Development theories and approaches

Course Code: SFM 711
CourseTitle: CONSERVATION AND RURAL DEVELOPMENT
Credit Hour: 3
UNIT - 2: DEVELOPMENTTHEORIES AND APPROACHES
Keshav K. Acharya, PhD
keshavkacharya@gmail.com
26th March 2021
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2.1 Development theory
2.1.1 Paradigm of development and shifts in development thinking
2.1.2Trends in development theories
2.1.3 Conservation and development
2.1.4 Concept and evolution of Sustainable Development
2.1.5 Sustainable development goals (SDGs)
2.2 Development Approaches
2.2.1 Classical
2.2.2 Populist
2.2.3 Neo-liberal
2.2.4 Livelihood
2.3Theories
2.3.1 Development strategies and poverty alleviation
2.3.2 Dependency theory
2.3.3 Modernization theory
2.3.4 Neo-liberalization
2.3.5 Environmentalism
2.3.6 Sustainable development
2.3.7 Feminist theory
Outlines of the Course
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2.1 DEVELOPMENTTHEORY
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2.1.1 Paradigm of development and shifts in development thinking
2.1.2Trends in development theories
2.1.4 Concept and evolution of Sustainable Development
2.1.5 Sustainable development goals (SDGs)

Defining Development Theory
• A theory presents a systematic way of understanding events, behaviors and/or situations. It is a set of
interrelated concepts, definitions, and propositions that explains or predicts events or situations by specifying
relations among variables.Theory is tested.
• Theories are well-substantiated explanation of some aspect of the natural world, based on a body of facts
that have been repeatedly confirmed through observation and experiment. Such fact-supported theories are
not "guesses" but reliable accounts of the real world.
• The central task of the development theory is to explain why some countries are underdeveloped and how
these countries can develop.
• Theories have been grouped on the basis of vision and direction of development.
• Theories are sources of Rural development strategy that focus on self realization of people living outside the
urbanized areas through collective process. Rural development strategy gears up the economic and social life
of rural poor.
• Theories of Rural Development are connected to design the strategies to bring the change among rural
community from the traditional way of living to progressive way of living. It is also expressed as a movement
for progress. 4

• Development theory is a conglomeration or a collective vision of theories about how
desirable change in society is best achieved. Such theories draw on a variety of social
science disciplines and approaches development and their inequalities.
• Development is a multidimensional process that encompasses all aspects of economic,
social, and political life.
• Examples Show that economic development, which upgrades equitable distribution of
services; social development that endows well-being in terms of health, education,
housing and employment; political development creates a system of government based
on protection of human rights, political freedom and democracy (Layug, 2009).
Defining Development Theory (Cont..)
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Application of DevelopmentTheories for Rural Development
• Three billion people in developing countries live in rural areas out of 7.5 billion.
• Conditions of the rural people are worse than for their urban counterparts. The
indicators indicates poverty, child mortality, access to drinking water and sanitation,
basic education, electricity, communication, range of economic and social choices,
economic and social infrastructure, fair wages as also housing and house sites for the
landless, village planning, markets and services are extremely worse.
• Challenges include a more demanding competitive international environment; rapidly
growing rural populations; increased pressure on limited environmental resources and
climate change.
• Opportunities include advances in information and communications, agricultural,
energy, and health technologies that can help address some of these challenges. 6

• Paradigm: A set of assumptions, concepts, values, and practices that
constitutes a way of viewing reality for the community that shares them,
especially in an intellectual discipline.
• The term "paradigm shift" has found uses in other contexts, representing
the notion of a major change in a certain thought-pattern —
• it is radical change in personal beliefs, complex systems or organizations,
replacing the former way of thinking or organizing with a radically different
way of thinking or organizing.
2.1.1 Paradigm of Development and Shifts in DevelopmentThinking
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Paradigms & Paradigm Shifts
• Paradigm shift is the term first used by Thomas Kuhn in his 1962 book The Structure
of Scientific Revolutions to describe a change in basic assumptions within the ruling
theory of science.
• Thomas Kuhn argued that science is not a steady, cumulative acquisition of knowledge.
• It has since become widely applied to many other realms of human experience as well.
• Other argue that science is "a series of peaceful interludes punctuated by intellectually
violent revolutions", which they described as "the tradition-shattering complements to
the tradition-bound activity of normal science."
• After such revolutions, "one conceptual world view is replaced by another" [Wade].
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What is a New Paradigm ?
• The new development framework should focus on enabling policies, regulatory
mechanisms to conserve nature, attain inclusive and sustainable economic
development, promote social and cultural growth and strengthen good governance.
• To achieve these goals, the new paradigm will envision societal wellbeing as the
desired outcome of these structures and policies, and propose these to be assessed
and measured according to nine domains ⎯
ecological sustainability; living standards; health; education; culture;
community vitality; time balance; good governance; and psychological wellbeing
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Toffler’s three great waves of change.
• Development of agriculture
• Industrial revolution (physical capabilities)
• Information revolution (mental capabilities)
Each wave of change brought paradigm shifts in all of society’s systems.
History of Major Paradigm Shifts
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Waves of change: Agrarian Industrial Information
Family: Extended Nuclear Working-parent
family family family
Business: Family Bureaucracy Team
Transportation: Horse Train Plane & car
Education: One-room Current How is the schoolhouse system difference similar?
Paradigm Shifts
What is a New Paradigm, and Is It Needed?
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Systemic change is fundamental transformation.
Big changes in society cause (require) systemic
changes in all societal systems.
Pull (new needs) and push (means).
What is Systemic Change, and Is It Needed?
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Industrial Age Information Age
Bureaucratic organization Team organization
Autocratic leadership Shared leadership
Look at Societal Changes
What Might a New Paradigm of Education Be Like?
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Centralized control Autonomy, accountability
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Adversarial relationships Cooperative relationships
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Adversarial relationships Cooperative relationships
Mass production, etc. Customized production, etc.
Compliance Initiative
Conformity Diversity
One-way communications Networking
Compartmentalization Holism
(Division of Labor) (Integration of tasks)
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Governance. A consistent and robust strategy is not enough if implementation capacity is weak. It is thus important for an
effective strategy to build governance capacity and integrity at all levels.
Multiple sectors. Although agriculture remains a fundamental sector in developing countries and should be targeted by rural
policy, rural development strategies should also promote off-farm activities and employment generation in the industrial and
service sectors.
Infrastructure. Improving both soft and hard infrastructure to reduce transaction costs, strengthen rural-urban linkages, and build
capability is a key part of any strategy in developing countries. It includes improvements in connectivity across rural areas and with
secondary cities, as well as in access to education and health services.
Urban-rural linkages. Rural livelihoods are highly dependent on the performance of urban centres for their labour markets; access
to goods, services and new technologies; as well as exposure to new ideas. Successful rural development strategies do not treat rural
areas as isolated entities, but rather as part of a system made up of both rural and urban areas.
Inclusiveness. Rural development strategies should not only aim at tackling poverty and inequality, but also account for the
importance of facilitating the demographic transition.
Gender. Improving rural livelihoods should take into account the critical role of women in rural development, including their
property rights and their ability to control and deploy resources.
Demography. High fertility rates and rapidly ageing populations are two of the most relevant challenges faced by rural areas in
developing countries today. Although the policy implications of these two issues are different, addressing these challenges will
imply good co-ordination across education, health and social protection policies, as well as family planning.
Sustainability.Taking into account environmental sustainability in rural development strategies should not be limited to addressing
the high dependence of rural populations on natural resources for livelihoods and growth, but also their vulnerability to climate
change and threats from energy, food and water scarcity.
Emerging Ideas for Development Paradigm
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2.1.2Trends in DevelopmentTheories
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2.1.2Trends and Historical Frame of DevelopmentTheories
: four main stages
A. Post-war and de-colonization era: modernization and industrialization
1940s - ‘60s
B. Humanization and a focus on poverty 1970s
C. Neoliberalism, re-structuring and transition 1980s and ‘90s
D. Sustainable Development Goals 2030, Paris and Accra and beyond
Post script: what about today?
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A. Post-war and de-colonization era – the Modernization and industrialization period
1940s - ‘60s
Key features of the historical era:
• Reconstruction after world war II
• World Bank and IMF established at BrettonWoods Conference 1944
• United Nations officially created in 1945
• Universal Declaration of Human Rights adopted in 1948
• Cold war heats up – spheres of influence drawn
• Re-drawing of borders in late colonial era
• Birth of EU economic and political arrangements
• Canadian International Development Agency (CIDA) created in 1968
• Booming economy in theWest
• Modern industrial technological growth
• Scientism
• Civil rights movement and democratization
• Multiple independence and anti-colonial movements 20

The stages of growth
Key features of development policy thinking:
• Modern management and science will do it
• Technical assistance and agricultural extension
• Large role for planning
• Nationalist elites and rise of statism to build institutions
• Large role for Western aid funds and expertise
• Tied aid policiers are Common
• Need to move beyond colonialism but acceptance of forgien Policy interests as a basis
for aid
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ModernizationTheory
• Linear stages of development
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Typical programs
• Bilateral loans and grants
• Agricultural extension
• Volunteer Sending: PeaceCorps and CUSO were both established in 1961
• Financing for infrastructure projects
oCanada focused on transportion and power generation
oCanadian aid was focused on Commonwealth Carribean, Commonwealth
Africa and Francophone Africa
• Food and commodity aid
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B. Humanization and a focus on poverty, the 1970s
• Rapid de-colonization but cold war even hotter
• Fragile and captured states common
• Growing liberalism in theWest
• Leftist as opposed to socialist
• Cultural relativism and rejection of Western dominance
• Oil price rise and economic contraction
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Whose voice is being heard?
• Dependency theory – centre vs. periphery; aid as imperialism
• Growth interest in local context – PRA
• Appropriate technology
• Need for long-term investment in capacity and social services – a human needs focus
• Goal of 0.7 % of GNI as aid
• Concern about brain drain
• Rural poverty as the key challenge
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Dependency Theory
• Core vs. Periphery
• Bilateral loans and grants
• Technical assistance
• Rural development
• Cooperatives and networks
• Capacity development
Typical programs
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C. Neoliberalism and re-structuring 1980 – 90s
• Economic slowing and shocks
• Potential collapse of states due to debt
• Cold war reaches crescendo
• Increased control of global economic institutionsWorld Bank, IMF etc
• G8 as a political factor in development
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Tensions between neo-liberal and progressive approaches
• World systems theory, post-modernism and globalization
• Emerging public sector institutions vs. classic development theory
• Rise of national development planning
• Emergence of global coalitions on key challenges e.g. HIV/AIDS, vaccines, etc
• Corporate social responsibility
• Recognition of key role of gender
• Civil society and non-government organizations seen as key development actors
• Rights based approaches
• Systems model e.g. health
• Micro credit – Grameen Bank
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Typical programs
• Implementation of “Washington Consensus”: fiscal discipline, reduced public
spending, open markets, trade liberalization
• Structural Adjustment programs:World Bank loans to developing countries under
condition of government reform
• Microfinancing
• Continued investments in social services like education and health
• Use of non-government organizations (NGOs) in many domains of development
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Structural Adjustment Programs
Typical stabilization policies comprise:
• balance of payments deficits reduction through currency devaluation
• budget deficit reduction through higher taxes and lower government spending, also known as austerity
• restructuring foreign debts
• monetary policy to finance government deficits (usually in the form of loans from central banks)
• raising food prices to cut the burden of subsidies
• raising the price of public services
• cutting wages
• decrementing domestic credit.
Long-term adjustment policies usually include:
• liberalization of markets to guarantee a price mechanism
• privatization, of all or part of state-owned enterprises
• creating new financial institutions; improving governance and fighting corruption
• enhancing the rights of foreign investors vis-à-vis national laws
• focusing economic output on direct export and resource extraction
• increasing the stability of investment (by supplementing foreign direct investment with the opening of domestic
stock markets).
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Activity: what are the disadvantages of using NGOs?
NGOs have been put forward as an alternative to bilateral (donor to government)
aid for several reasons:
• Motivated to do social good in a particular sphere
• Strong local connections and cultural credibility
• More trustworthy than potentially corrupt or inefficient governments
• More cost-effective (cheaper) and can be held accountable to donors
• NGOs can act in consortia to achieve higher impact
DO NGOs consider as magic of bullet?
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3B: 1990s – donor fatigue but signs of transition to new models
• SAPs were replaced by Poverty Reduction Strategies, which aimed at reversing the negative effects of a
decade of Structural Adjustment on welfare and social conditions. Many African countries embarked
on at least two generations of PRSPs, mostly to ensure eligibility for debt relief.
• Human Development Report and Human Development Index
• Heavily Indebted Poor Countries Initiative
• Changing the model from aid to cooperation
• Education for All – 1990
• Rio conference on climate change – 1992
• UNWomen Conference in Beijing, rights of the girl child – 1995
• Rights-based development model
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D. Sustainable Development Goals 2030, Paris and Accra
Agenda for Action (AAA, 2008)
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Sustainable Development GOALS (SDGs) 2030
• The 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development, adopted by all United Nations
Member States in 2015, provides a shared blueprint for peace and prosperity for
people and the planet, now and into the future.
• Embraces the three dimensions of sustainability – economic, social and
environmental. This is global partnership agenda of all developed and developing
countries
• The 17 Sustainable Development Goals are defined in a list of 169 SDGTargets.
Progress towards theseTargets is agreed to be tracked by 232 unique Indicators.
Formally adopted by world leaders gathering at United Nations special summit:
September 2015, NewYork
• Puts people at its centre and gives the international community impetus it needs to
work together to tackle the formidable challenges confronting humanity, including
those in the world of work.
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1. No Poverty
2. Zero Hunger
3. Good Health & Well Being
4. Quality Education
5. Gender Equality
6. Clean Water & Sanitation
7. Afordable & Clean Energy
8. Decent Work & Economic Growth
9. Industry, Innovation & Infrastructure
10.Reduced Inequalities
11.Sustainable Cities & Communities
12.Responsible Consumption &
Production
13.Climate Action
14.Life Below Water
15.Life on Land
16.Peace, Justice & Strong Institutions
17.Partnerships for the Goals
SDGs 2030
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The SDGs build on decades of work by countries and the UN, including the UN Department of
Economic and Social Affairs
• In June 1992, at the Earth Summit in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil, more than 178 countries adopted Agenda 21, a
comprehensive plan of action to build a global partnership for sustainable development to improve human lives
and protect the environment.
• Member States unanimously adopted the Millennium Declaration at the Millennium Summit in September 2000
at UN Headquarters in New York. The Summit led to the elaboration of eight Millennium Development Goals
(MDGs) to reduce extreme poverty by 2015.
• The Johannesburg Declaration on Sustainable Development and the Plan of Implementation, adopted at
the World Summit on Sustainable Development in South Africa in 2002, reaffirmed the global community's
commitments to poverty eradication and the environment, and built on Agenda 21 and the Millennium
Declaration by including more emphasis on multilateral partnerships.
• At the United Nations Conference on Sustainable Development (Rio+20) in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil, in June
2012, Member States adopted the outcome document "The Future We Want" in which they decided, inter alia,
to launch a process to develop a set of SDGs to build upon the MDGs and to establish the UN High-level
Political Forum on Sustainable Development. The Rio +20 outcome also contained other measures for
implementing sustainable development, including mandates for future programmes of work in development
financing, small island developing states and more.
• In 2013, the General Assembly set up a 30-member OpenWorking Group to develop a proposal on the SDGs.

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The SDGs build on decades of work by countries and the UN, including the UN Department of
Economic and Social Affairs
• In January 2015, the General Assembly began the negotiation process on the post-2015 development
agenda.The process culminated in the subsequent adoption of the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable
Development, with 17 SDGs at its core, at the UN Sustainable Development Summit in September
2015.
• 2015 was a landmark year for multilateralism and international policy shaping, with the adoption of
several major agreements:
• Sendai Framework for Disaster Risk Reduction (March 2015)
• Addis Ababa Action Agenda on Financing for Development (July 2015)
• Transforming our world: the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development with its 17 SDGs was
adopted at the UN Sustainable Development Summit in NewYork in September 2015.
• Paris Agreement on Climate Change (December 2015)
• Now, the annual High-level Political Forum on Sustainable Development serves as the central UN
platform for the follow-up and review of the SDGs.

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SDG 2030 Localization In Nepal
- Nepal’s equity-based approach and rapid development aspirations with sustainable use of resources finds strong
resonance in the SDGs.
-The Constitution of Nepal guarantees inclusive socio-political and economic development and a wide range of
basic and fundamental rights.
-The 14th Plan (2016/17–2018/19) was the first periodic plan to mainstream and internalize the 2030
Agenda.The recently released 15th Plan (2019/20-2023/24) has continued to align and mainstream the SDGs.
-The 15th Plan has envisaged the vision of ‘Prosperous Nepal, Happy Nepali,’ with 10 national goals:
▪ High And Equitable National Income;
▪ Development And Full Utilization Of Human Capital Potentials;
▪ Accessible Modern Infrastructure And Intensive Connectivity;
▪ High And Sustainable Production And Productivity As Prosperity;
▪ Well-being And Decent Life;
▪ Safe, Civilized And Just Society;
▪ Healthy And Balanced Environment;
▪ Good Governance;
▪ Comprehensive Democracy; And
▪ National Unity, Security And Dignity As Happiness

Aid
effectiveness
and Paris
Declaration
39

Accra Agenda for Action (AAA, 2008)
Theories of AAA
Ownership: Countries have more say over their development processes through wider
participation in development policy formulation, stronger leadership on aid co-ordination and
more use of country systems for aid delivery.
Inclusive partnerships: All partners - including donors in the OECD Development Assistance
Committee and developing countries, as well as other donors, foundations and civil society -
participate fully.
Delivering results: Aid is focused on real and measurable impact on development.
Capacity development - to build the ability of countries to manage their own future - also lies at
the heart of the AAA. 40
Designed to strengthen and deepen implementation of the Paris Declaration, the Accra Agenda for Action
(AAA) takes stock of progress and sets the agenda for accelerated advancement towards improving the quality
and impact of aid.The AAA represents an unprecedented alliance of more than 80 developing countries,

Humanitarian Assistance
• Humanitarian Assistance remains a vital aspect of development
• Recent emphasis on encouraging disaster resilience; the ability for communities to
manage shocks and stresses without weakening their prospects for long-term
development
• There are currently 102 million people who require humanitarian assistance and five
emergencies that are classified as L3 for being at the highest emergency level: Syria,
Iraq, Central African Republic, South Sudan and Phillippines (Typhoon Haiyan)
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Cooperatives – new partnerships with the private sector
• The Global Development Co-operative (GDC) was launched in NewYork in November
2011 and aims to support co-operative businesses in developing countries by raising USD
50m to provide access to low cost loans for capital and infrastructure projects.
• The GDC has been developed by the UK’sThe Co-operative Bank – part of the world’s
largest consumer co-operative - and the Alliance.
• Amongst those who have already pledged their financial support for the initiative include
the All China Federation of Supply and Marketing Co-operatives, Credit Cooperatif of
France, SOK Corporation from Finland and IFFCO of India. Mid-Counties Co-operative
as well asThe Co- operative Bank from the UK who have also pledged their support.
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WHAT DOES MEAN BY CONSERVATION
HOW DOES IT LINKS WITH DEVELOPMENT
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CONSERVATION
Conservation is the preservation, protection, care and restoration or efficient use of
resources (in an efficient or ethical manner).
It is the scientific management system of the nature, culture, heritage and resources.
The word “conservation” is emerged from the environmental science, where the study of
nature with the aim of protecting species, their habitats and ecosystems from extinction is
placed in the center.
Conservation relates to managing natural resources (land, water, forests, minerals, marine
resources, biodiversity) for development perspective.
44

In conservation discourse, followings are included:
• The act of conserving something, ranges from natural resources and manmade
heritages
• Preservation, protection, or restoration of natural environment, natural
ecosystems, vegetation, and wildlife, conservation of biodiversity, environment,
and natural resources, including protection and management
• Preservation, repair, and prevention of deterioration of archaeological,
historical, and cultural sites and artifacts.
• Prevention of excessive or wasteful use of a resource
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CONSERVATION AND DEVELOPMENT
• Conservation is a decision-making processes that is influenced by local, national and
international socio-economic factors.
• Conversely, conservation can also significantly affect socio-economic development and
lead to improvements in people’s lives.
• The practice of conservation can promote economic prosperity, support disaster
recovery, and foster social cohesion among different groups.
• Conservation practices have been shaped by factors such as political and economic
development agendas that may or may not correspond to the needs or desires of the
local communities where it is implemented.
46

Map out the impact on people’s wellbeing and quality of life through practice of
conservation
Engage local groups in re-construction and/or development of their socio-cultural life
through the practice of conservation
Cross-disciplinary collaborations between academics and professionals involved in cultural
and environmental conservation (in both practical and theoretical levels)
•Study the prospects of available local resources and to use it.
•Develop ways to make the practice of conservation sustainable
•Find links between material heritage conservation and environmental conservation,
especially in cases where biodiversity and ecology play strong roles in the lives of local
people.
LINKEGE BETWEEN CONSERVATION AND DEVELOPMENT
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Contemporary discourse on conservation and development
Blaikie and Jeanrenaud (1997) identify three conservation paradigms: The classical
approach, populist approach, and the neoliberal approach.
The classical approach sees local people as a direct threat to biodiversity; the populist
approach sees participation and empowerment of local people as a key to findings
solutions to more sustainable use of biodiversity, and the solution in adding economic
value to biodiversity. The securing of economic benefits to incentives for conservation or
so-called sustainable use of prevalent discourse. Neoliberals link it with globalization
48

To address the conservation, a strong realization was made during early 1970s, which prepared
global governance framework for nations to make commitment against disaster and environment
degradation.
In 1972, United Nations Conference on the Human Environment, was conducted in
Stockholm, which raised the issue on generation's awareness of the global environment. The
Stockholm conference secured a permanent place for the environment on the world's agenda and
led to the establishment of the United Nations Environment Program (UNEP).
The conference and its aftermath made known the international nature of the environment and
introduced the idea of the relationship between development and the environment.
It has been said that the only way to unite the countries of the world is for them to face a
common enemy (environmental degradation) to conserve our world.
INTERNATIONAL PRACTIES FOR CONSERVATION
49

In 1987, a report on Our Common Future was published, which declared that the time had
come for a marriage between the environment and the economy and used the term "sustainable
development" as the way to ensure that economic development would not endanger the ability of
future generations to enjoy the fruits of the earth.
On the twentieth anniversary of the Stockholm Conference, the UN hosted a Conference in
1992 on Environment and Development in Rio de Janeiro that focuses on the state of the global
environment and the relationship between economics, science and the environment in a political
context.
The conference sought agreement on concrete measures to reconcile economic activities with
protection of the planet to ensure a sustainable future for all people.
As more than 130 nations' delegates were reached agreement on Agenda 21, an action plan for
developing the planet sustainably, and on a broad statement of principles for protecting forest
and environment. 50
INTERNATIONAL PRACTIES FOR CONSERVATION (Cont..)

New international networks, both formal and informal were set up to carry out and oversee
implementation of the agreements.
Further, the conference highlighted on many issues mainly on poverty, water quality and
availability, cleaner energy, good governance, and tourism.
Post 1992, the United Nations has organized number of World Conferences focusing on
disaster and climate risk management in the context of Sustainable development.
In 1994, Yokohama conference 1994, Kobe conference in 2005, and Sendai conference in
2015 are remarkable for Conservation and development perspective.
In 1994, the Yokohama Strategy for a Safer World, Guidelines for Conservation, Natural
Disaster Prevention, Preparedness and Mitigation and its Plan of Action.
51

• The Yokohama conference established 'Ten principles' for its strategy, a plan of action and a
follow-up.
• Furthermore, the conference brought together government and other stakeholders, such as NGOs,
Civil society, LGs and Private sector to discuss how to strengthen the sustainability of development
by managing disaster and climate risks.
• The conference prepared the Hyogo Framework for Action (HFA) 2005-2015: Building the
resilience of nations and communities to disasters to describe detail contribution and engagement
of all different sectors and actors to reduce disaster losses.
52

The ten principles of theYokohama Strategy for a SaferWorld
1. Risk assessment is a required step for the adoption of adequate and successful disaster reduction policies and measures.
2. Disaster prevention and preparedness are of primary importance in reducing the need for disaster relief.
3. Disaster prevention and preparedness should be considered integral aspects of development policy and planning at national, regional,
bilateral, multilateral and international levels.
4. The development and strengthening of capacities to prevent, reduce and mitigate disasters is a top priority area to be addressed during the
Decade so as to provide a strong basis for follow-up activities to the Decade.
5. Early warnings of impending disasters and their effective dissemination using telecommunications, including broadcast services, are key
factors to successful disaster prevention and preparedness.
6. Preventive measures are most effective when they involve participation at all levels, from the local community through the national
government to the regional and international level.
7. Vulnerability can be reduced by the application of proper design and patterns of development focused on target groups, by appropriate
education and training of the whole community.
8. The international community accepts the need to share the necessary technology to prevent, reduce and mitigate disaster; this should be
made freely available and in a timely manner as an integral part of technical cooperation.
9. Environmental protection as a component of sustainable development consistent with poverty alleviation is imperative in the prevention
and mitigation of natural disasters.
10. Each country bears the primary responsibility for protecting its people, infrastructure, and other national assets from the impact of natural
disasters. The international community should demonstrate strong political determination required to mobilize adequate and make
efficient use of existing resources, including financial, scientific and technological means, in the field of natural disaster reduction, bearing
in mind the needs of the developing countries, particularly the least developed countries. 53

CRITICISMS
• The positive outcome of the Hyogo Framework 2005-2015 is still contentious. To build the resilience
of nations and communities to disasters, 168 countries endorsed the Hyogo Framework for Action in
2005 that agreed to achieve by 2015.
• The commitment was to adopt the comprehensive approach of Conservation and management in lives
and in the social, economic and environmental assets of communities and countries. However, the
national reports of these countries reveal the adoption process is varied from country to country.
• The institutional framework and governance mechanism in many countries remain volatile that pose
government insufficient capacities to implement the program, monitor, deal with and mitigate disasters.
Although many countries have been increasingly taking stock of conservation approach, translating and
linking knowledge of the full range of management; lack of awareness both government and
community level, top-down process in planning and inadequate/unequal distribution of resources,
reliance on outdated or dysfunctional systems of conservation and management, civil society including
NGO coordination mechanism and inability to access technological data created ineffectiveness of
conservative initiatives. 54

POLICY, ACT, RULES, REGULATIONS AND GUIDELINES RELATED TO CONSERVATION
The Master Plan for the Forestry Sector, 1989 is considered as a basic policy document.
The following are the major documents related to the policy, Act, Rules and Regulations.
National Conservation Strategy 1988
Master Plan for the Forestry Sector Nepal 1989
Forest Act 1993
Community Forestry Directives 1994
Forest rules 1995
Revised Forestry sector Policy 2000
Leasehold Forest Policy 2002
Five- year Periodic Plans (Current 10th: 2002- 07)
Operational Guidelines (revised) 2002
National Biodiversity Strategy 2002
M & E concept and strategies 2002
Collaborative Forest Management Guideline 2003
Forest Products Auctioning Procedure 2003
NG Service Providers Guideline 2003
Terai Arc Landscape-Broad Strategies 2004
Forest Nationalization Act 2013 (B.S.)
Plant Protection Act 2029 B.S.
Environment Protection Act 2053 B.S.
National Parks and Wildlife Protection Act 2029 B.S.
Local Self Government Act 2055 B.S.
Land Act 2019 B.S.
Plant Protection Rules 2031 B.S.
Environment Protection Rules 2054 B.S.
Local Government Regulations 2056 B.S.
Forest Inventory Guidelines 2057 B.S.
Land Revenue Act 2034 B.S.
Procedural Guidelines for the sale of Forest Products
2060 B.S.
NG Service Provider’s Service and Procurement
Guidelines, MFSC, 2004
Wetland Policy 2059 B.S.
IEE/EIA Review Guidelines 2060 B.S. 55

2.1.4 Concept and Evolution of Sustainable Development
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• The term “sustainable development” first came to prominence in the world Conservation Strategy
(WCS) in 1980
It achieved a new status with the publication of two significant reports by Brundtalnd on: North and
South: a programme for survival and common crisis (1985) and
Our Common Future (1983) and has gained even greater attention since the United Nations
Conference on Environment and Development (UNCED) held in Rio de Jenerio in June 1992.
.
Introduction of sustainable development

• Sustainable development is development that meets the needs of the present without
compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs.
• Gro Harlem Brundtland first introduced the concept of sustainable development in
1987. He was then the Prime Minister of Norway and chairman of theWorld
Commission on Environment and Development.
Sustainable Development

Improvement
of lifestyles
and well-being
Preserving
natural
resources and
ecosystems
Sustainable
Development
Sustainable Development

➢ The landmark event in the evolution of the concept of sustainable development had
been the 1972:
• Stockholm Conference on the Human Environment convened by the United
Nations, the report of the
• World Commission on Environment and Development (WCED),
➢ Our Common Future and the 1992 United Nations:
• Conference on Environment and Development (UNCED) or Rio Earth Summit
as it is commonly
• referred to.The many activities between successive landmark events sought to build
on the outcome of the previous event, to clarify issues, and to provide inputs into
the preparatory process of the following events.
Evolution of Sustainable Development Concept
From Rio to Johannesburg

➢The UN established the Commission on Sustainable Development (CSD) in
December 1992 to ensure an effective follow-up of UNCED and to monitor and
report on the implementation of the Earth Summit agreements at the local, national,
regional, and international levels
➢A (Rio+5) Special Session of the General Assembly, held ion June 1997, adopted a
comprehensive programe for further implementation of Agenda 21 as well as the work
programe of the CSD for 1997-2002.
➢The Kyoto Protocol adopted in December 1997 and the Conferences of the Parties
(COPs), held over the years, have made some advances relating to clarification of various
aspects of financing and implementing sustainable development globally.

Aim of SD
• Maximizing the probability of achieving sustainable
development.
• Minimizing the chances of environmental
degradation.

The proposed sustainable development goals are:
1. End poverty in all its forms everywhere;
2. End hunger, achieve food security and improved nutrition, and promote
sustainable agriculture;
3. Ensure healthy lives and promote well-being for all at all ages;
4. Ensure inclusive and equitable quality education and promote life-long learning
opportunities for all;
5. Achieve gender equality and empower all women & girls
6. Ensure availability and sustainable management of water and sanitation for all;
7. Ensure access to affordable, reliable, sustainable, and modern energy for all;
8. Promote sustained, inclusive and sustainable economic growth, full and
productive employment and decent work for all;
65

Four Major Components of SD
• The climatic change.
• Nutrient cycles.
• Hydrological cycle.
• Bio-diversity.

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Reinforcing Pillars of Sustainable Development
Social
Development
Environ-
mental
Protection
Economic Develop-
ment
Source: United Nations 2005World Summit Outcome Document

A Fourth Pillar
“…cultural diversity is as necessary for humankind as biodiversity is for nature.”
Sustainable development cannot be understood “simply in terms of economic
growth, but also as a means to achieve a more satisfactory intellectual, emotional,
moral and spiritual existence”.
Source: Universal Declaration on Cultural Diversity (UNESCO, 2001)

Culture: how human beings make
➢how people think, learn and solve problems, what they value and respect, what
attracts and delights them, what offends them and their sense of what is
appropriate
➢the soil in which the tree of identity has its roots
➢manifests itself in human relations,
systems of organization, technology,
arts, politics, economics, community life - all the things that
humans do.

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Putting it All
Together
Cultural
Diversity
Social
Develop-
ment
Environmental
Protection
Economic
Develop-
ment

The principles of a sustainable society are
• Respect and care for the community of life.
• Improve the quality of human life.
• Conserve the Earth's vitality and diversity.
• Minimize the depletion of non-renewable resources.
• Keep within the Earth's carrying capacity.
• Change attitudes and practices.
• Enable communities to care for their own environments.
• Provide a national framework for integrating development and conservation.
• Create a global alliance.

Sustainability principles
• Reduce dependence upon fossil fuel,underground metals, and minerals
• Reduce dependence upon synthetic chemicals and other unnatural substances
• Reduce encroachment upon nature
• Meet human needs fairly & efficiently.

Sustainability issues are to beanalysedatvariouslevel
• Global level - Ozone depletion;
• Climate change; and
• Air pollution
• Regional, National or Area-level
Water pollution -Water depletion - Deforestation- Fisheries depletion -
Biodiversity- Desertification and Erosion.
• -Local level - a plot, a farm or a village
Soil losses - Loss of soil quality (chemical or physical) - Loss of farm
income

PROBLEMS
• Where poverty and population pressure
“intersect”
• Human and their environment suffer.a

What is Needed to Achievethe sustainable development ?
• Eco Friendly
• Present generation should aware for needs of presence and future
generation.
• And also ensure the productive assets available to future
generation are not.
• Such technologies need to be developed and implemented which help to
conserve resources,
• Prevent unnecessary pollution and help restore the environment wherever
appropriate.

• Build resilient infrastructure, promote inclusive and sustainable industrialization and
foster innovation;
• Reduce inequality within and among countries;
• Make cities and human settlements inclusive, safe, resilient and sustainable;
• Ensure sustainable consumption and production patterns;
• Take urgent action to combat climate change and its impacts;
• Conserve and sustainably use the oceans, seas and marine resources for sustainable
development;
• Protect, restore and promote sustainable use of terrestrial ecosystems, sustainably
manage forests, combat desertification, and halt and reverse land degradation and halt
biodiversity loss;
• Promote peaceful and inclusive societies for sustainable development, provide access to
justice for all and build effective, accountable and inclusive institutions at all levels;
• Strengthen the means of implementation and revitalize the global partnership for
sustainable development. 76

RecentTrends in Development with reference to Nepal
• SDGs/ MDGS/ Post-2015 Development Agenda;
• LDC Graduation 2020/2032 and Nepal's Graduation from LDC to DC 2022;
• Access to Energy: SE4All by 2030;
• Open Defecation Free (ODF) world 2030 (Nepal 2017);
• Poverty eradication by 2030;
• Education for all (Nepal) by 2015;
• Conflict/ peace sensitive development;
• Climate change, REDD+ etc.;
• New Constitution as panacea for overall development;
• Federalization for accelerated development.
77

2.2 Development Approaches
2.2.1 Classical
2.2.2 Populist
2.2.3 Neo-liberal
2.2.4 Livelihood
78

2.2.1 Concept of Development
Meaning:
Almost every writer (economist, educationist, political scientist, bureaucrat etc.) defines ‘development’
differently depending upon one’s own orientation. Generally, ‘development’ can be defined:
• as a state or condition-static;
• as a process/course of change- dynamic;
It is a multi-dimensional process involving reorganization and reorientation of entire socio-economic
system.
As a process, it improves the quality of all human lives.

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• Development is a dynamic process which is changed according to the existing political,
social and economic system of the state.
• It transforms the spontaneous political, economic and social structures of the society into
emergent stage.
• Development can be defined by two conditions: economic development, and social
development.
• Economic development is related to economic growth and increasing per capita income of
citizens.
• Social development is related to social service deliveries such as education, health, drinking
water and many instances infrastructural services.
• However, economic or social development is determined by changing conditions of
political culture, process and access of public participation in the political system.
What is Development Approaches

Objectives of Development
a) Raising peoples’standard of living through enhanced income, consumption, medical
services, education;
b) Creating conditions conducive to the growth of peoples’ self-esteem through the
establishment of social, political and economic systems and institutions which
promote human dignity and respect;
c) Increasing peoples’ freedom to choose by enlarging the range of their choice
variables, e.g. varieties of goods and services;
d) Other objectives associated to (human, societal) development.

Dimensions of Development:
• Political: participation, contending perspectives and interests seeking to influence
the formulation of the general principles at the HR Commissions;
• Economic: focusing on equity and poverty reduction in the policies and practices in
the financing of development;
• Social: social services, willingness of several development agencies to integrate in
HR concepts with respects to RTD.
In essence, food, education, health and voice of the vulnerable groups including the
women.

Interpretations of Development
• Development as Economic Growth- too often commodity output as opposed to
people is emphasized-measures of growth in GNP.
• Development as Modernization- emphasizes process of social change which is
required to produce economic advancement; examines changes in social,
psychological and political processes;
• Development as Distributive Justice- view development as improving basic needs
particularly for the target groups include small farmers, landless, urban under-
employed and unemployed people;
• Marxism emphasizes on the Mode of Production - elements and activities necessary
to produce and reproduce real, material life;
• Capitalist (market economy) mode depends on wage labor whose labor power
produces a surplus which is accumulated and appropriated by the employer-result is
often class conflict in capitalist societies;

• Development as Economic Growth- too often commodity output as opposed to people is emphasized-
measures of growth in GNP.
• Gross domestic product (GDP) is the total monetary or market value of all the finished goods and
services produced within a country's borders in a specific time period. As a broad measure of overall
domestic production, it functions as a comprehensive scorecard of a given country's economic
health.
• GNP measures the output generated by a country's businesses located domestically or abroad. It can
be defined as a piece of economic statistic that comprises Gross Domestic Product (GDP), and
income earned by the residents from investments made overseas.
• Development as Modernization- emphasizes process of social change which is required to produce
economic advancement; examines changes in social, psychological and political processes;
• Development as Distributive Justice- view development as improving basic needs particularly for the
target groups include small farmers, landless, urban under-employed and unemployed people;
• DEVELOPMENT AS AVISION: a vision or description of how desirable a society is.TheVisions of
Development briefing explores these further.
• DEVELOPMENT AS ACTION: deliberate efforts to change things for the better. For example,
providing food aid to alleviate hunger.
Interpretation of Development

2.2.1 Classical Approach:
• classical Approach is an orthodox theory, which focuses on optimum agrarian system of
the agricultural economy to maximize the social efficiency of production.
• Classical Approach begun in 1776 and ended around 1870 with the beginning of
neoclassical economics, which focuses on the natural outcome of the free market forces.
• Neoclassical economics is a broad theory that focuses on supply and demand as the
driving forces behind the production, pricing, and consumption of goods and services. It
emerged in around 1900 to compete with the earlier theories of classical economics.
• Adam Smith, Jean-Baptiste Say, David Ricardo, Thomas Malthus, and John Stuart Mill
were major contributors in which they focused on the organization rather than the
employees working therein. According to them organization is considered as a machine
and the human beings as different components/parts of the machine. 85

• Classical approach reoriented the economics from individual interests to national
interests. It focuses on the growth in the wealth of nations and promotes policies that
create national expansion. During this period, theorists developed the theory of value
or price. It analyzed and explained the price of goods and services in addition to the
exchange value.
• State intervention was necessary to remedy the defects of the market to ensure that
production will be maximized in the long run.
• They also believed in radical changes such as redistribution of productive assets and
reshuffling of property rights.
86
Classical Approach (Cont..):

Characteristics of the Classical Approach
• It is built on an accounting model.
• It is more concerned with the amount of output than the human beings.
• The human beings are considered to be relatively homogeneous and unmodifiable.
Thus, labor is not divided on the basis of different kinds of jobs to be performed in
an organization.
• It is assumed that employees are relatively stable in terms of the change, in an
organization.
• It is assumed that the authority and control should be vested with the central authority
only, in order to have a centralized and integrated system.
87

• Self regulating markets: classical theorists believed that free markets regulate themselves when
they are free of any intervention. Adam Smith referred to the market's ability to self-regulate
as the "invisible hand" because markets move towards their natural equilibrium without
outside intervention.
• Flexible prices: Prices are flexible for goods and wages. They also assumed that money only
affects price and wage levels.
• Supply creates its own demand: Classical theorists believed that supply creates its own
demand. Production will generate an income enough to purchase all of the output produced.
• Equality of savings and investment: flexible interest rates will always maintain equilibrium.
• Calculating real GDP: The real GDP can be calculated without knowing the money supply or
inflation rate.
Characteristics of the Classical Approach (cont..)
88

2.2.2 Populist Approach
• The term populism is concerned with democratic and authoritarian movements. Populism is typically
critical of political representation and anything that mediates the relation between the people and their
leader or government. In its most democratic form, populism seeks to defend the interests and maximize
the power of ordinary citizens, through reform rather than revolution.
• This is the perspective of process of agrarian, which is emerged by Chayanov in Russia in the first
quarter of the 20th century which is known as "populist school".
• This is a systematic theory of peasant economy based on the specific structure of peasant economy.
• This school argued that the peasantry is homogeneous and composed of comparable household farm
units.There is are various instances to polarize the classes between economic classes.
• Although the polarization of the peasantry into rural bourgeoisie and proletariat is less chances as
production system, the overall distribution of land apparently differentiated the peasants into polarized
groups.
• The populist school deals with a number of primary issues of the agrarian questions. such as raising the
technical level of agricultural production through agricultural extension work and cooperative
organization, at the same time conserving the peasant institutional framework of the family small
holding. 89

• The peasant economy is not provoked to increase the economic inequalities and class antagonisms of
bourgeoisie industrial society: there was no tendency to create increasing groups of rich and poor or
landless.
• The populists school ignores the law of value to peasant commodity production. Further, they
abandons the notions of wages and profit, variable capital and surplus-value in economic analysis of
peasants. Peasants sought to rate of profit maximize total or the marginal factor income, not the
product of labor.
At the theoretical level, Chayanov drew the following points.
First, peasant economy involves an intrinsic social selection: 'self-exploitation of labor power.
Second, peasant economy reproduces itself through the family. The family is the progenitor of the family
life-cycle and of population growth. It expresses the fact that the aim of production is household
consumption, not feudal rent or bourgeoisie profit.
Third, peasant economy embodies a contradiction between human needs and the forces of production.
But this contradiction is not antagonistic. Not only is the scale of peasant production technically
appropriate, it is also more efficient and more competitive than capitalist production 90

What is a populist? Criticism
No definition of populism will fully describe all populists.That’s because
populism is a “thin ideology” in that it “only speaks to a very small part of a
political agenda,” according to Cas Mudde, a professor at the University of
Georgia and the co-author of Populism: AVery Short Introduction.
An ideology like fascism involves a holistic view of how politics, the economy, and
society should be ordered. Populism doesn’t; it calls for kicking out the political
establishment, but it doesn’t specify what should replace it. So, it’s usually paired
with “thicker” left- or right-wing ideologies like socialism or nationalism.
91

2.2.3 Neo-liberal Approach
• Neo-liberalism has become a dominant ideology since last decade of 1970s in
political discourse to shape the national strategies and international commitments,
which is theorized under the framework of Marxism. However, the wide
application of this approach has been made in capitalism.
• Neo-liberalism is a renewable form of the liberalism, which belongs mainly with a
political ideology, covers the freedom and democracy as a primary value of policy
discourse. According to Harvey (2005) neo-liberalism is guided by liberal
democracies, which gives priority to the self-regulating market including individual
freedom and well-being, efficient resource allocation, and optimum utilization of
goods and services.
92

• Thorsen and Lie (2000) have identified four basic elements of neo-liberalism.
Firstly, it has re-conceptualized the role of government. This describes state as a safeguard has
created safety nets to encourage the domestic stakeholders explicitly involve in service delivery
functions on the basis of more competitive system. This allows their involvement mainly in
education, health and other public services in a certain degree. In this regards, neo-liberalism has
also encouraged the private sectors and civil society actors in the service provision.
Secondly, there is an extensive program of domestic deregulation. A central concept of neo-
liberalism is a ‘flexible’ labor market, with maximum freedom for employers.
Thirdly, neo-liberalism is based around the breaking down of national economic barriers. It
strongly advocates the removal of capital and exchange controls and the opening up of financial
markets to foreign investment.
Lastly, neo-liberalism is quite compatible with ‘Keynesian’ policies of encouraging government
spending, cutting taxes and lowering interest rates in order to increase economic growth.
93

• Following to address the link of neo-liberalism, efforts was made to link with the first
elements elaborated with; it has re-conceptualized the role of government. In Nepal, when the
Structural Adjustment Program was formulated in late 1980s, the neo-liberalism has been
appreciated with an agenda of liberal markets, allocative efficiency, and client-orientated
service delivery.
• Since then, the major policies, and strategies (poverty reduction and good governance) of the
state have been guided under the major framework neoliberalism.
• In the Rural development, it focuses on inclusive participation of communities; institutional
capacity building of their institutions, and equal access of people in basic services.
• Peoples' institutions have played a key role in basic service delivery. The experiences show the
grassroots of Nepal has an extreme economic and social condition, arisen by limited economic
opportunities, lack of sufficient social services, and poor governance.
• Rural development can link to neo-liberalism to improve the basic services through multiple
agencies such as central and local government, private sectors, civil societies, and local
communities. 94

2.2.4 Livelihood Approach
• Livelihood refers "means of securing the basic necessities -food, water, shelter and
clothing- of life".
• Livelihood is defined as a set of activities, involving securing water, food, fodder,
medicine, shelter, clothing and the capacity to acquire above necessities working
either individually or as a group by using endowments (both human and material) for
meeting the requirements of the self and his/her household on a sustainable basis
with dignity.
95

• Livelihood studies were brought to the center stage of development studies in the late
1990s and the beginning of the new millennium, when the so-called Sustainable
Livelihood Framework was strongly promoted by UK government.
• The livelihood approach focuses very much on how people organized their lives, more
on opportunities and more on agency, rather than concentrating on their
impoverishment . For example, Natural capital was considered very important in rural
areas, while in urban areas it was considered less relevant as compared to shelter and
wage labor.
2.2.4 Livelihood Approach (Cont..)
96

• Livelihood comprises the capabilities, assets (stores, resources, claims and
access) and activities required for a means of living: a livelihood is sustainable
which can cope with or recover from stress and shocks, maintain or enhance its
capabilities and assets and provide sustainable livelihood opportunities for the
next generation.
• livelihoods rarely refer to a single activity. It includes complex, contextual,
diverse and dynamic strategies developed by households to meet their needs”
2. 2. 4 Livelihood Approach (Cont..)
97

• Amartya Sen argues that under this framework, 'development' should be viewed not
only in terms of economic measures, but also in terms of the real 'freedoms' that
people can enjoy.
• He explains two basic normative approaches. These are the freedom to achieve well-
being in terms of primary moral importance; and the people's capabilities.
• Amartya Sen pioneered this theory in 1980, by introducing the livelihood approach
through his popular contribution ‘Equality of What?’. The conceptual connection in
this theory is based on Aristotelian theory of political distribution and human
flourishing.
2. 2 4 Livelihood Approach (Cont..)
98

• He pays more attention to capabilities and commodities through the
distinction of means and ends, functionings and capabilities, and freedom of
public choice.
• The means are the inputs of livelihood, whereas the ends are interpersonal
capabilities of various ‘doings’ and ‘beings’.
• The livelihood approach can best be described as functionings that deal with
the ability of persons or organizations to achieve the ends that are enabled by
means or different types of inputs, such as non-market, market, and public
welfare inputs.
99

• Sen (1999) argues that people are deprived from nutrition and access to basic entitlements,
such as high-quality education, genuine political participation and community activities.
• To address such capabilities, financial resources and economic production are considered the
main inputs.
• Similarly, political exercise, institutional mechanisms, such as freedom of thought, collective
voices and actions, effective participation in the democratic process and political activities,
social or cultural practices, social structures, social institutions, public goods, social norms,
traditions and values are key components required to bolster these capabilities.
• Livelihood approach integrates basic services for social and economic wellbeing.
100

• Rural development aims towards strengthening the livelihood of people in accessing
and using basic service mechanisms.
• However, the current trend shows that Rural development without adequate financial
resources and an enabling environment are unable to choose the freedom in basic
services such as education, health facilities, drinking water and sanitation, mobility
and other livelihood activities.
• The application of the livelihood approach can empower powerless people and
encourage them to become part of the community with a collective voice’ and the
means to ‘collective action’.
• Some critics indicate that the livelihood approach has focused on supply side and
upward accountability of government mechanism, and too little on society and
community
101

Critics of Development Approach
• Avoids ‘grand theories’ and emphasizes solutions viewed in context of development
which is part of historical process
• Context of development is constantly changing in scale and time
• Accommodates geographical and historical diversity at larger
• Theory of little use to practitioners of development
• Stresses local diversity, human creativity, process of social change through pragmatism,
flexibility and context
• Not extent of state intervention but comparative advantages of public and private
sectors and their complementarity
102

Problems of Underdevelopment
Characteristics of underdevelopment:
• low per capita income,
• low literacy and educational attainment,
• lack of basic services- water and power,
• Other characteristics: political instability, conflict etc.
• Absence of development caused by certain physical environments, particular cultural
traditions and value systems-environmental and cultural determinism;
• Lack of natural resources certainly impediment to development but not impossible-
example of Japan.

• Bottom-up approaches (as opposed to top-down) to peoples’
participation are important in this view
• How are various social groups and classes affected by rural-urban,
core-periphery and other spatial interactions?
• Growing importance of “decentralization” of decision-making and
authority from center to periphery
Needs to foresee
104

• How does the power structure affect development?
• Examine sources of empowerment, inequality and discrimination
• Need to devise more people centered approaches which stress empowerment
and participation
• Empowerment as participatory development seeks to engender self-help and
self-reliance but also effective collective decision-making
Needs to foresee
105

2. 3THERIES
106
2.3.1 Development strategies and poverty alleviation
2.3.3 Modernization theory
2.3.4 Neo-liberalization
2.3.5 Environmentalism
2.3.6 Sustainable development
2.3.7 Feminist theory

Keynesian GrowthTheory for development(1940s):
• Process of capital formation is determined by savings and investment;
• Domestic savings are channeled to productive investments such as manufacturing which
result –usually-in high productivity;
• Growth is market driven as income levels rise, savings rises and frees capital for
alternative investment;
(John M. Keyns: The GeneralTheory of Employment, Interest and Money, 1936).
2. 3. 1 Major Development Strategies

• Neo-colonial Dependence:
• Existence of underdevelopment due to historical evolution of an unequal international
capitalist system of rich country-poor country relations;
• Sets up center (developed countries) versus periphery (developing countries) contrast;
• Attempts to become self-reliant and progressive are suppressed by this relationship;
• Elites in the developing world (e.g landlords, entrepreneurs, merchants) enjoy high
incomes, social status and political power and thus perpetuate inequality and
conformity and Elites serve international power groups such as multi-national firms,
assistance agencies e rewarded;
• (World Bank) and other agents.
Major Development Strategies (Cont..)

Growth Pole approach (F. Perroux 1955)
• Development of a core region or growth pole.
• Leading to spread effects benefiting the country as a whole.
• Development of a specific location through agglomeration (Special Economic Zones,
Economic Processing Zones).
• Economies of scale of the largest urban centers would provide higher rates of return
on investment, support the commercial services needed by the industries to operate
efficiently and bring about the diversification of the growth pole’s economy.
• Spread and backwash effects to be realized (complementarities of agricultural
production and manufacturing through backward and forward linkages in the
hinterland and urban centers).

Trickle down approach:
• Richer individuals and larger companies are the thriving force behind economic
growth.
• The wealth created by the more successful parts of the economy and more successful
people will naturally tricle down and benefit everyone.
• Low taxation and lack of regulation is expected.

Agro-politan Development (J. Friedman 1975)
• Any larger urban centers in rural area tend to exploit the rural people. The urban elites,
traders, local industries, and the investment in the urban centers will drain resources away
from the rural population.
• To overcome this process, investment should be concentrated in the rural areas where the
masses have access to facilities and services.
• Three essential conditions for successful agro-politan development: selective territorial
closure, the communalization of productive wealth, the equalization of access to the
bases for the accumulation of social power against the dominance of elites’ power.

Self-reliant territorial development:
J. Friedman, 1979 devised five principles of SRTD:
• aims to diversify the territorial economy;
• maximum development of physical resources consistent with principles of conservation;
• encourage the expansion of regional and inter-regional markets;
• base as much as possible on principles of self-reliance; and
• promote social learning.

IRDP 1970s
• Poverty alleviation and meeting basic needs of the rural people become the core
objective of IRDP.
• Economic growth (increased agricultural and off farm production, increased
productivity, higher rural incomes, improved infrastructures and technological
modernization in the countryside) and poverty alleviation (transfer of assets to and
creation of jobs for the poor and the satisfaction of their basic minimum needs) were
the two major thrusts of IRDP. Its elements are:
• multi-sectoral nature of projects;
• limitation of the area of intervention (area planning, district planning);
• emphacis on local participation and mobilization; and
• explicit reference to poverty alleviation and to the basic minimum needs of the poor.

Basic Needs Approach (ILO 1972)
• Shifting from growth-oriented development strategy the basic needs approach was
proposed as a new focal point for development.
• ILO (1977) defines it as under:
– minimum requirements of a family for consumption are adequate food, shelter and clothing in
cluding household equipment and furniture.
– Essential services provided by for the community at large, i.e., safe drinking water, sanitation,
public transport, health and education facilities.

Functional-spatial Integration (D. Rondinelli, 1983)
• It is about the integrated spatial development.
• Development encompasses rural and urban areas.
• Without an articulated and integrated system of growth centers- as opposed to one or few
growth poles- the impulses of concentrated investment couldn’t spread and the economic
incentives for widespread productivity could not be created.
• A decentralized concentration is needed.
• A crucial element in providing the basic preconditions for the commercialization of
agriculture is a well articulated and integrated system of settlements in which services and
facilities can be efficiently located and to which rural people have easy access.
WID, WAD, GAD (1980s):
Women in Development, Women & Development, Gender & Development.

Decentralization:
• Bottom up or grass roots development.
• Local involvement in the DM process, where local people identify their needs for effective
solution.
• Use apt technology.
• Long term aim is sustainability.
Regional Development/ Balanced Development:
• focus on developing the peripheral regions.
• Reduce regional disparities which develop from an uneven development of the core periphery.
• Attempts to reduce rural to urban migration.
• Investments in infrastructures-transportation, communication and electricity to link the region
more with the core.
• Increase the social amenities.

Right to Development (RTD) 1970s/80s:
• Advocated since 1972 (Int'l Institute of HR);
• Popularly known as the third-generation human rights (first generation: civil and political rights;
second generation: economic, social and cultural rights);
• Consists: solidarity rights, and issues of global concerns (development, environment, humanitarian
assistance, peace, communication, and common heritage);
• Development policies to meet the human centered and participatory elements of the definition
contained in the Declaration;
• Fair distribution of benefits of development and non-discrimination in development;
• Empowerment of civil society.

World Bank Model:
• WB has adopted several new policies and programs geared to promoting a more
holistic, participatory, and results-based approach to development and poverty
reduction.
• This approach incorporates the notion that development must be
• inclusive,
• comprehensive, and
• country-owned
• in order to be effective and sustainable over the long term.
118

✓1960s-- United Nations Economic Commission for Latin America.
✓Main Authors: Fernando H. Cardoso, Faletto,Theotonio Dos Santos.
✓MainThesis: Underdevelopment is not the product of the persistence
of “traditional” society; instead, it is generated by the particular fashion
the expansion of capitalism assumes in the “periphery.”

Developmentalist aproches are wrong.The expansión
of the market does not necessarily produce either
modernization or development.
On the contrary, capitalism makes societies look like
“feudal” in the periphery.

Development and underdevelopment constitute
the two sides of the same coin: capitalism.
The periphery is underdeveloped because of the
development of the center.

(Underdeveloped)
Periphery
(Developed)C
enter
Flows of Wealth

The play between Center and Periphery
reproduces in all scales (fractal structure)
Center Periphery
Center-Periphery Center-Periphery
Center-Periphery-Center-Periphery Center-Periphery Center-Periphery
Unequal and Combined Development:

Elites
Center (Ex: England, the
U.S.)
DEPENDENT DEVELOPMENT
The State and the Nation split apart
(capitalist) (popular)
Sovereign States
Non-
sovereign
States

Modernization, Industrialization, Urbanization,
to Development do not lead in the periphery.
Instead, they foster Underdevelopment, a
“caricature” of the central societies.
Against Rostow, Huntington, Moore, and... Marx,
Cardoso and Faletto argue that...

In the periphery, the development
of capitalism leads to...
• Dependent and unequal development (distorted, uneven, and pathological form of
modernization).
• Increasing dependency.

Politically...
• (economic and social
integration fosters)
Democracies, extended
citizenship, and the rule of
law, which PREVAIL in the
Center
Free market + Democracy
• (economic and social
exclusion fosters)
Dictatorships (or Formal
Democracies), State violence,
limited citizenship, and the
(un)rule of law, which
PREVAIL in the Periphery.
Alliance:
the State + Corporations
Free market + Repression

SOLUTION: BREAK
UP THE BONDS OF
DEPENDENCY

Since
Dependency = Capitalism,
Breaking with dependency= Socialism

Cardoso & Faletto identify three main strategies to break
the dependency bonds
(target: the State)
1. Guerrilla movements organized against military dictatorships (ex: Argentina
1969-1975)
2. The Democratic Path: Salvador Allende’s government (1970-1973)
3. Military Reformism (ex: Perú)
Importance of politics.

South East Asia...
• The explosive economic growth in South East Asia at the beginning
of the 1980s was considered by most scholars the demise of the
dependency theory.
• Argument: the dependency theory cannot explain such a process of growth.

Farhan Ahmad faiz 132
2.3.3 ModernizationTheory

133
Historical background to modernization theory
1 Post world war two’s deepening poverty in some countries
2 Ideological competition from communism
3 Increasing unrest in some countries
4 The above posed a threat to capitalism, and especially the USA
5 This led to the development of modernisation theory (mainly by US economists and policy
makers)

134
• Modernization theory focuses specifically on a type of modernization thought to have
originated in Europe during the 17th century, which brought social mores and technological
achievements into a new epoch.
• In the 1950s and early 1960s modernization theory was developed by a number of social
scientists, particularly a group of American scholars the most prominent of whom was Talcott
Parsons.
• Much of this interest in modernization was prompted by the decline of the old colonial
empires.
• Modernization theory is a grand theory encompassing many different disciplines as it seeks to
explain how society progresses, what variables affect that progress, and how societies can react
to that progress.
Modernization theory

135
Modernization theory
• For a country to seen as modern, modernization theorists it has to undergo an
evolutionary advance in science and technology which in turn would lead to an
increased standard for all.

136
The modernization theorists aim
a) explain why poorer countries failed to evolve into modern societies
b) Reduce the spread of communism by presenting capitalist values as the solution to
poverty
• The Third World became a focus of attention by politicians who were keen to show
countries pushing for independence that sustained development was possible under the
western wing (rather. than that of the Soviet Union).
• Academics reflected this interest by examining the socio-economic conditions conducive
to modernization.

Rostow’s evolutionary ladder of development (economic factors)
3 Take-off: high economic
growth and investment in
infrastructure begins
4 The drive to maturity: economic
and cultural factors lead to increasing
prosperity for all
5 The age of high Mass
consumption

Rostow's Stages of Growth
▪Walt Rostow wrote in the late 50's and early 60's in response to the many seemingly successful
Marxist theories of economic development
▪Marxist writers had developed a number of stages through which a country had to pass, Rostow came
up with a similar list.
138

Stage One:Traditional Society
“A traditional society is one whose structure is developed within limited production functions.
• Low productivity agriculture is a large %
of the economy
• Political power dominates economic power
• Low rates of investment ( < 5% of GDP)
• Inefficient property rights
139
1. Traditional Society
Characterised by
subsistence economy –
output not traded or
recorded
existence of barter
high levels of agriculture
and labour intensive
agriculture

StageTwo: Preconditions forTake Off
• Conditions:
• Transfer resources from agriculture to
manufacturing
• Shift from regional to
national/international focus
• Must shift away from having children
• People must be rewarded not for their
“connections” but their economic abilities
140
2. Pre-conditions:
Development of mining
industries
Increase in capital use in
agriculture
Necessity of external
funding
Some growth in savings
and investment

StageThree:Take-off
• Short period (20-30 years) of intensive growth
• In this short period, we get
• increase in investment: “[I] regard as a necessary but not
sufficient condition for the take-off the fact that the net
investment rise from 5% to over 10%…”
• development of a leading sector
• emergence of new institutions
• “The take-off is the interval when the old blocks and
resistances to steady growth are finally overcome.The forces
making for economic progress, which yielded limited bursts
and enclaves of modern activity, expand and come to dominate
the society. Growth becomes its normal condition.
141
3. Take off:
Increasing
industrialisation
Further growth in savings
and investment
Some regional growth
Number employed in
agriculture declines

Stage Four: Drive to maturity
• “…for these purposes we define it as the
period when a society has effectively applied
the range of (then) modern technology to the
bulk of its resources.”
• Occurs roughly 60 years after take-off---
• Increase in investment (10% to 20%)
• Development of modern capitalist economy
and self-sustained growth Pass to Stage Five:
High Mass Consumption
142
Farhan Ahmad faiz
4. Drive to Maturity:
Growth becomes self-
sustaining – wealth
generation enables further
investment in value adding
industry and development
Industry more diversified
Increase in levels of
technology utilised
5. High mass consumption
High output levels
Mass consumption of
consumer durables
High proportion of
employment in service
sector

Criticism:
• Too simplistic
• Necessity of a financial infrastructure to channel any savings that are made into investment
• Will such investment yield growth? Not necessarily
• Need for other infrastructure – human resources (education), roads, rail, communications
networks
• Efficiency of use of investment – in palaces or productive activities?
• Rostow argued economies would learn from one another and reduce the time taken to
develop – has this happened?

In conclusion two general remarks can be made
First, modernization theory is clearly an oversimplified model of development that lacks two
essential ingredients: an adequate historical input and a structural perspective.
1. Historically, it ignores a wealth of evidence, which indicates that the process of economic growth
cannot be encapsulated in simplistic notion about the. displacement of 'traditional values systems
and institutions by 'modern' ones.
2. Structurally, the theory is insensitive to the specific ways in which factors for economic growth such
as the introduction of new technology or markets may be interpreted, or modified or
accommodated within existing social relationships. In addition, the, inequalities of power and social
class that structure these relationships are virtually ignored.
Conclusion

Introduction
▪ Neo-liberalism: new forms of political economic
governance premised on market
▪ Jane Johnson used neo-liberal as a general descriptor for post-
welfare state citizenship regimes.

Neo-liberalism
Neo-liberalism: preference for a minimalist
state
Markets as a better way of economic
activity:
Competition
Economic Efficiency
Choice
Neo-liberalism as a policy framework
portray it as:
Neo-liberalism as an ideology &
Conceptualizing Neo-liberalism through the
lens of Governmentality

Neo-liberalism as Policy
▪ Neo-liberalism as a shift from:
KeynesianWelfarism Market
▪ The ideas of Neo-liberalism is understood on 5 values
The Individual
Freedom of Choice
Market Security
Laissez Faire &
Minimal Government
▪ The agenda of Neo-liberalism:
➢ popularized by think tanks + corporate decision makers
➢ backed byWorld Bank and IMF
▪ The adoption of this system is influenced by key politicians; such as- Thatcher and Reagan.

Neo-liberalism as Policy
Neo-liberalism: (to a large extent)
emasculated state control over national economies
Increased social and spatial polarization
exaggerated swings in business cycle
Janine Brodie observed:
“changing public expectations about citizenship
entitlements, the collective provision of social needs and the
efficacy of welfare state has been a critical victory of neo-
liberalism.”
New Zealand: Despite the unpopularity of “free market
revolution”
Political Claims are framed in the language of
choice, flexibility and market.

Neo-Iiberalism as Govemmentality
The most influential post-structuralist theorization of neo-liberalism is that associated with
the neo- Foucauldian literature on governmentality
They showed a distinction between government and governance. Neo liberalism has less
government but not less governance
On one hand, neo-liberalism problematizes the state and is concerned to specify its
limits through the invocation of individual choice
On the other hand it involves forms of governance that encourage both institutions
and individuals to conform to the norms of the market which can be termed as
‘market governance’.

Social policy reform is linked to a new specification of the object of governance which
resulted from innovative analyses of welfare state restructuring, was inspired by
governmentality
Neo-liberal strategies of rule, found in diverse realms including workplaces, educational
institutions and health and welfare agencies, encourage people to see themselves as
individualized and active subjects
Concept of ‘Active Society’ and ‘Workon ourselves’.
In association with this "degovernmentalization“ of the welfare state, competition and
consumer demand have supplanted the norms of "public service.“

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