address Output port 1345 12 2458 7 0785 6 12 1566 Figure 7.16 Copyright ©2000 The McGraw Hill Companies Leon-Garcia & Widjaja: Communication Networks
- 11. Computer Networks: Routing 11 Packet Packet Figure 7.17 Copyright ©2000 The McGraw Hill Companies Leon-Garcia & Widjaja: Communication Networks
- 12. Computer Networks: Routing 12 Identifier Output port 15 15 58 13 13 7 27 12 Next identifier 44 23 16 34 Entry for packets with identifier 15 Figure 7.21 Copyright ©2000 The McGraw Hill Companies Leon-Garcia & Widjaja: Communication Networks
- 13. Computer Networks: Routing 13 Routing Routing algorithm:: that part of the Network Layer responsible for deciding on which output line to transmit an incoming packet. Remember: For virtual circuit subnets the routing decision is made ONLY at set up. Algorithm properties:: correctness, simplicity, robustness, stability, fairness, optimality, and scalability.
- 14. Computer Networks: Routing 14 Routing Classification Adaptive Routing • based on current measurements of traffic and/or topology. 1. centralized 2. isolated 3. distributed Non-Adaptive Routing • routing computed in advance and off-line 1. flooding 2. static routing using shortest path algorithms
- 15. Computer Networks: Routing 15 Flooding • Pure flooding :: every incoming packet to a node is sent out on every outgoing line. – Obvious adjustment – do not send out on arriving link (assuming full-duplex links). – The routing algorithm can use a hop counter (e.g., TTL) to dampen the flooding. – Selective flooding :: only send on those lines going “approximately” in the right direction.
- 16. Computer Networks: Routing 16 Shortest Path Routing 1. Bellman-Ford Algorithm [Distance Vector] 2. Dijkstra’s Algorithm [Link State] What does it mean to be the shortest (or optimal) route? Choices: a. Minimize the number of hops along the path. b. Minimize mean packet delay. c. Maximize the network throughput.
- 17. Computer Networks: Routing 17 Possible Metrics • Set all link costs to 1. – Shortest hop routing. – Disregards delay and capacity differences on links! {Original ARPANET} • Measure the number of packets queued to be transmitted on each link. – Did not work well.
- 18. Computer Networks: Routing 18 Metrics {Second ARPANET} • Timestamp each arriving packet with its ArrivalTime and record DepartTime* and use link-level ACK to compute: Delay = (DepartTime – ArrivalTime) + TransmissionTime + Latency • The weight assigned to each link was average delay over ‘recent’ packets sent. • This algorithm tended to oscillate – leading to idle periods and instability. * Reset after retransmission
- 19. Computer Networks: Routing 19 Metrics {Revised ARPANET} – Compress dynamic range of the metric to account for link type – Smooth the variation of metric with time: • Delay transformed into link utilization • Utilization was then averaged with last reported utilization to deal with spikes. • Set a hard limit on how much the metric could change per measurement cycle.
- 20. Computer Networks: Routing 20 Dijkstra’s Shortest Path Algorithm Initially mark all nodes (except source) with infinite distance. working node = source node Sink node = destination node While the working node is not equal to the sink 1. Mark the working node as permanent. 2. Examine all adjacent nodes in turn If the sum of label on working node plus distance from working node to adjacent node is less than current labeled distance on the adjacent node, this implies a shorter path. Relabel the distance on the adjacent node and label it with the node from which the probe was made. 3. Examine all tentative nodes (not just adjacent nodes) and mark the node with the smallest labeled value as permanent. This node becomes the new working node. Reconstruct the path backwards from sink to source.
- 21. Computer Networks: Routing 21 Internetwork Routing [Halsall] Adaptive Routing Centralized Distributed Intradomain routing Interdomain routing Distance Vector routing Link State routing [IGP] [EGP] [BGP,IDRP] [OSPF,IS-IS,PNNI] [RIP] [RCC] Interior Gateway Protocols Exterior Gateway Protocols Isolated
- 22. Computer Networks: Routing 22 Adaptive Routing Design Issues: 1. How much overhead is incurred due to gathering the routing information and sending routing packets? 2. What is the time frame (i.e, the frequency) for sending routing packets in support of adaptive routing? 3. What is the complexity of the routing strategy?
- 23. Computer Networks: Routing 23 Adaptive Routing Basic functions: 1. Measurement of pertinent network data. 2. Forwarding of information to where the routing computation will be done. 3. Compute the routing tables. 4. Convert the routing table information into a routing decision and then dispatch the data packet.
- 25. Computer Networks: Routing 25 Distance Vector Routing • Historically known as the old ARPANET routing algorithm {or known as Bellman-Ford algorithm}. Basic idea: each network node maintains a Distance Vector table containing the distance between itself and ALL possible destination nodes. • Distances are based on a chosen metric and are computed using information from the neighbors’ distance vectors. Metric: usually hops or delay
- 26. Computer Networks: Routing 26 Distance Vector Routing Information kept by DV router 1. each router has an ID 2. associated with each link connected to a router, there is a link cost (static or dynamic). Distance Vector Table Initialization Distance to itself = 0 Distance to ALL other routers = infinity number
- 27. Computer Networks: Routing 27 Distance Vector Algorithm [Perlman] 1. A router transmits its distance vector to each of its neighbors in a routing packet. 2. Each router receives and saves the most recently received distance vector from each of its neighbors. 3. A router recalculates its distance vector when: a. It receives a distance vector from a neighbor containing different information than before. b. It discovers that a link to a neighbor has gone down (i.e., a topology change). The DV calculation is based on minimizing the cost to each destination.
- 28. Computer Networks: Routing 28 Distance Vector Routing Figure 5-9.(a) A subnet. (b) Input from A, I, H, K, and the new routing table for J.
- 29. Computer Networks: Routing 29 Routing Information Protocol (RIP) • RIP had widespread use because it was distributed with BSD Unix in “routed”, a router management daemon. • RIP is the most used Distance Vector protocol. • RFC1058 in June 1988. • Sends packets every 30 seconds or faster. • Runs over UDP. • Metric = hop count • BIG problem is max. hop count =16 RIP limited to running on small networks!! • Upgraded to RIPv2
- 30. Computer Networks: Routing 30 Figure 4.17 RIP Packet Format Address of net 2 Distance to net 2 Command Must be zero Family of net 2 Address of net 2 Family of net 1 Address of net 1 Address of net 1 Distance to net 1 Version 0 8 16 31 (network_address, distance) pairs P&D slide
- 31. Computer Networks: Routing 31 Link State Algorithm 1. Each router is responsible for meeting its neighbors and learning their names. 2. Each router constructs a link state packet (LSP) which consists of a list of names and cost to reach each of its neighbors. 3. The LSP is transmitted to ALL other routers. Each router stores the most recently generated LSP from each other router. 4. Each router uses complete information on the network topology to compute the shortest path route to each destination node.
- 32. Computer Networks: Routing 32 Figure 4.18 Reliable LSP Flooding (a) X A C B D (b) X A C B D (c) X A C B D (d) X A C B D P&D slide
- 33. Computer Networks: Routing 33 Reliable Flooding • The process of making sure all the nodes participating in the routing protocol get a copy of the link-state information from all the other nodes. • LSP contains: – Sending router’s node ID – List of connected neighbors with the associated link cost to each neighbor – Sequence number – Time-to-live (TTL)
- 34. Computer Networks: Routing 34 Reliable Flooding • First two items enable route calculation • Last two items make process reliable – ACKs and checking for duplicates is needed. • Periodic Hello packets used to determine the demise of a neighbor. • The sequence numbers are not expected to wrap around. – this field needs to be large (64 bits)
- 35. Computer Networks: Routing 35 Open Shortest Path First (OSPF) • Provides for authentication of routing messages. – 8-byte password designed to avoid misconfiguration. • Provides additional hierarchy – Domains are partitioned into areas. – This reduces the amount of information transmitted in packet. • Provides load-balancing via multiple routes.
- 36. Computer Networks: Routing 36 Open Shortest Path First (OSPF) Area 1 Area 0 Area 3 Area 2 R9 R8 R7 R1 R5 R6 R4 R3 R2 Figure 4.32 A Domain divided into Areas P&D slide Backbone area
- 37. Computer Networks: Routing 37 Open Shortest Path First (OSPF) • OSPF runs on top of IP, i.e., an OSPF packet is transmitted with IP data packet header. • Uses Level 1 and Level 2 routers • Has: backbone routers, area border routers, and AS boundary routers • LSPs referred to as LSAs (Link State Advertisements) • Complex algorithm due to five distinct LSA types.
- 38. Computer Networks: Routing 38 OSPF Terminology Internal router :: a level 1 router. Backbone router :: a level 2 router. Area border router (ABR) :: a backbone router that attaches to more than one area. AS border router :: (an interdomain router), namely, a router that attaches to routers from other ASs across AS boundaries.
- 39. Computer Networks: Routing 39 OSPF LSA Types 1. Router link advertisement [Hello message] 2. Network link advertisement 3. Network summary link advertisement 4. AS border router’s summary link advertisement 5. AS external link advertisement
- 40. Computer Networks: Routing 40 Figure 4.21 OSF Type 1 Link-State Advertisement LS Age Options Type=1 0 Flags 0 Number of links Link type Num_TOS Metric Link-state ID Advertising router LS sequence number Link ID Link data Optional TOS information More links LS checksum Length P&D slide Indicates LSA type Indicates link cost
- 41. Computer Networks: Routing 41 Area 0.0.0.1 Area 0.0.0.2 Area 0.0.0.3 R1 R2 R3 R4 R5 R6 R7 R8 N1 N2 N3 N4 N5 N6 N7 To another AS Area 0.0.0.0 R = router N = network Figure 8.33 Copyright ©2000 The McGraw Hill Companies Leon-Garcia & Widjaja: Communication Networks OSPF Areas [AS Border router] ABR
- 42. Computer Networks: Routing 42 OSPF Figure 5-65.The relation between ASes, backbones, and areas in OSPF. Tanenbaum slide
- 43. Computer Networks: Routing 43 Border Gateway Protocol (BGP) • The replacement for EGP is BGP. Current version is BGP-4. • BGP assumes the Internet is an arbitrary interconnected set of AS’s. • In interdomain routing the goal is to find ANY path to the intended destination that is loop-free. The protocols are more concerned with reachability than optimality.